31:
54:
309:
398:. At the end of the upward wing stroke, the wings are clapped and modified r-veins meet at a speed of approximately 1420 mm/s, producing the characteristic clicks. Wing beat frequency of free-flying individuals is 20–29 Hz. Clicks last a mean of 1.38 ms with mean intervals of 43.74 ms and the component frequencies concentrate around 2.4 kHz, matching
374:
Male cracker butterflies are known for their ability to make a cracking noise with their wings, which is believed to either be for mating or to ward off rival males. They use trees as courting territories, as shown by experiments. They prefer to perch on trees with bark that matches their wing
386:
Each male perches on one to four trees daily, without difference between seasons, and each tree used has a minimum daily mean of 1.5 perching butterflies. Most interactions occur from 13:00 through 15:00 hours and are more frequent in the rainy season. At night males share perches.
432:, almost never affects the section with the sound mechanism. More than 50 species of lepidopterans (11 families) emit sound which can be audible to humans 30 meters (100 ft) away. In general, lepidopteran sound is used as a warning to predators and for
382:
side distribution is independent of time of day. Perches exposed to direct sunlight are less used in hot days. All species perch with the head downwards. Perching males frequently fly towards other butterflies.
1206:
416:
have a membrane, shaped as an elongated cupola, in the costal cell, that acts as an ear. A second and smaller ear has four chambers and may detect predatory bats when the insects are perching at night.
409:; has a serpentine structure inside and probably acts as resonance box. Growth of the sound apparatus may be checked by its effect on flight capacity, physiological costs, and ecological reasons.
439:
Research has shown that cracker butterflies can also detect the sounds made by other butterflies, which would be a form of social communication. The organ of hearing is believed by some to be
394:
butterflies. Non-destructive experimental methods and scanning electron microscopy suggest that both sexes emit sound and the sound apparatus, located in the forewing, is percussive, not
355:
are often hard to distinguish, and most often these butterflies have to be examined as set specimens. There are no recent revisions, but a general account was published by D.W. Jenkins.
375:
coloration, while the presence of food, position of trees along flight routes, tree size, bark texture, and lichen cover are not associated with the frequency of perching on the trees.
812:
Spatial distribution, territoriality and sound production by tropical cryptic butterflies (Hamadryas, Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae): implications for the "industrial melanism" debate
517:
454:
Unlike most butterflies, these species don't feed on nectar. Instead, cracker butterflies feed on rotting fruit, sap from leguminous trees, and animal dung.
759:
712:
593:
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in their dorsal coloration, commonly covered in varying colored spots, most of which resemble bark; some are known to have little coloration, such as the
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670:
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They spend most of the day perching on trees, boulders, and other such surfaces against which they are camouflaged. The speckled species of
378:
Each species has a height range when perching but they perch higher when night approaches. The northern side of trees is less used and
358:
Since cracker butterflies have good camouflage, they are not poisonous and do not have a chemical defense, with the exception of the
891:. Corrie Herring Hooks Series. Henderson, Carrol L. (Photographer) (1ST ed.). University of Texas Press. pp. 42 & 43.
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53:
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288:. They acquired their common name due to the unusual way that males produce a "cracking" sound as part of their
1346:
556:
946:(Checklist Part 4A. Hesperioidea-Papilionoidea). Association for Tropical Lepidoptera, Gainesville, Florida.
1366:
1284:
1178:
636:
433:
1060:
Glassberg, J. (2007) A Swift Guide to the
Butterflies of Mexico and Central America. Sunstreak Book Inc.
1183:
1011:
1005:
1318:
523:
1121:
273:
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Yack, Jayne E.; Otero, L. Danier; Dawson, Jeff W.; Surlykke, Annemarie & Fullard, James H.
30:
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emit audible clicks when approached by potential predators, to defend territories from other
363:
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489:
359:
8:
1351:
531:
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However, they may actually have a larger hearing organ for lower sound wave frequencies.
293:
159:
39:
992:
859:. Wilson, Simon (photographer). Lorimer, James & Company, Limited. pp. 40–41.
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48:
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and in at least one species also during courtship. Severe wing damage, common in wild
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Monge-Nájera, J., F. Hernández, M.I. González, J. Soley, J.A. Pochet & S. Zolla.
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displays. The most comprehensive work about their ecology and behavior is that of
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hearing capacity and being appropriate for the acoustic conditions of habitat.
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Cracker butterflies undergo metamorphosis just like any other species of
340:
This genus of butterflies are commonly found throughout South
America to
269:
115:
105:
873:
1245:
1196:
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At least seven locations have been proposed for the sonic mechanism of
345:
125:
308:
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467:
466:, but lay their eggs only on the host plants that are members of the
85:
65:
1115:
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1138:
977:(2000): Sound production and hearing in the blue cracker butterfly
443:, located at the base of the forewing subcostal and cubital veins.
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The following species are usually included in this genus:
848:
885:
Henderson, Carrol L.; F. Skutch, Alexander (May 2002).
786:
921:Garwood, K.M.; Lehman, Carter W. & Carter, G.
1338:
1051:. Version of 2004-JUL-21. Retrieved 2006-MAY-16.
834:(1983): Neotropical Nymphalidae. I. Revision of
405:The swollen Sc vein is present exclusively in
344:, where at least nine species can be found in
1078:by J. Monge-Najera (University of Costa Rica)
1033:
1031:
1010:. Guinness World Records Limited. pp.
981:(Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) from Venezuela.
335:
927:. Neotropical Butterflies, Mission, Texas.
916:
914:
29:
888:Field Guide to the Wildlife of Costa Rica
1028:
970:
968:
854:
307:
296:et al. (1998). The genus was erected by
1003:
935:
933:
911:
708:– Guatemalan cracker, Guatemalan calico
1339:
1081:
755:– starry night cracker, starry cracker
1120:
1119:
1092:Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms
965:
930:
733:– Iphthime cracker, brownish cracker
1082:Savela, Markku (October 14, 2014).
322:Cracker butterflies are all fairly
13:
14:
1378:
1111:Photograph of a cracker butterfly
1066:
16:Genus of brush-footed butterflies
944:Atlas of Neotropical Lepidoptera
925:Butterflies of Southern Amazonia
855:McAndrew, Brian (January 2000).
656:– grey cracker, Ferentina calico
52:
1054:
984:Journal of Experimental Biology
449:
997:
956:
825:
303:
248:Lacordaire, 1833: preoccupied)
1:
780:
457:
1357:Nymphalidae of South America
840:Bulletin of the Allyn Museum
816:Revista de Biología Tropical
184:
7:
1007:Guinness world Records 2014
434:intraspecific communication
369:
10:
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1362:Taxa named by Jacob Hübner
479:
1128:
857:Niagara Parks Butterflies
197:
190:
183:
176:
157:
150:
49:Scientific classification
47:
37:
28:
23:
336:Distribution and habitat
1160:Hamadryas (Nymphalidae)
1004:Glenday, Craig (2013).
600:– black-patched cracker
362:. They are fed upon by
1042:Butterflies can "talk"
364:rufous-tailed jacamars
319:
274:brush-footed butterfly
272:group of medium-sized
1347:Hamadryas (butterfly)
1106:Species with synonyms
702:Hamadryas guatemalena
312:Underwing pattern of
311:
691:Hamadryas glauconome
611:– belladonna cracker
605:Hamadryas belladonna
518:Hamadryas amphichloe
490:Hamadryas albicornis
360:starry night cracker
24:Cracker butterflies
764:(Fruhstorfer, 1916)
742:(Fruhstorfer, 1914)
532:Hamadryas amphinome
294:Julian Monge Najera
266:Cracker butterflies
40:Hamadryas amphinome
1367:Nymphalidae genera
1047:2006-02-11 at the
776:– velutina cracker
770:Hamadryas velutina
760:Hamadryas rosandra
749:Hamadryas laodamia
727:Hamadryas iphthime
713:Hamadryas honorina
697:– glaucous cracker
675:– variable cracker
594:Hamadryas atlantis
565:Hamadryas arethusa
380:cardinal-direction
320:
1334:
1333:
1306:Open Tree of Life
1122:Taxon identifiers
1021:978-1-908843-15-9
991:(24): 3689–3702.
979:Hamadryas feronia
775:
765:
754:
744:– Yucatán cracker
743:
738:Hamadryas julitta
732:
722:
707:
696:
685:
674:
661:Hamadryas feronia
655:
645:– epinome cracker
644:
631:Hamadryas epinome
625:
610:
599:
589:– arinome cracker
588:
579:Hamadryas arinome
574:
560:
545:
527:
513:
499:
315:Hamadryas epinome
263:
262:
257:
249:
244:Boisduval, 1836 (
237:
229:
224:Fabricius, 1807:
213:
205:
160:Papilio amphinome
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686:– orange cracker
683:
680:Hamadryas fornax
664:
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650:Hamadryas februa
634:
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568:
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504:Hamadryas alicia
493:
468:euphorbia family
329:Hamadryas februa
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236:Lacordaire, 1833
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185:About 20 species
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940:Lamas, G. (ed.)
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626:– Chloe cracker
616:Hamadryas chloe
551:Hamadryas arete
482:
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318:museum specimen
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220:Illiger, 1807 (
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1074:website about
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1067:External links
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962:Jenkins (1983)
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420:In the field,
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43:(red cracker)
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1088:Hübner, 1806"
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1038:Lockette, Tim
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993:PDF full text
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952:0-945417-28-4
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898:0-292-73459-X
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866:1-55028-700-1
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832:Jenkins, D.W.
828:
822:(2): 297-330.
821:
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774:(Bates, 1865)
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731:(Bates, 1864)
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706:(Bates, 1864)
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695:(Bates, 1864)
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609:(Bates, 1865)
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598:(Bates, 1864)
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548:
546:– red cracker
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441:Vogel's organ
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32:
27:
22:
19:
1319:Tree of Life
1129:
1095:. Retrieved
1091:
1085:
1075:
1056:
1006:
999:
988:
982:
978:
958:
943:
924:
902:. Retrieved
887:
856:
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842:
839:
835:
827:
819:
815:
811:
768:
758:
747:
736:
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629:
614:
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563:
549:
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472:
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453:
450:Food sources
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438:
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425:
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396:stridulatory
391:
389:
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327:
321:
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298:Jacob Hübner
284:
283:
265:
264:
252:
245:
240:
232:
221:
216:
212:Felder, 1861
208:
204:Hübner, 1819
200:
158:
152:Type species
136:
135:
38:
18:
1254:iNaturalist
1154:Wikispecies
719:Fruhstorfer
473:Dalechampia
464:Lepidoptera
304:Description
290:territorial
270:Neotropical
209:Amphichlora
116:Nymphalidae
106:Lepidoptera
1352:Biblidinae
1341:Categories
904:2009-09-24
781:References
753:(Cramer, )
684:(Hübner, )
654:(Hübner, )
496:Staudinger
458:Life cycle
346:Costa Rica
241:Peridromia
233:Peridromia
226:suppressed
126:Ageroniini
86:Arthropoda
1204:ButMoth:
1130:Hamadryas
1086:Hamadryas
1076:Hamadryas
836:Hamadryas
641:R. Felder
557:Doubleday
524:Boisduval
430:Hamadryas
426:Hamadryas
422:Hamadryas
414:Hamadryas
407:Hamadryas
400:Hamadryas
392:Hamadryas
353:Hamadryas
300:in 1806.
285:Hamadryas
253:Philocala
178:Diversity
137:Hamadryas
72:Kingdom:
66:Eukaryota
1280:LepIndex
1192:BugGuide
1168:BioLib:
1139:Wikidata
1097:July 22,
1045:Archived
1040:(2004):
942:(2004):
923:(2007).
845:: 1-146.
810:(1998).
667:Linnaeus
585:H. Lucas
538:Linnaeus
370:Behavior
201:Ageronia
192:Synonyms
166:Linnaeus
112:Family:
82:Phylum:
76:Animalia
62:Domain:
1246:1898587
1207:12814.0
1145:Q841027
721:, 1916)
643:, 1867)
587:, 1853)
573:, 1775)
559:, 1847)
526:, 1870)
512:, 1865)
480:Species
342:Arizona
324:cryptic
279:of the
277:species
217:Apatura
132:Genus:
122:Tribe:
102:Order:
96:Insecta
92:Class:
1311:977966
1298:127339
1285:159583
1272:777598
1171:414552
1018:
950:
895:
863:
639:&
637:Felder
571:Cramer
268:are a
145:, 1806
143:Hübner
1324:70460
1259:83228
1233:19654
1220:92B4B
1197:42432
622:Stoll
510:Bates
281:genus
1293:NCBI
1267:ITIS
1241:GBIF
1184:7119
1179:BOLD
1099:2020
1016:ISBN
948:ISBN
893:ISBN
861:ISBN
671:1758
542:1767
475:spp.
412:All
170:1767
1228:EoL
1215:CoL
989:203
624:, )
498:, )
246:non
222:non
1343::
1321::
1308::
1295::
1282::
1269::
1256::
1243::
1230::
1217::
1194::
1181::
1156::
1141::
1090:.
1030:^
1014:.
1012:33
987:.
967:^
932:^
913:^
875:^
843:81
838:.
820:46
818:.
814:.
788:^
669:,
540:,
470:,
436:.
366:.
348:.
332:.
168:,
1101:.
1084:"
1024:.
907:.
869:.
717:(
673:)
665:(
635:(
620:(
583:(
569:(
555:(
544:)
536:(
522:(
508:(
494:(
228:)
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