1017:. Linguist John Singler suggests that it most likely emerged under French control in colonial years when shifted its economy focused heavily on sugar production. This resulted in a much larger population of enslaved Africans, whose interaction with the French created the circumstances for the dialect to evolve from a pidgin to a Creole. His research and the research of Claire Lefebvre of the Université du Québec à Montréal suggests that Creole, despite drawing 90% of its lexicon from French, is the syntactic cousin of
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By that time, the dictatorship had passed from Papa Doc to his son, Baby Doc. An exploitative sweatshop system had been established and the
Haitian government had started sending its own citizens like slaves to work in sugar plantations in the Dominican Republic. Edwidge Danticat explains this in her
1032:
Despite Haiti's independence, French has remained the country's official language. French, a language of great cultural prestige, was spoken by the elite, and creole did not enter the literary field until the second half of the 20th century. Although the vast majority of the population on the island
607:
made its debut. But the ruling classes and the intellectual elites in the emerging
Haitian state remain imbued with French culture. There was a patriotic vein that recounted the deeds of convulsive independence. It adopted, over the 19th century, the successive literary currents coming from France:
1064:
Creole is used frequently in poetry and drama. Frankétienne, for example, writes his plays only in Creole. An oral language, Creole is particularly suited in these genres elevating the voice. (Even if many
Haitians speak and understand Creole, not all can read it.) In novels, the two languages are
816:
From the
Duvalier dictatorship to beginning of the third millennium, titles from that time period were parading themes of madness or possession, misery, violence, culminating into feelings of helplessness, bitterness, and dispersal. Haitian writers forced into exile during the second half of the
577:. Haitian intellectuals turned successively or simultaneously to African traditions, France, Latin America, the UK, and the United States. At the same time, Haitian history has always been a rich source of inspiration for literature, with its heroes, its upheavals, its cruelties and its rites.
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In any event there are more than 200 creole or creole-related languages. Whether based on
English, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch or French, as in Haiti, creole is the language of collective memory, carrying a symbol of resistance. Creole is found in stories, songs, poetry (Saint-John Perse, Aimé
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movement, rehabilitated the Creole, which no longer was only the language of slavery, but "that which we made together to survive". A shift was brought about in
Haitian literature, from French to Creole, or du français vers le créole, or rather a dialogue between the two languages.
670:
At the end of the 19th century, Haitian literature was imbued with the prestige of the French language and almost exclusively oriented towards Paris. Touching only the literate francophone minority, it ignored
Haitians' daily lives, despite a strong patriotic dimension.
776:
In the midst of a student strike opposing the Lescot government, their speeches resonated with the insurgents, led in particular by René Depestre. However, the surrealist influence on
Haitian literature remained small, though real. It is, for example, openly claimed by
804:
The
Duvalier regime saw the exodus of many Haitian intellectuals. The so-called writers of the diaspora engaged in a militant literature, treating Haiti in terms of memory, suffering, and guilt of being far from one's land. Books such as
1087:
has made in-depth analysis of
Haitian literature, and of its influence around the world. He compared major Haitian literary works with others from the Caribbean, France, Québec, Africa, South-America and Brazil, in particular.
666:
Theatrical production was equally rich and important, parallel to the emergence of melodrama in France. All genres were represented: prose drama, tragedy, comedy, and works reflecting current and changing mores.
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invited writers to start creating rather than imitating, that is to draw from the African roots of the Haitian people. The resistance was also expressed in the oral culture, stories, traditions and legends.
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spoke Haitian Creole; however, their signage and educational institutions only use French, a remnant from the occupation. Only in 1969 did Creole join French as the official language of Haiti. The
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1045:) emphasized the African origins of Antillean people, giving it an identity lost in deportation and later colonization. But, for them, Creole was still considered an impure language of slavery.
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829:, and others. They are part of indigenism movement that advocated re-appropriating the culture from the changes that the American occupation and Duvalier's dictatorship had brought about.
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In the eighteenth century, settlers published descriptive and political works in France. Haitian literature has its origins in the country's independence.
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of the Niger-Congo family spoken in Benin. At the time of the emergence of Haitian Creole, 50% of the enslaved Africans in Haiti were Gbe speakers.
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The choice of language for writing is an important issue in contemporary creative writing, especially for writers residing in Haiti.
703:) continued to use France as a point of reference. This vein continued during the first part of the 20th century with poets such as
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http://www.sampsoniaway.org/bi-monthly/2010/08/09/between-squalor-and-splendor-haitian-literature-and-national-crisis/
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was appointed by the Director of Cultural Affairs in Paris to establish relations with Haitian intellectuals.
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The Haitian Peasantry Through Oral and Written Literature: Roumain, Alexis, Endore, Carpentier and Fountain
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Research in African Literatures, Vol. 35, No. 2, Haiti, 1804-2004: Literature, Culture, and Art. 2004
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Haiti's Paper War: Post-Independence Writing, Civil War, and the Making of the Republic, 1804–1954
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The Haitian Revolution in the Literary Imagination: Radical Horizons, Conservative Constraints
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Hoover, Elizabeth. "Between Squalor and Splendor: Haitian Literature and National Crisis."
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classicism, romanticism, Parnassianism, and symbolism. Major authors of this period include
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in the 1950s would be much more fruitful. Contemporary Haitian literature is part of the
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419:
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Exile and Post-1946 Haitian Literature: Alexis, Depestre, Ollivier, Laferrière, Danticat
813:(1992, réédition 2005) depict the daily life of Haitian exiles in their host countries.
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1934:
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Lucas, Rafael and R.H. Mitsch. "The Aesthetics of Degradation in Haitian Literature."
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Milscent, J. S (1817). "L'abeille haytienne: journal politique et littéraire".
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Migrant Revolutions: Haitian Literature, Globalization, and U.S. Imperialism
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Césaire, Derek Walcott), and novels (Patrick Chamoiseau, Raphaël Confiant).
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Writing on the Fault Line: Haitian Literature and the Earthquake of 2010
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643:, created in 1819, published romantic poetry. In 1836 the group of the
837:. Writers and intellectuals had begun leaving the country in throngs.
1399:
Migration and Refuge: An Eco-Archive of Haitian Literature, 1982-2017
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sometimes used together, creating a new and original way of writing.
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660:
21:
754:. The novel depicted the darkness of peasant life in the country.
718:(slap generation) created successive militant literary magazines:
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140:
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At the same time, social realism in literature was advanced by
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The twentieth century opened with the creation of the magazine
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In this period of intense literary turmoils, newspapers like
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585:
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The American occupation, starting 1915, was a shock. The
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in 1895. The poets in this intimate and delicate school (
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has been closely intertwined with the political life of
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L'Abeille Haytienne: Journal Politique et Littéraire
1125::fr:Littérature haïtienne#Bibliographie (in French)
46:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1195:"celle qu'on a fabriquée ensemble pour survivre"
1353:
663:Coicou (1867–1908) represented this movement.
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2177:
1432:
1232:Hacking classical forms in Haitian literature
720:La Revue de la ligue de la jeunesse haĂŻtienne
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1013:There are many hypotheses on the origins of
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1212:Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915–1961
639:opened their pages to the first romantics.
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2170:
1439:
1425:
817:twentieth century included Renè Depestre,
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544:
1072:Comparative studies of Haitian literature
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106:Learn how and when to remove this message
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796:as well as the Latin American culture.
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1420:
1396:Walsh, John Patrick (27 March 2019).
1395:
1332:
1311:
1291:Kaussen, Valerie (24 December 2007).
1183:. 9 Aug. 2010. Web. 15 Dec. 2015.
1008:
624:(1778–1842), who founded the journal
1658:List of revolutions and coups d'Ă©tat
1270:Kaisary, Philip (21 February 2014).
1208:
1175:
1173:
1166:https://www.jstor.org/stable/3821345
647:was formed, with the romantic poets
352:List of revolutions and coups d'Ă©tat
44:adding citations to reliable sources
15:
1375:Stieber, Chelsea (18 August 2020).
799:
13:
1478:Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
1446:
1202:
172:Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
14:
2474:
1170:
1041:movement (incarnated in Haiti by
2309:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1276:. University of Virginia Press.
1249:Hoffmann, Léon-François (1984).
525:
139:
20:
1234:. London; New York: Routledge.
1076:The Haitian great essay writer
31:needs additional citations for
1594:Anti-Duvalier protest movement
1402:. Liverpool University Press.
1318:. Liverpool University Press.
1189:
1154:
1131:
734:movement, through its founder
683:Maximilien Laroche (1937–2017)
288:Anti-Duvalier protest movement
1:
1354:Pressley-Sanon, Toni (2016).
2437:United States Virgin Islands
1252:Essays on Haitian Literature
879:Living in the US or Canada:
7:
1360:. Caribbean Studies Press.
1339:. Oxford University Press.
1091:
779:Clément Magloire-Saint-Aude
10:
2479:
1255:. Three Continents Press.
1122:
1052:movement, which succeeded
833:introduction to Chauvet's
781:, collaborator of Griots.
2463:North American literature
2412:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
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2199:
2193:North American literature
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2014:
1956:
1947:
1887:
1878:
1766:
1757:
1675:
1666:
1567:Unification of Hispaniola
1458:
1209:Dash, J. Michael (1981).
841:Some contemporary authors
618:François Romain Lhérisson
261:Unification of Hispaniola
2432:Turks and Caicos Islands
1680:Administrative divisions
990:Louis-Philippe Dalembert
850:Louis-Philippe Dalembert
748:Gouverneurs de la rosée
2362:British Virgin Islands
1616:2010s cholera outbreak
1577:Post-imperial Republic
1333:Munro, Martin (2014).
1312:Munro, Martin (2013).
1164:. Web. 21 Dec. 2015.
1098:Francophone literature
853:
823:Jacques-Stephen Alexis
794:Francophone literature
790:Jacques Stephen Alexis
726:(1925), and above all
716:génération de la gifle
684:
605:The Haitian expatriate
593:
581:The nineteenth century
310:2010s cholera outbreak
271:Post-imperial Republic
2299:Saint Kitts and Nevis
1626:Crisis (2018–present)
1230:Hawkins, Tom (2023).
1037:of the 1930s and the
908:Josaphat-Robert Large
848:
788:of René Depestre and
762:founded the magazine
758:, René Depestre, and
682:
675:The twentieth century
622:Jules Solime Milscent
588:
320:Crisis (2018–present)
2039:Citadelle Laferrière
2006:Water and sanitation
1745:World Heritage Sites
1490:Atlantic slave trade
1119:Notes and references
943:Fred Edson Lafortune
835:Love, Anger, Madness
786:réalisme merveilleux
482:World Heritage Sites
184:Atlantic slave trade
55:"Haitian literature"
40:improve this article
2314:Trinidad and Tobago
2209:Antigua and Barbuda
1830:Chamber of Deputies
1813:Commanders-in-chief
1297:. Lexington Books.
996:Dimitry Elias LĂ©ger
984:Jean-Claude Charles
827:Marie Vieux-Chauvet
655:(1812–1838). Later
626:L'abeille haytienne
2458:Haitian literature
2249:Dominican Republic
2111:The Unknown Maroon
1925:Telecommunications
1527:Haitian Revolution
1510:Colonial governors
1483:Colonial governors
1113:Maximilien Laroche
1078:Maximilien Laroche
1009:The language issue
967:Living in France:
926:Marie-CĂ©lie Agnant
896:Maximilien Laroche
854:
685:
594:
571:Haitian literature
221:Haitian Revolution
204:Colonial governors
177:Colonial governors
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2334:other territories
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2096:Sans-Souci Palace
1943:
1942:
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1873:
1837:Political parties
1781:Foreign relations
1753:
1752:
1653:List of massacres
1643:COVID-19 pandemic
1621:Hurricane Matthew
1409:978-1-78694-956-1
1388:978-1-4798-0217-3
1367:978-1-62632-448-0
1346:978-1-78138-146-5
1325:978-1-84631-854-2
1304:978-0-7391-3016-2
1283:978-0-8139-3548-5
1262:978-0-89410-344-5
1222:978-1-349-05670-5
1103:French literature
856:Living in Haiti:
728:La Revue indigène
724:La Nouvelle Ronde
705:Dantès Bellegarde
568:
567:
347:List of massacres
337:COVID-19 pandemic
315:Hurricane Matthew
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1601:1991 coup d'Ă©tat
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949:Fabrice Guerrier
937:Edwidge Danticat
914:Joel Des Rosiers
867:Lyonel Trouillot
800:Haitian diaspora
760:GĂ©rald Bloncourt
659:(1840–1906) and
653:Coriolan Ardouin
651:(1808–1845) and
620:(1798–1859) and
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300:2004 coup d'Ă©tat
295:1991 coup d'Ă©tat
283:Duvalier dynasty
194:Peace of Ryswick
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2091:National anthem
2010:
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1803:Law enforcement
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1685:Arrondissements
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1648:2021 earthquake
1611:2010 earthquake
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1976:Ethnic groups
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1522:Le Jeune Case
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972:René Depestre
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693:PĂ©tion GĂ©rome
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672:
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664:
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657:Oswald Durand
654:
650:
646:
642:
641:L'Observateur
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
619:
616:(1766–1828),
615:
612:(1782–1816),
611:
610:Antoine Dupré
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590:Oswald Durand
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229:
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226:1804 massacre
224:
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219:
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216:Le Jeune Case
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67:
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60:
57: –
56:
52:
51:Find sources:
45:
41:
35:
34:
29:This article
27:
23:
18:
17:
2427:Sint Maarten
2407:Saint Martin
2330:Dependencies
2268:
2070:
2029:Coat of arms
1996:Social class
1966:Demographics
1897:Central bank
1791:Human rights
1771:Constitution
1537:First Empire
1398:
1377:
1356:
1335:
1314:
1293:
1272:
1251:
1231:
1215:. Springer.
1211:
1191:
1180:
1161:
1156:
1139:
1133:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1047:
1031:
1027:
1023:Gbe language
1012:
966:
931:Stanley PĂ©an
878:
861:Frankétienne
855:
834:
831:
815:
811:Louis Vortex
810:
803:
785:
783:
775:
771:André Breton
768:
763:
750:, 1944) and
747:
741:
730:(1927). The
727:
723:
719:
715:
713:
688:
686:
669:
665:
644:
640:
636:
632:
630:
625:
604:
598:
595:
570:
569:
507:Coat of arms
231:First Empire
102:
93:
83:
76:
69:
62:
50:
38:Please help
33:verification
30:
2397:Puerto Rico
2304:Saint Lucia
2254:El Salvador
1907:Foreign aid
1892:Agriculture
1796:LGBT rights
1715:Environment
1710:Earthquakes
1705:Departments
1636:2022 crisis
1081: [
986:(1949–2008)
961:Jonel Juste
898:(1937–2017)
892:(1940–2002)
873:Gary Victor
732:Indigeniste
709:Ida Faubert
592:(1840–1906)
330:2022 crisis
2452:Categories
2392:Montserrat
2387:Martinique
2382:Guadeloupe
2234:Costa Rica
2106:Television
2071:Literature
1914:(currency)
1820:Parliament
1786:Government
1720:Hispaniola
1123:See also:
1054:indianists
1035:indianists
902:Gary Klang
649:Ignace Nau
635:and later
450:Television
420:Literature
96:April 2009
66:newspapers
2377:Greenland
2289:Nicaragua
2264:Guatemala
2086:Mythology
2054:Languages
2001:Squatting
1971:Education
1935:Transport
1842:President
1776:Elections
1668:Geography
1560:1820–1849
1555:1806–1820
1551:Republic
1058:NĂ©gritude
1039:NĂ©gritude
852:(b. 1962)
769:In 1946,
766:in 1945.
661:Massillon
628:in 1817.
599:In 1804,
475:Monuments
375:Languages
254:1820–1849
249:1806–1820
245:Republic
2342:Anguilla
2274:Honduras
2244:Dominica
2219:Barbados
2146:Category
1986:Religion
1808:Military
1759:Politics
1740:Wildlife
1631:Gang war
1468:Timeline
1452:articles
1148:45081563
1092:See also
1056:and the
1050:Créolité
1004:(1994 -)
998:(1971 -)
980:(1937 -)
974:(1926 -)
963:(1980 -)
957:(1980 -)
951:(1991 -)
945:(1982 -)
939:(1969 -)
933:(1966 -)
922:(1953 -)
916:(1951 -)
910:(1942 -)
904:(1940 -)
886:(1928 -)
875:(1958 -)
869:(1956 -)
863:(1936 -)
764:La Ruche
722:(1916),
689:La Ronde
603:'s play
601:Fligneau
406:Religion
325:Gang war
162:Timeline
123:a series
121:Part of
2372:Curaçao
2357:Bonaire
2352:Bermuda
2279:Jamaica
2259:Grenada
2214:Bahamas
2130:Outline
2044:Cuisine
2016:Culture
1949:Society
1930:Tourism
1920:Poverty
1912:Gourde
1880:Economy
1725:Islands
1547:Kingdom
1517:Slavery
1495:Maroons
1460:History
992:(1962–)
645:CĂ©nacle
637:L'Union
495:Symbols
399:Cuisine
241:Kingdom
211:Slavery
189:Maroons
152:History
80:scholar
2294:Panama
2284:Mexico
2229:Canada
2224:Belize
2151:Portal
2034:Cinema
1991:People
1981:Health
1825:Senate
1735:Rivers
1695:Cities
1690:Border
1450:
1406:
1385:
1364:
1343:
1322:
1301:
1280:
1259:
1238:
1219:
1146:
455:Cinema
383:French
365:People
125:on the
82:
75:
68:
61:
53:
2347:Aruba
2269:Haiti
2137:Index
2081:Music
2076:Media
1961:Crime
1542:State
1448:Haiti
1085:]
575:Haiti
466:Sport
445:Radio
437:Media
427:Music
236:State
87:JSTOR
73:books
2417:Saba
2239:Cuba
2049:Flag
1859:List
1847:List
1404:ISBN
1383:ISBN
1362:ISBN
1341:ISBN
1320:ISBN
1299:ISBN
1278:ISBN
1257:ISBN
1236:ISBN
1217:ISBN
1144:OCLC
1048:The
1021:, a
784:The
707:and
502:Flag
59:news
2332:and
2024:Art
1019:Fon
809:'s
691:by
413:Art
42:by
2454::
1172:^
1083:fr
825:,
821:,
711:.
699:,
2185:e
2178:t
2171:v
1440:e
1433:t
1426:v
1412:.
1391:.
1370:.
1349:.
1328:.
1307:.
1286:.
1265:.
1244:.
1225:.
1150:.
746:(
559:e
552:t
545:v
109:)
103:(
98:)
94:(
84:·
77:·
70:·
63:·
36:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
