880:
594:
745:
683:
255:
1066:
95:
1270:
surplus during the Gusuku period, often placing more credence into the official histories. This has been challenged by other historians who emphasize the importance of trade, with the Gusuku period representing a sudden and dramatic break from earlier periods, as large-scale migrations of
Japonic peoples early in the period led to significantly greater connections with maritime trade routes.
1234:, reunified Okinawa around 1187 and began his own dynasty A severe lack of written documentation prior to the 17th century limits the understanding of state and religion during the period. Shunten was almost certainly fictional, but may reflect the relocation of trading infrastructure to Okinawa after the 1188 invasion of Kikaijima. He may have been based after the legendary Chinese
1062:. After his death, the kingdom went through a rapid series of rulers of only a few years each, often marked by succession crises and wars. The kings of the First ShĹŤ dynasty may not have been linked as a bloodline or family. The southern Ryukyu Islands were likely under a series of local warlords, with trade relations to Shuri and the ShĹŤ dynasty.
831:
on Amami were built for mountain defense, and feature smaller enclosures and large ditches. They were built on "virtually every ridge and headland", protecting rivers and bays, often built in direct line-of-sight of one another. Smaller enclosed fortifications were constructed in
Sakishima, although
673:
The centrality of agriculture to Gusuku period sociey is a topic of academic contention. Historians have generally analyzed the Gusuku as a stratified agrarian society, attributing the growth of a nobility and state polities to this agricultural base. Others have disputed this, suggesting that local
1261:
warrior culture, migrations from Japan, and endemic warfare in the twelfth century. Nakahara wrote that ShĹŤ Hashi and the First ShĹŤ Dynasty ruled
Okinawa in name only, and that true unification and the emergence of a mature feudal society emerged under the Second ShĹŤ. Other contemporary historians,
536:
genetics prevalent in mainland Japan. Interactions between this population and the
Japonic newcomers varied across the archipelago. However, many Japonic communities formed cultural enclaves, evidenced by both material cultures coexisting for several centuries. In other cases, Japonic settlements
1269:
The centrality of Japan to development in the
Ryukyus was challenged in the 1980s and 1990s as Okinawa's domestic development was emphasized, with historians such as Takara Kurayoshi and Murai ShĹŤsuke emphasizing the independent emergence of a complex political order on Okinawa from agricultural
604:
Large-scale cultivation as the primary means of subsistence in the
Central Ryukyus began as the Shellmidden transitioned into the Gusuku. Agriculture likely took root in the Amami Islands in the 8th century, before spreading to the Okinawa Islands 100–200 years later. Rice and millet agriculture
568:
indicates that it maintained close contact with
Japanese until the 8th or 9th century. This divergence prior to the Gusuku period suggests a Pre-Proto-Ryukyuan homeland in southern Kyushu and the surrounding islands. Proto-Ryukyuan itself branched off from this earlier form in the archipelago,
504:-speaking peoples settled the Ryukyus, with Kikaijima as the origin of various successive migration waves across the archipelago. These migrations, while all originating on Kikaijima, spread progressively southward; the Amami Islands were the first to be fully settled, followed by the
390:
While various theories positing significant pre-Gusuku cereal agriculture have been proposed, such developments would require the unlikely abandonment of agriculture in lieu of foraging. The first signs of agriculture in the region date to the Late
Shellmidden, evidenced by
460:
Beginning around 300 BCE, the
Shellmidden population saw a steady decline from its peak. Populations remained low across the 1st millennium CE. The islanders traded with Japan, but saw little cultural influence from it beyond pottery designs. During the 9th century, the
443:
more generally), the period corresponding to the Gusuku is sometimes described as part of the Suku period, divided between the
Shinzato Mura (12th–13th centuries) and the Nakamori Period (13th–17th centuries). Due to their close proximity and trade links to Kyushu, the
1050:
of Chūzan, likely due to the aid of Chinese officials. He was a powerful military leader, although he likely lacked political control over all of Okinawa. The various other kings of Chūzan followed him as the sole tribute king of Okinawa, forming the
1257:, writing in the 1950s, was among the first historians to identify a major discontinuity in Ryukyuan history during what would come to be known as the Gusuku period. Highly skeptical of the official histories, he described the rise of
922:, with smaller amounts of Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese ceramics. In addition to the Japanese and Goryeo traders at Kikaijima, traders from the Song Empire became active in the Ryukyu Islands during the Gusuku period. Sulfur mined at
702:. Settlements during the 11th to 13th centuries typically comprised several elevated main houses raised on posts with diameters of 50 centimetres (1.6 ft) or more. Pillars within the house were typically spaced by a bay (
414:. However, following increasing archaeological evidence for subsistence agriculture and greater social complexity in the centuries prior, contemporary sources have largely redefined the period as lasting from
941:, with formal tribute relations with the Ming commencing in 1372; the establishment of formal tribute status during this period resulted in a much greater volume of trade. Diplomatic relationships with the
1162:(lit. ''Precious Documents of Successive Generations''), began in 1424, around the end of the period; it was initially compiled by Chinese merchants and trade officials in Okinawa. An inscription on the
1088:, minted coins in his name, and took full control of trade with Korea. He launched military expeditions to Amami and Kikaijima, but failed to achieve full political hegemony over Okinawa. His son
227:
emerged as the sole tribute king of Okinawa, although he likely failed to achieve political hegemony over the island. After a series of short-reigning kings, warfare, and succession disputes,
806:
construction is attested in southern Okinawa. In the north of the island, where coral limestone was not available, ditches dug across ridges were used as fortifications. Many of the larger
395:
dating to the 800s. However, cultivation remained relatively limited until a rapid expansion in the tenth to twelfth centuries, corresponding to a steady increase of migrants from Japan.
1210:
is a compilation of Ryukyuan chants or songs, comprising 22 volumes and 1,553 songs, with the earliest volumes compiled during the early 1530s. Difficult to decipher and understand, the
893:
Although trade links (mainly of shells) between Kyushu and the central Ryukyus date to the Yayoi, the transition into the Gusuku period saw the import of Chinese ceramics and Japanese
1188:
in 1650, long after the end of the Gusuku period, and was mainly based off interviews with elderly officials. Later state histories include the two early 18th century versions of the
722:) were positioned 10–15 metres (30–50 ft) from the main structures, generally to the southwest so as to maximize sunlight. Some of these village sites include the remains of
1023:, with their kings as confederation leaders. Alternatively, they may not have corresponded to territorial control on the island, and instead been labels that various powerful
863:
consolidated holdings and absorbed the territories of neighboring lords, the fortifications steadily grew in size and complexity. The most powerful nobles were referred to as
1266:, also identified the Gusuku period, viewing it as a social and political transformation of an existing Japonic culture in Ryukyu analogous to Japan's earlier development.
2604:"Evolution of Social Complexity during the Shellmidden Period, the Central Ryukyus (Amami and Okinawa Archipelagos), Japan: Not Simply Simple, but not Necessarily Complex"
1204:
historiography and principles, it is not possible to corroborate most information from the official sources dating to periods prior to the 16th and 17th centuries. The
1001:
Both contemporary Ming dynasty tribute records and later Ryukyuan official histories state that Okinawa was divided into three kingdoms, collectively termed the
2293:
Jarosz, Aleksandra; Robbeets, Martine; Fernandes, Ricardo; Takamiya, Hiroto; Shinzato, Akito; Nakamura, Naoko; Shinoto, Maria; Hudson, Mark (26 January 2022).
810:
were built by slaves taken during pirate raids and used Japanese and Korean-style roofing tiles likely built by foreign tilesmiths who settled in the islands.
537:
emerged with practically no indigenous influence whatsoever. Indigenous culture on the islands gradually assimilated, vanishing entirely by the 14th century.
322:
154:
76:
345:
687:
1263:
188:. A unique vernacular architecture emerged in the region, featuring elevated village houses, initially defended by palisades. The rise of the local
959:
The Ryukyus were major bases of pirate activity from the late 13th century onward to the end of the Gusuku period. Many of these pirates, known as
825:
ranging from 1–2 ha (2–5 acres) have multiple. Even larger castles exceeding 2 ha (5 acres) emerged after the end of the Gusuku period.
2672:
2628:
2414:
2667:
775:, with the largest taking the form of massive stone fortresses enclosing elite residences, shrines, and work areas oriented around a central
493:
with cultural influence from Korean ceramics. The Gusuku site became a polity encompassing Kikaijima and the Kasari peninsula of neighboring
466:
184:, rice, barley, and wheat. Trade occurred with China, Korea, and Japan, including imports of foreign ceramics and the export of sulfur and
821:
dramatically vary in size. Smaller structures measuring less than 2,000 m (0.5 acres) feature a single enclosure, while much larger
628:. Southern Okinawa sites mainly grew millet and barley, while rice predominated in northern Okinawa and Amami. This rice was initially
384:
147:
culture from Japan alongside increased social organization, eventually leading to endemic warfare and the construction of the namesake
2410:"Early Medieval Trade on Japan's Southern Frontier and its Effect on Okinawan State Development: Grey Stoneware of the East China Sea"
2677:
1214:
at times disagrees with the official histories. However, both are biased towards ShĹŤ Shin, the Shuri area, and Okinawa in general.
662:
have revealed similar crops to Okinawa and Amami. Foxtail millet composes the vast majority of finds, alongside smaller numbers of
161:, following a dramatic social and economic shift over the previous centuries. The Shellmidden-Gusuku transition has been linked to
1153:
2657:
769:
shrines, with satellite villages outside the walls. During the 14th and 15th centuries, these fortifications evolved into the
2530:
1242:
is described as displacing Shunten's dynasty and ruling from 1260 to 1299. He is the earliest named ruler to appear in the
428:, corresponding to the period of increased trade, societal shifts, and endemic warfare prior to the centralization of the
674:
agriculture was unlikely to produce a significant surplus, and instead attributing these developments to maritime trade.
1131:
assigned to administrate their holdings in their place, destroying the last elements of Gusuku period local governance.
1092:
took the throne after his death, beginning an eight-year rule described by the Ryukyuan official histories as despotic.
576:, speakers of a divergent Japonic language, settling the Ryukyus after the conquest of southern Kyushu by the expanding
516:. This migration was likely motivated by access to various trade goods found in the southern islands, highly coveted in
918:) directly from China, including types not found in the main Japanese islands. By the 13th century, imports shifted to
879:
209:
By the 14th century, three kingdoms (the Sanzan) emerged as tributary kingdoms; these may have been confederations of
2566:
2387:
2359:
2295:"Demography, Trade and State Power: A Tripartite Model of Medieval Farming/Language Dispersals in the Ryukyu Islands"
2275:
448:
largely follow corresponding archaeological periods in Japan, adopting rice and millet cultivation during the Middle
281:
to the northeast. Intermittent human settlement of the land bridge that would later become the Ryukyus began in the
1144:
Extremely few written documents date to the Gusuku period, with primary sources limited to foreign diplomatic and
194:
nobility steadily led to the expansion of fortifications, eventually leading to the construction of the namesake
1246:. Although traditionally depicted as the king of a unified Okinawa, he was likely a regional warlord in Urasoe.
2550:
2379:
2329:
2259:
2348:(1998). "The Chuzan Kingdom of Okinawa as a City-State". In Nichols, Deborah L.; Charlton, Thomas H. (eds.).
140:
548:
are generally thought to form one of the two or three main branches of Japonic, and descend from a common
198:. These developed into massive stone fortresses which proliferated across the archipelago, especially on
989:(on Okinawa) served as the primary port of call in the Ryukyus, and became a major center of piracy and
755:
In the 13th century, villages were increasingly built in defensive positions during and surrounded with
2586:
1164:
763:. These early fortifications enclosed residential areas of both commoners and elites, as well as some
2603:
1145:
481:
highly prized by artisans) Kikaijima became a major trading hub closely tied to the Japanese port of
220:
561:
489:; a small community of merchants from Goryeo settled on Kikaijima, leading to the creation of the
871:
within their territories. Larger polities shared power between the ruler and various councilors.
699:
549:
392:
174:
1149:
553:
336:
prior to the introduction of intensive agriculture. The Shellmidden people exploited plentiful
1190:
375:
has been theorized, although without conclusive archaeological evidence. The lone unambiguous
2662:
646:
regions, but gradually shifted to higher slopes. Wheat and barley were largely grown through
565:
1104:
970:
923:
352:.Although other East Asian populations adopted agriculture long before the beginning of the
1231:
572:
Earlier, now-discredited, theories attribute the emergence of Proto-Ryukyuan to either the
462:
328:
Complex hunter-gatherer societies emerged during the mid-Shellmidden, but polities such as
166:
1052:
429:
8:
2484:
2319:
2294:
1301:
1030:
By 1429, Okinawa's tribute relations with the Ming became the domain of a single ruler,
2479:
2467:
2443:
2431:
2405:
2393:
2369:
2349:
2345:
2281:
990:
982:
942:
658:
were used to cultivate both varieties of field. Archaeologial examinations of sites at
545:
482:
1254:
867:("leader of lords"). They commanded local armies, and held control over less powerful
528:
The indigenous population of the Ryukyu Islands prior to the Gusuku migrations was of
180:
The period saw extensive agriculture in the archipelago, including the cultivation of
2562:
2526:
2514:
2383:
2355:
2271:
748:
718:
541:
501:
474:
440:
333:
185:
162:
144:
1096:
759:. By the later portion of the century, some settlements were partially encircled by
2615:
2590:
2554:
2518:
2493:
2482:(1990). "Chiefly Exchange between Kyushu and Okinawa, Japan, in the Yayoi period".
2459:
2423:
2314:
2306:
2263:
1683:
1681:
919:
282:
2619:
1173:
445:
1185:
1120:
1082:
1078:
974:
803:
798:, were likely inspired by Korean mountain fortresses. Many were built with coral
647:
577:
569:
possibly on Kikaijima, where it diversified as it spread across the archipelago.
513:
505:
436:
341:
293:
99:
2506:
1678:
1158:
529:
494:
203:
1950:
1223:
1112:
966:
795:
639:
621:
597:
509:
490:
411:
372:
270:
266:
259:
243:
232:
199:
181:
112:
86:
40:
30:
2497:
2463:
2427:
1206:
977:. Following the collapse of the Southern Court in the 1380s and 1390s, Kyushu
2651:
2576:
2540:
2522:
1639:
1043:
1002:
629:
593:
573:
1911:
1019:
in the south. These polities may have functioned as loose confederations of
2397:
2373:
1235:
1201:
1056:
946:
934:
911:
886:
883:
846:
744:
723:
667:
634:
557:
533:
517:
449:
380:
236:
211:
190:
158:
2580:
2544:
2285:
2253:
1317:"Pre-Proto-Ryukyuan" is also called Proto-Kyushu-Ryukyuan in some sources.
1031:
817:
were permanent installations, some were occupied only during emergencies.
497:, which was itself becoming an early center of agriculture in the region.
254:
224:
1305:
1239:
898:
776:
663:
659:
651:
2471:
2435:
2409:
1108:
1089:
1070:
228:
2594:
2558:
2447:
2310:
2267:
1291:
generally; the Gusuku Site is a specific archaeology site on Kikaijima.
1196:
760:
703:
560:, suggesting a divergence date no later than the 7th century. However,
353:
94:
1081:
emerged as the ruler of Shuri. Before his death in 1460, he conquered
682:
929:
During the late 14th century, tribute missions were sent by Okinawan
894:
799:
791:
712:
spacings used in traditional Japanese architecture. Houses contained
695:
470:
403:
Older sources use a later definition of the Gusuku period, beginning
337:
170:
2509:. In Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.).
1180:
1100:
1035:
1012:
903:
756:
727:
708:) of roughly 1 metre (3.3 ft), significantly smaller than the
643:
376:
329:
2330:"The Transition from Foragers to Farmers on the Island of Okinawa"
1418:
1382:
1222:
The official histories state that a sage king of divine ancestry,
1741:
1705:
1612:
1537:
1227:
1027:
operated under during trade and tribute relations with the Ming.
1008:
915:
910:
By the late 12th century, they began importing ceramics (such as
1168:(lit. ''Sea Bridge to the Many Countries Bell'') dates to 1458.
1065:
981:
migrated to the Ryukyus, outside of the reach of the victorious
2511:
Handbook of the Ryukyuan languages: History, structure, and use
2448:"Archaeological Perspectives on the Rise of the Okinawan State"
2292:
1956:
1917:
1687:
1651:
1645:
1287:
1016:
938:
771:
731:
713:
655:
613:
486:
357:
297:
278:
274:
149:
103:
65:
1513:
1442:
1430:
1370:
698:. The agrarian settlements of the Gusuku saw a flourishing of
2375:
Ancient Ryukyu: An Archaeological Study of Island Communities
2010:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1503:
1501:
1471:
1469:
1406:
1148:
records during the latest portion of the period, such as the
1047:
961:
765:
617:
478:
465:(the regional Japanese government of Kyushu) established the
348:, the largest mammals on the islands, and possibly tended to
108:
2205:
2169:
716:, with the largest having two. Elevated storehouses (termed
1850:
1848:
1226:, was the first king of a unified Okinawa. Following this,
986:
625:
609:
368:
367:, with plant foods largely limited to nuts. Cultivation of
1962:
1860:
1777:
1549:
1525:
1498:
1466:
1119:
and the final subjugation of outlying islands such as the
332:
did not emerge. This is attributed to low populations and
307:, although recent sites suggest possible initial dates of
2351:
The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-cultural Approaches
1928:
1926:
1823:
1821:
1566:
1564:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1394:
1334:
500:
Beginning in the 11th century, large numbers of agrarian
349:
2629:"The Beginning of Agriculture in the Ryukyu Archipelago"
2106:
2094:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2034:
1986:
1889:
1887:
1845:
1833:
1806:
1753:
1693:
1629:
1627:
1588:
1038:
of Chūzan and possibly the grandson of a Southern Court
473:
as a trading outpost. Exploiting the lucrative trade of
157:, the Gusuku is generally described as beginning in the
2123:
2121:
1600:
1358:
2229:
2217:
2193:
2157:
2133:
2022:
1998:
1938:
1923:
1899:
1818:
1765:
1729:
1717:
1668:
1666:
1576:
1561:
1481:
1454:
851:
began to emerge during the early Gusuku period. Local
1884:
1872:
1624:
1156:. A compilation of diplomatic and trade records, the
638:
was likely introduced later via trade with China and
2145:
2118:
1346:
779:. By the 15th century, there were approximately 100
694:
Shellmidden-era construction was largely limited to
624:
have been found in Gusuku sites, alongside possibly
580:, or as evolution from a trade creole on Kikaijima.
2181:
1974:
1794:
1663:
1171:The first official or state history of Ryukyu, the
300:began to populate the northern and central Ryukyus
996:
901:. The Gusuku people also imported iron knives and
360:cultivation did not occur in the Ryuykus prior to
2507:"The Linguistic Archeology of the Ryukyu Islands"
1127:were forced to live at Shuri, with agents titled
540:Due to their shared set of innovations absent in
2649:
2626:
2601:
1747:
1711:
1543:
1519:
1448:
1436:
1388:
1376:
2415:International Journal of Historical Archaeology
321:BCE. This repopulation began the Shellmound or
242:, ending the Gusuku period and ushering in the
143:corresponding to the spread of agriculture and
130:
1200:(lit. ''Beautiful Ryukyu''). Largely based on
874:
726:facilities, including pits for the storage of
269:are an island chain on the eastern rim of the
124:
2608:The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology
2602:Takamiya, Hiroto; Shinzato, Takayuki (2024).
2354:. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
1217:
2334:Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin
2255:The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia
1111:(1477 – 1526) saw the centralization of the
1007:, during the 14th and early 15th centuries:
859:as a show of political power. As particular
432:and the unification of the Ryukyu Kingdom.
2627:Takamiya, Hiroto; Nakamura, Naoko (2020).
686:Reconstruction of an elevated storehouse,
552:origin. They retain archaic features from
523:
165:-speaking migrants and influence from the
2318:
2258:. Translated by Terrell, Lina. Honolulu:
839:
605:spread to Sakishima by the 12th century.
2327:
1460:
1249:
1073:and attendants, as depicted by ShĹŤ Genko
1064:
926:was likely exported to China via Japan.
878:
743:
681:
592:
253:
93:
2504:
2478:
2442:
2404:
2368:
2344:
2251:
2199:
1968:
1944:
1932:
1905:
1893:
1878:
1866:
1827:
1788:
1771:
1735:
1723:
1699:
1657:
1633:
1594:
1531:
1507:
1492:
1475:
1424:
1412:
1400:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1308:as its own branch of the Japonic family
1154:Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty
600:was a staple crop of the Gusuku period.
235:and organized a centralized kingdom at
16:Historical period of the Ryukyu Islands
2673:15th-century disestablishments in Asia
2650:
889:was imported during the Gusuku period.
2575:
2539:
2235:
2223:
2211:
2187:
2175:
2163:
2151:
2139:
2127:
2112:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2064:
2052:
2040:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1854:
1839:
1812:
1800:
1759:
1672:
1618:
1606:
1582:
1570:
1555:
650:, with irrigation largely limited to
2668:11th-century establishments in Japan
945:may have been opened by the lord of
642:. Farms were initially in low-lying
296:groups originating from neighboring
2546:Early Ryukyuan History: A New Model
1046:, came to power with the defeat of
410:and stretching well into the early
153:fortresses. Directly following the
13:
2452:Journal of Archaeological Research
383:seeds recovered from the Okinawan
344:populations. They also hunted the
215:, or simply prestige labels which
173:, leading to the emergence of the
14:
2689:
1139:
1134:
973:, with major bases on Kyushu and
897:cauldrons, used alongside native
2678:Archaeological cultures of Japan
2244:
1311:
1294:
1279:
997:Emergence of the Ryukyu Kingdom
993:during the late Gusuku period.
844:A class of local nobility, the
730:and hearths equipped with clay
677:
583:
832:some examples of stone-walled
588:
520:and by the Heian aristocracy.
1:
2658:History of Okinawa Prefecture
2620:10.1080/15564894.2022.2043493
1323:
532:ancestry, with little of the
422:
415:
404:
398:
361:
315:
308:
301:
286:
249:
141:history of the Ryukyu Islands
50:
1748:Takamiya & Nakamura 2020
1712:Takamiya & Nakamura 2020
1621:, pp. 18, 85–88, 96–98.
1544:Takamiya & Nakamura 2020
1520:Takamiya & Nakamura 2020
1449:Takamiya & Nakamura 2020
1437:Takamiya & Shinzato 2024
1427:, pp. 102–103, 106–108.
1389:Takamiya & Shinzato 2024
1377:Takamiya & Shinzato 2024
1328:
855:initially constructed small
455:
7:
2551:University of Hawai'i Press
2380:University of Hawai'i Press
2299:Evolutionary Human Sciences
2260:University of Hawai'i Press
875:Trade and foreign relations
131:
10:
2694:
2587:University of Hawaii Press
2582:Maritime Ryukyu, 1050–1650
1262:such as Inamura Kenpu and
1218:Traditional historiography
1069:18th century depiction of
2498:10.1017/S0003598X00079023
2428:10.1007/s10761-007-0026-6
2328:Takamiya, Hiroto (2001).
1194:and the mid-18th century
737:
379:from the Shellmidden are
125:
82:
72:
60:
46:
36:
26:
2523:10.1515/9781614511151.13
2505:Pellard, Thomas (2015).
2252:Akamine, Mamoru (2017).
2019:, pp. 161, 165–167.
1660:, pp. 21–23, 29–32.
1285:Not to be confused with
1273:
965:, were aligned with the
952:
751:, Kitankagusuku, Okinawa
562:Sino-Japanese vocabulary
2464:10.1023/A:1016610509890
2214:, pp. 19, 30, 180.
2178:, pp. 23, 35, 283.
1415:, pp. 82, 103–106.
1165:Bankoku ShinryĹŤ no Kane
1107:. The reign of his son
700:vernacular architecture
524:Language and demography
290: 32,000 years ago
175:Proto-Ryukyuan language
1150:Ming Veritable Records
1074:
890:
840:Society and governance
752:
691:
601:
475:turbo sea snail shells
262:
231:conquered much of the
221:Chinese tribute system
219:operated under in the
115:
2636:South Pacific Studies
1558:, pp. 18, 85–88.
1250:Modern historiography
1068:
882:
747:
685:
608:Cereal crops such as
596:
566:Early Middle Japanese
277:in the southwest and
258:Island groups of the
257:
97:
1232:Minamoto no Tametomo
1034:. Hashi, the son of
790:, found on Okinawa,
648:dryfield cultivation
2115:, pp. 247–255.
2103:, pp. 232–236.
2091:, pp. 241–243.
2079:, pp. 113–114.
2067:, pp. 224–231.
2055:, pp. 107–113.
2043:, pp. 196–198.
1995:, pp. 163–164.
1971:, pp. 156–157.
1869:, pp. 155–157.
1857:, pp. 157–161.
1842:, pp. 159–167.
1815:, pp. 132–133.
1791:, pp. 154–156.
1762:, pp. 137–145.
1534:, pp. 167–168.
1510:, pp. 146–148.
1478:, pp. 150–152.
1403:, pp. 108–117.
1391:, pp. 188–191.
1343:, pp. 119–120.
1191:Genealogy of Chūzan
1184:) was published by
1015:in the center, and
491:Kamuiyaki stoneware
23:
2595:10.2307/j.ctvsrfmz
2559:10.2307/jj.8441682
2517:. pp. 13–37.
2474:– via JSTOR.
2446:(September 2001).
2311:10.1017/ehs.2022.1
2268:10.2307/j.ctvsrhpp
1957:Jarosz et al. 2022
1918:Jarosz et al. 2022
1688:Jarosz et al. 2022
1646:Jarosz et al. 2022
1609:, pp. 98–100.
1105:Second ShĹŤ dynasty
1075:
983:Ashikaga shogunate
971:Nanboku-chĹŤ period
943:Ashikaga shogunate
891:
753:
692:
602:
556:that were lost in
546:Ryukyuan languages
512:, and finally the
323:Shellmidden period
263:
186:turbo snail shells
155:Shellmidden period
116:
77:Shellmidden period
27:Geographical range
21:
2532:978-1-61451-161-8
2515:De Gruyter Mouton
2238:, pp. 37–47.
2226:, pp. 27–37.
2166:, pp. 22–23.
2142:, pp. 21–22.
2031:, pp. 77–79.
2007:, pp. 48–49.
1750:, pp. 26–27.
1714:, pp. 24–26.
1702:, pp. 29–32.
1690:, pp. 14–15.
1597:, pp. 30–32.
1585:, pp. 94–98.
1573:, pp. 89–94.
1546:, pp. 18–20.
1367:, pp. 47–48.
1300:If including the
1053:First ShĹŤ dynasty
430:Kingdom of Chūzan
393:flotation samples
334:carrying capacity
169:trade outpost on
139:is an era of the
92:
91:
2685:
2643:
2633:
2623:
2598:
2572:
2536:
2501:
2480:Pearson, Richard
2475:
2444:Pearson, Richard
2439:
2406:Pearson, Richard
2401:
2370:Pearson, Richard
2365:
2346:Pearson, Richard
2341:
2324:
2322:
2289:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1960:
1959:, pp. 7–13.
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1676:
1670:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1496:
1490:
1479:
1473:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1302:HachijĹŤ language
1298:
1292:
1283:
920:Longquan celadon
668:broomcorn millet
427:
424:
420:
417:
409:
406:
366:
363:
346:Ryukyu wild boar
320:
317:
313:
310:
306:
303:
291:
288:
283:Late Pleistocene
138:
137:
134:
128:
127:
55:
52:
24:
20:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2631:
2569:
2533:
2390:
2362:
2278:
2247:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2174:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2154:, pp. 1–5.
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2130:, pp. 1–4.
2126:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2099:
2095:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1892:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1686:
1679:
1671:
1664:
1656:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1632:
1625:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1601:
1593:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1499:
1491:
1482:
1474:
1467:
1459:
1455:
1447:
1443:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1299:
1295:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1255:Zenchū Nakahara
1252:
1220:
1179:Reflections on
1142:
1137:
999:
957:
877:
842:
742:
688:Ocean Expo Park
680:
632:, but tropical
591:
586:
526:
514:Yaeyama Islands
506:Okinawa Islands
485:and the Korean
479:mother of pearl
458:
437:Yaeyama Islands
425:
418:
407:
401:
364:
318:
311:
305: 5000 BCE
304:
294:Hunter-gatherer
289:
252:
135:
122:
61:Characteristics
53:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2691:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2645:
2644:
2624:
2614:(1): 172–195.
2599:
2577:Smits, Gregory
2573:
2567:
2541:Smits, Gregory
2537:
2531:
2502:
2476:
2458:(3): 243–285.
2440:
2422:(2): 122–151.
2402:
2388:
2366:
2360:
2342:
2325:
2290:
2276:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2228:
2216:
2204:
2202:, p. 126.
2192:
2180:
2168:
2156:
2144:
2132:
2117:
2105:
2093:
2081:
2069:
2057:
2045:
2033:
2021:
2009:
1997:
1985:
1973:
1961:
1949:
1947:, p. 150.
1937:
1935:, p. 127.
1922:
1910:
1908:, p. 921.
1898:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1844:
1832:
1830:, p. 120.
1817:
1805:
1793:
1776:
1774:, p. 154.
1764:
1752:
1740:
1738:, p. 122.
1728:
1726:, p. 246.
1716:
1704:
1692:
1677:
1662:
1650:
1638:
1623:
1611:
1599:
1587:
1575:
1560:
1548:
1536:
1524:
1512:
1497:
1495:, p. 124.
1480:
1465:
1453:
1441:
1439:, p. 187.
1429:
1417:
1405:
1393:
1381:
1379:, p. 174.
1369:
1357:
1345:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1293:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1251:
1248:
1219:
1216:
1141:
1140:Extant sources
1138:
1136:
1135:Historiography
1133:
1113:Ryukyu Kingdom
1011:in the north,
998:
995:
967:Southern Court
956:
951:
876:
873:
841:
838:
836:are attested.
741:
736:
679:
676:
640:Southeast Asia
622:foxtail millet
598:Foxtail millet
590:
587:
585:
582:
564:borrowed from
550:Proto-Ryukyuan
525:
522:
510:Miyako Islands
457:
454:
412:Ryukyu Kingdom
408: 1200 CE
400:
397:
273:, adjacent to
271:East China Sea
267:Ryukyu Islands
260:Ryukyu Islands
251:
248:
244:Ryukyu Kingdom
233:Ryukyu Islands
182:foxtail millet
90:
89:
87:Ryukyu Kingdom
84:
80:
79:
74:
70:
69:
62:
58:
57:
54: 1050 CE
48:
44:
43:
41:Post-classical
38:
34:
33:
31:Ryukyu Islands
28:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2690:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2641:
2637:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2568:9780824898205
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2408:(June 2007).
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2389:9780824837129
2385:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2361:9781560987222
2357:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2277:9780824855178
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2237:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2213:
2208:
2201:
2196:
2190:, p. 87.
2189:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2165:
2160:
2153:
2148:
2141:
2136:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2090:
2085:
2078:
2073:
2066:
2061:
2054:
2049:
2042:
2037:
2030:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2006:
2001:
1994:
1989:
1983:, p. 23.
1982:
1977:
1970:
1965:
1958:
1953:
1946:
1941:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1919:
1914:
1907:
1902:
1896:, p. 12.
1895:
1890:
1888:
1881:, p. 11.
1880:
1875:
1868:
1863:
1856:
1851:
1849:
1841:
1836:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1814:
1809:
1803:, p. 36.
1802:
1797:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1756:
1749:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1725:
1720:
1713:
1708:
1701:
1696:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1675:, p. 97.
1674:
1669:
1667:
1659:
1654:
1648:, p. 97.
1647:
1642:
1636:, p. 15.
1635:
1630:
1628:
1620:
1615:
1608:
1603:
1596:
1591:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1557:
1552:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1522:, p. 26.
1521:
1516:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1463:, p. 64.
1462:
1461:Takamiya 2001
1457:
1451:, p. 22.
1450:
1445:
1438:
1433:
1426:
1421:
1414:
1409:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1385:
1378:
1373:
1366:
1361:
1355:, p. 10.
1354:
1349:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1314:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1290:
1289:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1230:, the son of
1229:
1225:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1174:Chūzan Seikan
1169:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1086:
1080:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1044:Higo Province
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1005:
994:
992:
991:slave trading
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
963:
955:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
906:
905:
900:
896:
888:
885:
881:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
848:
837:
835:
830:
826:
824:
820:
816:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
786:Stone-walled
784:
782:
778:
774:
773:
768:
767:
762:
758:
750:
746:
740:
735:
733:
729:
725:
721:
720:
715:
711:
707:
706:
701:
697:
689:
684:
675:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
636:
631:
630:japonica rice
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
606:
599:
595:
581:
579:
575:
574:Hayato people
570:
567:
563:
559:
555:
554:Proto-Japonic
551:
547:
544:, the modern
543:
538:
535:
531:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
477:(a source of
476:
472:
468:
464:
453:
451:
447:
446:ĹŚsumi Islands
442:
438:
433:
431:
413:
396:
394:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365: 800 CE
359:
355:
351:
350:domestic pigs
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
319: 12,000
299:
295:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
261:
256:
247:
245:
241:
240:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
213:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
192:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
151:
146:
142:
133:
121:
120:Gusuku period
114:
110:
106:
105:
101:
98:The ruins of
96:
88:
85:
81:
78:
75:
71:
68:
67:
63:
59:
56:–15th century
49:
45:
42:
39:
35:
32:
29:
25:
22:Gusuku period
19:
2663:Feudal Japan
2639:
2635:
2611:
2607:
2585:. Honolulu:
2581:
2549:. Honolulu:
2545:
2510:
2489:
2483:
2455:
2451:
2419:
2413:
2378:. Honolulu:
2374:
2350:
2337:
2333:
2302:
2298:
2254:
2245:Bibliography
2231:
2219:
2207:
2200:Pearson 1998
2195:
2183:
2171:
2159:
2147:
2135:
2108:
2096:
2084:
2072:
2060:
2048:
2036:
2024:
2012:
2000:
1988:
1976:
1969:Pearson 2013
1964:
1952:
1945:Pearson 2013
1940:
1933:Pearson 2007
1920:, p. 6.
1913:
1906:Pearson 1990
1901:
1894:Akamine 2017
1879:Akamine 2017
1874:
1867:Pearson 2013
1862:
1835:
1828:Pearson 1998
1808:
1796:
1789:Pearson 2013
1772:Pearson 2013
1767:
1755:
1743:
1736:Pearson 1998
1731:
1724:Pearson 2001
1719:
1707:
1700:Pellard 2015
1695:
1658:Pellard 2015
1653:
1641:
1634:Pellard 2015
1614:
1602:
1595:Pellard 2015
1590:
1578:
1551:
1539:
1532:Pearson 2013
1527:
1515:
1508:Pearson 2013
1493:Pearson 1998
1476:Pearson 2013
1456:
1444:
1432:
1425:Pearson 2013
1420:
1413:Pearson 2013
1408:
1401:Pearson 2013
1396:
1384:
1372:
1365:Pearson 2013
1360:
1353:Pearson 2013
1348:
1341:Pearson 1998
1336:
1313:
1296:
1286:
1281:
1268:
1264:Higa ShunchĹŤ
1258:
1253:
1243:
1236:Emperor Shun
1221:
1211:
1205:
1195:
1189:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1163:
1159:Rekidai HĹŤan
1157:
1143:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1103:founded the
1094:
1084:
1076:
1058:
1039:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1003:
1000:
978:
960:
958:
953:
939:Joseon Korea
930:
928:
912:Qingbai ware
908:
902:
892:
887:Qingbai ware
884:Song dynasty
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
843:
833:
828:
827:
822:
818:
814:
812:
807:
787:
785:
783:on Okinawa.
780:
770:
764:
754:
738:
724:metalworking
717:
709:
704:
693:
678:Architecture
672:
664:Adzuki beans
652:rice paddies
633:
607:
603:
584:Developments
578:Yamato state
571:
558:Old Japanese
539:
527:
499:
459:
450:Yayoi period
434:
402:
389:
381:bottle gourd
327:
264:
238:
216:
210:
208:
195:
189:
179:
159:11th century
148:
132:Gusuku jidai
119:
117:
102:
64:
18:
2398:j.ctt6wqnq6
1306:Izu Islands
1207:Omoro sĹŤshi
1097:coup d'Ă©tat
969:during the
907:from Japan.
899:earthenware
813:While many
802:, although
761:stone walls
660:Miyako-jima
589:Agriculture
467:Gusuku site
435:Within the
426: 1429
419: 1050
312: 7000
223:. In 1429,
83:Followed by
73:Preceded by
2652:Categories
2286:j.ctvsrhpp
2236:Smits 2024
2224:Smits 2024
2212:Smits 2024
2188:Smits 2019
2176:Smits 2024
2164:Smits 2024
2152:Smits 2019
2140:Smits 2024
2128:Smits 2019
2113:Smits 2024
2101:Smits 2024
2089:Smits 2024
2077:Smits 2019
2065:Smits 2024
2053:Smits 2019
2041:Smits 2024
2029:Smits 2019
2017:Smits 2024
2005:Smits 2019
1993:Smits 2024
1981:Smits 2019
1855:Smits 2024
1840:Smits 2024
1813:Smits 2024
1801:Smits 2019
1760:Smits 2024
1673:Smits 2024
1619:Smits 2024
1607:Smits 2024
1583:Smits 2024
1571:Smits 2024
1556:Smits 2024
1324:References
1186:ShĹŤ ShĹŤken
1129:aji-uttchi
1079:Shō Taikyū
1036:ShĹŤ ShishĹŤ
935:Ming China
796:Okinoerabu
749:Nakagusuku
696:pit-houses
518:Song China
399:Chronology
373:root crops
354:Common Era
250:Background
2485:Antiquity
1329:Citations
1202:Confucian
1115:at Shuri
1083:Katsuren
1077:In 1453,
1032:ShĹŤ Hashi
949:in 1403.
895:soapstone
800:limestone
757:palisades
690:, Okinawa
635:O. sativa
471:Kikaijima
456:Emergence
441:Sakishima
377:cultigens
371:or other
342:reef fish
338:shellfish
330:chiefdoms
225:ShĹŤ Hashi
171:Kikaijima
2579:(2019).
2543:(2024).
2472:41053177
2436:20853125
2372:(2013).
2320:10426105
1152:and the
1123:. Local
1109:ShĹŤ Shin
1090:ShĹŤ Toku
1071:ShĹŤ Shin
975:Tsushima
904:magatama
865:aji-osoi
728:ironsand
719:takakura
644:alluvial
542:Japanese
385:Ireibaru
229:ShĹŤ Shin
100:Katsuren
2642:(1, 2).
2492:(245).
1304:of the
1228:Shunten
1146:tribute
1121:Yaeyama
1095:A 1470
1055:at the
1009:Sanhoku
916:celadon
808:gususku
804:earthen
732:tuyeres
714:hearths
502:Japonic
463:Dazaifu
200:Okinawa
167:Dazaifu
163:Japonic
145:Japonic
113:Okinawa
2565:
2529:
2470:
2434:
2396:
2386:
2358:
2317:
2284:
2274:
1288:gusuku
1224:Tenson
1181:Chūzan
1177:(lit.
1117:gusuku
1101:Sho En
1085:gusuku
1059:gusuku
1057:Shuri
1017:Sannan
1013:Chūzan
1004:Sanzan
924:IĹŤjima
857:gusuku
834:gusuku
829:Gusuku
823:gusuku
819:Gusuku
815:gusuku
794:, and
788:gusuku
781:gusuku
772:gusuku
739:Gusuku
656:Cattle
620:, and
614:barley
508:, the
487:Goryeo
483:Hakata
387:site.
358:cereal
298:Kyushu
279:Kyushu
275:Taiwan
239:gusuku
237:Shuri
196:gusuku
150:gusuku
104:gusuku
66:Gusuku
37:Period
2632:(PDF)
2468:JSTOR
2432:JSTOR
2394:JSTOR
2282:JSTOR
1274:Notes
1244:Omoro
1212:Omoro
1197:Kyūyō
1048:Bunei
1042:from
1040:wokou
979:wokou
962:wokou
954:Wokou
947:Shuri
792:Yoron
777:plaza
766:utaki
626:beans
618:wheat
534:Yayoi
530:JĹŤmon
495:Amami
204:Amami
126:グスク時代
109:Uruma
47:Dates
2563:ISBN
2527:ISBN
2384:ISBN
2356:ISBN
2272:ISBN
1259:aji,
1240:Eiso
987:Naha
937:and
914:and
666:and
610:rice
439:(or
369:taro
340:and
265:The
202:and
118:The
2616:doi
2591:doi
2555:doi
2519:doi
2494:doi
2460:doi
2424:doi
2315:PMC
2307:doi
2264:doi
1125:aji
1099:by
1025:aji
1021:aji
933:to
931:aji
869:aji
861:aji
853:aji
847:aji
710:ken
705:ken
469:on
421:to
314:or
217:aji
212:aji
191:aji
2654::
2640:41
2638:.
2634:.
2612:19
2610:.
2606:.
2589:.
2561:.
2553:.
2525:.
2513:.
2490:64
2488:.
2466:.
2454:.
2450:.
2430:.
2420:11
2418:.
2412:.
2392:.
2382:.
2338:21
2336:.
2332:.
2313:.
2305:.
2301:.
2297:.
2280:.
2270:.
2262:.
2120:^
1925:^
1886:^
1847:^
1820:^
1779:^
1680:^
1665:^
1626:^
1563:^
1500:^
1483:^
1468:^
1238:.
985:.
734:.
670:.
654:.
616:,
612:,
452:.
423:c.
416:c.
405:c.
362:c.
356:,
325:.
316:c.
309:c.
302:c.
292:.
287:c.
285:,
246:.
206:.
177:.
129:,
111:,
107:,
51:c.
2622:.
2618::
2597:.
2593::
2571:.
2557::
2535:.
2521::
2500:.
2496::
2462::
2456:9
2438:.
2426::
2400:.
2364:.
2340:.
2323:.
2309::
2303:4
2288:.
2266::
849:,
136:)
123:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)