151:
526:, variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over the germination period given. Seed germination rate is determined by the seed genetic composition, morphological features and environmental factors. The germination rate is useful for calculating the number of seeds needed for a given area or desired number of plants. For seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of
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485:
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53:
42:
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961:(ABA), a plant hormone largely responsible for seed dormancy. The balance between GA and ABA is important. When ABA levels are higher than GA then that leads to dormant seeds and when GA levels are higher, seeds germinate. The switch between seed dormancy and germination needs to occur at a time when the seed has the best chances of surviving and an important cue that begins the process of seed germination and overall plant growth is light.
418:
213:
814:
139:
360:) to break dormancy. Some seeds in a dormant state will not germinate even if conditions are favorable. Seeds that are dependent on temperature to end dormancy have a type of physiological dormancy. For example, seeds requiring the cold of winter are inhibited from germinating until they take in water in the fall and experience cooler temperatures. Cold
356:
temperatures slightly above 60-75 F (16–24 C) , while others germinate just above freezing and others germinate only in response to alternations in temperature between warm and cool. Some seeds germinate when the soil is cool 28–40 F (-2 - 4 C), and some when the soil is warm 76-90 F (24–32 C). Some seeds require exposure to cold temperatures (
164:
956:
seeds to NO gas and within the next 4 days, 90% of the seeds broke dormancy and germinated. The authors also looked at how NO and GA effects the vacuolation process of aleurone cells that allow the movement of nutrients to be digested. A NO mutant resulted in inhibition of vacuolation but when GA was
471:
marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress.
355:
affects cellular metabolic and growth rates. Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a temperature range within which they will germinate, and they will not do so above or below this range. Many seeds germinate at
208:
and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Dormant seeds are viable seeds that do not germinate because they require specific internal or environmental stimuli to resume growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryo resumes growth,
809:
microscopy. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows
915:
which are dormant structures produced by a number of different bacteria. They have no or very low metabolic activity and are formed in response to adverse environmental conditions. They allow survival and are not a form of reproduction. Under suitable conditions the spore germinates to produce a
442:
can originate in different parts of the seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds. Factors affecting seed dormancy
335:
pore spaces; if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged, the seed can be oxygen starved. Some seeds have impermeable seed coats that prevent oxygen from entering the seed, causing a type of physical dormancy which is broken when the seed coat is worn away enough to
800:
are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. The initial formation and subsequent
408:
mimics natural processes that weaken the seed coat before germination. In nature, some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many
Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time. Others need to be passed through an
928:
can be an environmental factor that stimulates the germination process. The seed needs to be able to determine when is the perfect time to germinate and they do that by sensing environmental cues. Once germination starts, the stored nutrients that have accumulated during maturation start to be
234:
Disturbance of soil can result in vigorous plant growth by exposing seeds already in the soil to changes in environmental factors where germination may have previously been inhibited by depth of the seeds or soil that was too compact. This is often observed at gravesites after a burial.
170:
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grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of a protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2–3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a
663:, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge.
168:
537:
Soil salinity is one of the stress factors that can limit the germination rate. Environmental stress activates some stress-related activities , genetic template stability and photosynthetic pigment activation. Application of exogenic
937:) is the photoreceptor that is responsible for the beginning stages of germination. When red light is present, PHYB is converted to its active form and moves from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it upregulates the degradation of
638:
Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas,
854:
cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in the free-living amoebas of slime molds).
364:
is a process that induces the dormancy breaking prior to light emission that promotes germination . Four degrees
Celsius is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but some groups, especially within the family
389:) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods.
179:
Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed resulting in the formation of the seedling. It is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of
546:
seeds shows a reduction in the mean germination time, an increase in the coefficient of germination velocity, the germination index and germination percentage after administration of exogenous glutamine to plants.
952:(NO) plays a role in this pathway as well. NO is thought to repress PIF1 gene expression and stabilises HFR1 in some way to support the start of germination. Bethke et al. (2006) exposed dormant
759:. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In
579:
The stages of germination of a pea plant: A. seed coat, B. radicle, C. primary root, D. secondary root, E. cotyledon, F. plumule, G. leaf, H. tap root
671:
When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination.
945:(GA), a major hormone in the germination process. Another factor that promotes germination is HFR1 which accumulates in light in some way and forms inactive heterodimers with PIF1.
230:
Step 3: This marks the final step in the germination of the seed, where the cotyledons are expanded, which are the true leaves. Note: Temperature must be kept at an optimum level.
3190:
167:
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Variation in Seed
Dormancy and Germination within and between Individuals and Populations of a Species. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and, Evolution of Dormancy and Germination
1894:
Li R, Jia Y, Yu L, Yang W, Chen Z, Chen H, Hu X (February 2018). "Nitric oxide promotes light-initiated seed germination by repressing PIF1 expression and stabilizing HFR1".
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is required for germination. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular
2083:
An extensive study of the germination rates of a huge variety of seeds under different experimental conditions, including temperature variation and chemical environment
476:
in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of the establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce large numbers of seeds.
3195:
1329:
Koppen G, Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating Vicia faba".
262:. Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the individual seed variety and is closely linked to the
400:
seeds, including species found in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for the growth of the seedling.
270:. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of
1247:"The role of exogenous glutamine on germination, plant development and transcriptional expression of some stress-related genes in onion under salt stres"
957:
later added the process was active again leading to the belief that NO is prior to GA in the pathway. NO may also lead to the decrease in sensitivity of
697:
309:. After the seedling emerges from the seed coat and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at this point
3328:
216:
Step 1: Water imbibition, the uptake of water, results in rupture of seed coat. Step 2: The imbibition of the seed coat results in emergence of the
1632:
Roca MG, Davide LC, Davide LM, Mendes-Costa MC, Schwan RF, Wheals AE (November 2004). "Conidial anastomosis fusion between
Colletotrichum species".
396:
can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many
941:. PIF1, phytochrome-interaction-factor-1, negatively regulates germination by increasing the expression of proteins that repress the synthesis of
289:, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as
2095:
587:
or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic
285:
and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called
626:
through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air.
3246:
1939:"The Arabidopsis aleurone layer responds to nitric oxide, gibberellin, and abscisic acid and is sufficient and necessary for seed dormancy"
614:(or epigeous germination) is a botanical term indicating that the germination takes place above the ground. In epigeal germination, the
567:
has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed.
1986:
Shu K, Meng YJ, Shuai HW, Liu WG, Du JB, Liu J, Yang WY (November 2015). "Dormancy and germination: How does the crop seed decide?".
916:
viable bacterium. Endospores are formed inside the mother cell, whereas exospores are formed at the end of the mother cell as a bud.
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Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus
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provides the energy needed for continued growth and the seedling now requires a continuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
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produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male
530:. On the other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred to as
1859:
de Wit M, Galvão VC, Fankhauser C (April 2016). "Light-Mediated
Hormonal Regulation of Plant Growth and Development".
3252:
1199:
763:, the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating.
238:
Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right
150:
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Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage. During germination,
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and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate.
1534:"In vitro germination characteristics of maize pollen to detect biological activity of environmental pollutants"
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and others, need conditions cooler than -5 C. Some seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a
455:, barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for the production of barley
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2823:
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563:. In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired. The DNA damage checkpoint kinase
813:
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Sunflower time lapse with soil. Cross section, showing how the root and the upper part of the plant grow
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digested which then supports cell expansion and overall growth. Within light-stimulated germination,
17:
2034:
1646:
1107:
Siegel SM, Rosen LA (1962). "Effects of
Reduced Oxygen Tension on Germination and Seedling Growth".
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3185:
2235:
1399:"DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM regulates germination and maintains genome stability in seeds"
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3094:
1641:
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301:. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the seed imbibes water,
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2909:
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1995:
1903:
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1410:
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have optimal germination temperatures between 75–90 F (24–32 C), though many species (e.g.
2557:
2053:
1872:
838:, germination involves cracking the thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in
8:
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611:
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The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the
324:
132:
1999:
1907:
1827:
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in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by
343:, anaerobic germination can occur in waterlogged conditions. The seed produces a hollow
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1015:, when seeds or embryos begin to develop inside or before they detach from the parent
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are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful
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Waterworth WM, Masnavi G, Bhardwaj RM, Jiang Q, Bray CM, West CE (September 2010).
1301:
1290:"The importance of safeguarding genome integrity in germination and seed longevity"
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A seed pot used in horticulture for sowing and taking plant cuttings and growing
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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327:, the main source of the seedling's energy until it grows leaves. Oxygen is an
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Bethke PC, Libourel IG, Aoyama N, Chung YY, Still DW, Jones RL (March 2007).
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Waterworth WM, Footitt S, Bray CM, Finch-Savage WE, West CE (August 2016).
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Rajjou L, Duval M, Gallardo K, Catusse J, Bally J, Job C, Job D (2012).
1500:
1082:(7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp.
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630:, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.
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344:
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286:
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31:
2007:
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2220:
2119:, ≈1 minute HD video of mung bean seeds germinating over 10 days, on
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that acts like a 'snorkel', providing the seed with access to oxygen.
127:
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The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses Cabi Series
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which cracks their seed coats; this is a type of physical dormancy.
306:
259:
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155:
104:
76:
64:
1358:"A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity"
591:
emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts: the
2468:
2463:
2380:
2370:
2120:
1679:"Cell biology of conidial anastomosis tubes in Neurospora crassa"
1396:
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that can often be found underneath a spore-shedding adult plant.
891:, similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In
797:
783:
720:
of the stigma and style. Pollen can also be induced to germinate
652:
584:
523:
468:
452:
386:
294:
263:
221:
217:
185:
181:
1753:
Eldra
Solomon; Linda Berg; Diana W. Martin (15 September 2010).
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2547:
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Takayama S, Isogai A (2005). "Self-incompatibility in plants".
1136:"Rice germination and seedling growth in the absence of oxygen"
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to weaken the seed coat enough to allow the seedling to emerge.
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elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing the
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seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a
627:
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332:
80:
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1134:
Magneschi, Leonardo; Perata, Pierdomenico (25 July 2008).
771:
Germination can also refer to the emergence of cells from
595:(seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons (
336:
allow gas exchange and water uptake from the environment.
2916:
2478:
2125:
1936:
1725:
603:). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups.
298:
251:
735:. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the
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include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably
1779:
1485:"In vitro measurement of pollen tube growth inhibition"
1245:
Ulukapi, Kamile; Nasircilar, Ayse Gul (February 2024).
27:
Process by which an organism grows from a spore or seed
1858:
875:, and a few others, spores germinate into independent
821:
spore germination. This image has been captured using
142:
Germination glass (glass sprouter jar) with a plastic
846:
inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In
472:
The germination index can be used as an indicator of
1719:
1259:(1). Polish Society of Horticultural Science: 1–17.
842:
the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the
1676:
731:During germination, the tube cell elongates into a
679:Another germination event during the life cycle of
1287:
1075:
1073:
599:), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons (
1677:Roca MG, Arlt J, Jeffree CE, Read ND (May 2005).
1244:
1214:
559:processes are activated to deal with accumulated
3376:
1805:
1803:
1328:
1985:
1746:
1726:J.-M. Ghuysen; R. Hakenbeck (9 February 1994).
1194:. Burlington: Elsevier Science. pp. 5–35.
1133:
919:
716:on the stigma, as well as by the structure and
542:limiting this process. Research carried out on
175:Time-lapse video of mung bean seeds germinating
1773:
1588:
2141:
1800:
1288:Waterworth WM, Bray CM, West CE (June 2015).
3247:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1390:
1349:
1189:
643:and mango, for example, germinate this way.
1893:
1322:
1281:
1106:
948:Although the exact mechanism is not known,
895:, the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped
687:is the germination of a pollen grain after
467:In some definitions, the appearance of the
2148:
2134:
2094:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
801:elongation of the germ tube in the fungus
1962:
1835:
1702:
1645:
1565:
1508:
1432:
1422:
1373:
1305:
1264:
1159:
850:, germination refers to the emergence of
666:
519:describes how many seeds of a particular
480:Germination rate and germination capacity
462:
3191:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1809:
1786:. Encyclopedia Britannica. p. 580.
1603:10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144249
1582:
1074:Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005).
1069:
1067:
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319:is required by the germinating seed for
211:
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204:. All fully developed seeds contain an
48:seedlings, three days after germination
14:
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1482:
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646:
2129:
2071:Seed Germination: Theory and Practice
2054:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105550
1873:10.1146/annurev-arplant-043015-112252
1462:. New Age International. p. 61.
1455:
1215:Bewley JD, Black M, Halmer P (2006).
700:. Once the pollen grain lands on the
674:
339:In a small number of plants, such as
2113:, a survey of seed sowing techniques
2068:
1240:
1238:
1040:
1036:. Wiley-Blackwell. 2012. p. 10.
766:
570:
1759:. Cengage Learning. pp. 554–.
858:
200:after the union of male and female
24:
2025:
1121:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1962.tb08047.x
447:, which inhibits germination, and
162:
25:
3406:
3196:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2104:
1896:Plant Physiology and Biochemistry
1538:Environmental Health Perspectives
1235:
829:
192:is a small package produced in a
3359:
3358:
1780:Encyclopedia Britannica (2002).
1375:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x
1979:
1930:
1887:
1852:
1812:"Seed dormancy and germination"
1670:
1625:
1449:
451:, which ends seed dormancy. In
2042:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1861:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1591:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1294:Journal of Experimental Botany
1208:
1183:
1127:
1100:
1026:
805:has been captured in 3D using
761:self-incompatibility in plants
122:
13:
1:
1810:Penfield S (September 2017).
1190:Baskin CC, Baskin JM (2014).
1020:
71:. The term is applied to the
3237:History of plant systematics
2824:Thorns, spines, and prickles
2035:"Seed germination and vigor"
1916:10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.11.012
989:, for germination after fire
920:Light-stimulated germination
209:developing into a seedling.
7:
1732:. Elsevier. pp. 167–.
1695:10.1128/EC.4.5.911-919.2005
1532:Pfahler PL (January 1981).
972:Lily seed germination types
964:
902:
879:. In the bryophytes (e.g.,
633:
429:
63:is the process by which an
10:
3411:
3053:Alternation of generations
2155:
606:
29:
3354:
3302:
3266:
3203:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3166:Biological classification
3156:
3029:
2945:
2841:
2791:
2516:
2446:
2389:
2351:
2325:
2261:
2181:
2163:
1837:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.050
1656:10.1017/S0953756204000838
887:), spores germinate into
3063:Evolutionary development
907:Bacterial spores can be
810:fusion between conidia.
739:where it discharges the
107:, and the growth of the
99:, such as the spores of
30:Not to be confused with
2714:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1783:Encyclopedia britannica
1483:Martin FW (June 1972).
1424:10.1073/pnas.1608829113
1266:10.2478/fhort-2024-0002
3329:by author abbreviation
3253:Plant taxonomy systems
3171:Botanical nomenclature
2117:Germination time-lapse
924:As mentioned earlier,
826:
667:Precocious germination
580:
504:
463:Seedling establishment
426:
231:
176:
160:
147:
135:
57:
49:
3336:Botanical expeditions
2073:. State College, PA.
1955:10.1104/pp.106.093435
1109:Physiologia Plantarum
816:
578:
487:
420:
264:ecological conditions
215:
174:
153:
141:
130:
67:grows from a seed or
55:
44:
3068:Evolutionary history
3058:Double fertilization
2910:Cellular respiration
1634:Mycological Research
817:3D-visualization of
751:Self-incompatibility
551:Repair of DNA damage
532:germination capacity
500:after three days of
434:Some live seeds are
421:Malted (germinated)
323:. Oxygen is used in
2287:Non-vascular plants
2000:2015PlBio..17.1104S
1908:2018PlPB..123..204L
1828:2017CBio...27.R874P
1729:Bacterial Cell Wall
1501:10.1104/pp.49.6.924
1415:2016PNAS..113.9647W
1252:Folia Horticulturae
647:Monocot germination
612:Epigeal germination
377:Most common annual
325:aerobic respiration
156:Brassica campestris
2792:Surface structures
2587:Flower development
1307:10.1093/jxb/erv080
1152:10.1093/aob/mcn121
1008:Urban horticulture
977:Oldest viable seed
827:
775:and the growth of
675:Pollen germination
581:
505:
427:
303:hydrolytic enzymes
232:
202:reproductive cells
177:
161:
148:
136:
91:, the growth of a
58:
50:
3372:
3371:
3011:Herbaceous plants
2837:
2836:
2008:10.1111/plb.12356
1822:(17): R874–R878.
1793:978-0-85229-787-2
1766:978-0-538-74125-5
1739:978-0-08-086087-9
1640:(Pt 11): 1320–6.
1469:978-81-224-0065-6
1459:Plant propagation
1456:Sadhu MK (1989).
1362:The Plant Journal
1228:978-0-85199-723-0
1093:978-0-7167-1007-3
1078:Biology of Plants
819:Aspergillus niger
803:Aspergillus niger
794:and some plants.
767:Spore germination
747:of these plants.
571:Dicot germination
394:Light or darkness
331:that is found in
228:are unfolded (3).
172:
159:germinating seeds
16:(Redirected from
3402:
3395:Plant physiology
3362:
3361:
3341:Individual trees
3016:Secondary growth
2987:Succulent plants
2975:Prostrate shrubs
2858:Apical dominance
2843:Plant physiology
2804:Epicuticular wax
2349:
2348:
2342:
2333:Plant morphology
2150:
2143:
2136:
2127:
2126:
2099:
2093:
2085:
2069:Deno NC (1980).
2065:
2039:
2020:
2019:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1966:
1943:Plant Physiology
1934:
1928:
1927:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1706:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1649:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1569:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1512:
1489:Plant Physiology
1480:
1474:
1473:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1436:
1426:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1309:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1268:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1163:
1140:Annals of Botany
1131:
1125:
1124:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1081:
1071:
1038:
1037:
1030:
859:Ferns and mosses
745:microgametophyte
685:flowering plants
517:germination rate
188:. The seed of a
173:
21:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3350:
3319:Botanical terms
3312:
3298:
3262:
3208:Citrus taxonomy
3186:Author citation
3152:
3046:
3025:
2947:
2941:
2937:Turgor pressure
2845:
2833:
2787:
2602:Floral symmetry
2520:
2512:
2442:
2431:Vascular bundle
2426:Vascular tissue
2385:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2321:
2292:Vascular plants
2257:
2253:Plant pathology
2177:
2159:
2154:
2107:
2102:
2087:
2086:
2037:
2028:
2026:Further reading
2023:
1984:
1980:
1935:
1931:
1892:
1888:
1857:
1853:
1816:Current Biology
1808:
1801:
1794:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1724:
1720:
1683:Eukaryotic Cell
1675:
1671:
1647:10.1.1.463.3369
1630:
1626:
1587:
1583:
1550:10.2307/3429260
1530:
1526:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1454:
1450:
1409:(34): 9647–52.
1395:
1391:
1354:
1350:
1331:Folia Biologica
1327:
1323:
1300:(12): 3549–58.
1286:
1282:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1221:. p. 203.
1213:
1209:
1202:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1172:
1132:
1128:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1072:
1041:
1034:Forensic Botany
1032:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
967:
922:
905:
861:
832:
786:from spores in
769:
753:
728:or test tube).
704:of a receptive
677:
669:
649:
636:
624:apical meristem
609:
573:
553:
488:Germination of
482:
465:
432:
411:digestive tract
329:atmospheric gas
268:natural habitat
229:
163:
125:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3408:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3321:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3309:Related topics
3307:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3258:Taxonomic rank
3255:
3250:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3210:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3176:Botanical name
3168:
3162:
3160:
3158:Plant taxonomy
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3134:Megasporangium
3131:
3130:
3129:
3122:Microsporangia
3114:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2967:
2962:
2960:Cushion plants
2951:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2897:
2895:Plant hormones
2892:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2878:Photosynthesis
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2849:
2847:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2716:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2597:Floral formula
2594:
2592:Floral diagram
2589:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2545:
2535:
2530:
2524:
2522:
2521:(incl. Flower)
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2481:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2423:
2421:Storage organs
2418:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2307:Spermatophytes
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2277:Archaeplastida
2274:
2268:
2266:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2231:Phytogeography
2228:
2226:Phytochemistry
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2187:
2185:
2183:Subdisciplines
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2152:
2145:
2138:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2114:
2106:
2105:External links
2103:
2101:
2100:
2066:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2021:
1994:(6): 1104–12.
1978:
1949:(3): 1173–88.
1929:
1886:
1851:
1799:
1792:
1772:
1765:
1745:
1738:
1718:
1669:
1624:
1581:
1524:
1475:
1468:
1448:
1389:
1348:
1321:
1280:
1234:
1227:
1207:
1200:
1182:
1146:(2): 181–196.
1126:
1115:(3): 437–444.
1099:
1092:
1039:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
984:
979:
974:
968:
966:
963:
921:
918:
904:
901:
860:
857:
836:resting spores
831:
830:Resting spores
828:
823:holotomography
807:holotomography
773:resting spores
768:
765:
752:
749:
691:. Like seeds,
676:
673:
668:
665:
648:
645:
635:
632:
608:
605:
572:
569:
552:
549:
481:
478:
464:
461:
431:
428:
415:
414:
401:
375:
374:
362:stratification
350:
349:
348:
314:
311:photosynthesis
254:and sometimes
190:vascular plant
124:
121:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3407:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
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3356:
3353:
3347:
3344:
3342:
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3337:
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3327:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3295:
3294:Phytochemical
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3259:
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3254:
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3229:
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3206:
3205:
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3194:
3192:
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3182:
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3177:
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3173:
3172:
3169:
3167:
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3163:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3147:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2932:Transpiration
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2719:Inflorescence
2717:
2715:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2404:Ground tissue
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:Plant anatomy
2324:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2248:Plant ecology
2246:
2244:
2243:Plant anatomy
2241:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2191:Archaeobotany
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2139:
2137:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2097:
2091:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2030:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1988:Plant Biology
1982:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1749:
1741:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1597:(1): 467–89.
1596:
1592:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1368:(5): 848–60.
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1241:
1239:
1230:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1211:
1203:
1201:9780124166837
1197:
1193:
1186:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1095:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1079:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
969:
962:
960:
959:abscisic acid
955:
951:
946:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
917:
914:
910:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
856:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
824:
820:
815:
811:
808:
804:
799:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
778:
774:
764:
762:
758:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
708:(or a female
707:
703:
699:
694:
690:
686:
682:
672:
664:
662:
658:
654:
644:
642:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
577:
568:
566:
562:
558:
548:
545:
541:
535:
533:
529:
525:
522:
518:
514:
510:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
477:
475:
474:phytotoxicity
470:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:abscisic acid
441:
440:Seed dormancy
437:
424:
419:
412:
407:
406:
405:Scarification
402:
399:
395:
392:
391:
390:
388:
384:
380:
372:
368:
367:Ranunculaceae
363:
359:
358:vernalization
354:
351:
346:
342:
338:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
315:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
277:
276:
275:
273:
272:seed dormancy
269:
266:of a plant's
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
236:
227:
223:
219:
214:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
158:
157:
152:
145:
140:
134:
129:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
54:
47:
43:
37:
36:Germanization
33:
19:
3289:Horticulture
3279:Floriculture
3181:Correct name
3084:
3031:Reproduction
3021:Woody plants
2946:Plant growth
2905:Gas Exchange
2890:Phytomelanin
2768:Plant embryo
2518:Reproductive
2366:Phragmoplast
2111:Sowing Seeds
2082:
2070:
2045:
2041:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1946:
1942:
1932:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1819:
1815:
1782:
1775:
1755:
1748:
1728:
1721:
1689:(5): 911–9.
1686:
1682:
1672:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1541:
1537:
1527:
1495:(6): 924–5.
1492:
1488:
1478:
1458:
1451:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1256:
1250:
1217:
1210:
1191:
1185:
1173:. Retrieved
1143:
1139:
1129:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1077:
1033:
1028:
953:
950:nitric oxide
947:
923:
906:
877:gametophytes
862:
833:
818:
802:
796:
770:
754:
730:
721:
678:
670:
650:
637:
615:
610:
582:
554:
536:
531:
516:
506:
492:raised from
466:
433:
403:
398:photoblastic
393:
376:
352:
316:
278:
237:
233:
220:(1) and the
178:
154:
113:pollen grain
60:
59:
3385:Germination
3105:Pollen tube
3100:Pollinators
3090:Pollination
3085:Germination
2900:Respiration
2883:Chlorophyll
2729:Pedicellate
2663:Gametophyte
2582:Aestivation
2533:Antheridium
2528:Archegonium
2376:Plasmodesma
2353:Plant cells
2216:Paleobotany
2211:Ethnobotany
2196:Astrobotany
1902:: 204–212.
1337:(2): 50–4.
954:Arabidopsis
943:gibberellin
931:phytochrome
889:protonemata
848:slime molds
840:zygomycetes
825:microscopy.
733:pollen tube
689:pollination
681:gymnosperms
509:agriculture
449:gibberellin
371:forest fire
353:Temperature
240:temperature
123:Seed plants
109:pollen tube
61:Germination
3379:Categories
3127:Microspore
3117:Sporangium
3095:Artificial
2783:Sporophyte
2778:Sporophyll
2773:Receptacle
2668:Gynandrium
2538:Androecium
2447:Vegetative
2317:Angiosperm
2312:Gymnosperm
2206:Dendrology
2048:: 507–33.
1867:: 513–37.
1544:: 125–32.
1021:References
913:endospores
885:liverworts
869:bryophytes
757:inbreeding
726:petri dish
718:physiology
661:coleoptile
657:coleorhiza
620:cotyledons
593:cotyledons
561:DNA damage
498:eucalyptus
379:vegetables
345:coleoptile
321:metabolism
287:imbibition
283:metabolism
226:cotyledons
117:seed plant
89:gymnosperm
85:angiosperm
32:Gemination
3324:Botanists
3242:Herbarium
3139:Megaspore
3037:Evolution
2980:Subshrubs
2948:and habit
2873:Nutrition
2868:Cellulose
2863:Bulk flow
2846:Materials
2809:Epidermis
2673:Gynoecium
2654:Endosperm
2649:Dispersal
2565:Staminode
2501:Sessility
2489:Cataphyll
2409:Mesophyll
2361:Cell wall
2302:Lycophyte
2282:Bryophyte
2236:Geobotany
2221:Phycology
2090:cite book
2079:918148836
1642:CiteSeerX
1003:Sprouting
993:Seed tray
987:Pyrophyte
909:exospores
897:prothalli
844:zygospore
777:sporeling
714:hydration
698:tube cell
641:chickpeas
616:hypocotyl
597:hypocotyl
540:glutamine
513:gardening
490:seedlings
409:animal's
307:chemicals
224:(2); the
111:from the
103:, ferns,
93:sporeling
73:sprouting
46:Sunflower
18:Germinate
3364:Category
3284:Forestry
3274:Agronomy
3267:Practice
3218:Cultivar
3213:Cultigen
3073:timeline
2965:Rosettes
2853:Aleurone
2829:Trichome
2746:Perianth
2558:Filament
2416:Meristem
2339:glossary
2201:Bryology
2062:22136565
2016:26095078
1973:17220360
1924:29248678
1881:26905653
1846:28898656
1713:15879525
1664:15587065
1611:15862104
1519:16658085
1443:27503884
1384:20584150
1343:11321247
1316:25750428
1275:19887643
1175:27 March
1170:18660495
1013:Vivipary
998:Seedling
982:Pot farm
965:See also
903:Bacteria
867:such as
852:amoeboid
722:in vitro
634:Hypogeal
601:epicotyl
430:Dormancy
383:radishes
295:proteins
260:darkness
105:bacteria
77:seedling
65:organism
3042:Ecology
2799:Cuticle
2629:Capsule
2619:Anatomy
2570:Tapetum
2494:Petiole
2469:Rhizome
2464:Rhizoid
2391:Tissues
2381:Vacuole
2371:Plastid
2173:Outline
2168:History
2121:YouTube
1996:Bibcode
1964:1820924
1904:Bibcode
1824:Bibcode
1756:Biology
1704:1140100
1619:1196223
1576:7460877
1567:1568653
1558:3429260
1434:5003248
1411:Bibcode
1161:2707302
1084:504–508
798:Conidia
653:monocot
607:Epigeal
585:radicle
524:species
469:radicle
453:brewing
436:dormant
387:spinach
222:plumule
218:radicle
186:plumule
182:radicle
95:from a
79:from a
3346:Plants
3249:(IAPT)
3002:Lianas
2970:Shrubs
2922:Starch
2814:Nectar
2734:Raceme
2700:Stigma
2688:Locule
2678:Carpel
2639:Pyrena
2577:Flower
2553:Anther
2548:Stamen
2543:Pollen
2265:groups
2157:Botany
2077:
2060:
2014:
1971:
1961:
1922:
1879:
1844:
1790:
1763:
1736:
1711:
1701:
1662:
1644:
1617:
1609:
1574:
1564:
1556:
1517:
1510:366081
1507:
1466:
1441:
1431:
1382:
1341:
1314:
1273:
1225:
1198:
1168:
1158:
1090:
881:mosses
865:plants
784:thalli
780:hyphae
724:(in a
706:flower
702:stigma
693:pollen
557:repair
528:sowing
515:, the
502:sowing
425:grains
423:barley
317:Oxygen
291:starch
248:oxygen
206:embryo
83:of an
3390:Seeds
3306:Lists
3223:Group
3146:Spore
3080:Flora
2997:Vines
2992:Trees
2955:Habit
2927:Sugar
2819:Stoma
2761:Sepal
2756:Petal
2751:Tepal
2739:Umbel
2724:Bract
2705:Style
2693:Ovule
2683:Ovary
2624:Berry
2614:Fruit
2607:Whorl
2474:Shoot
2272:Algae
2263:Plant
2038:(PDF)
1615:S2CID
1554:JSTOR
1271:S2CID
926:light
893:ferns
873:ferns
792:algae
788:fungi
741:sperm
737:ovule
628:Beans
589:shoot
544:onion
521:plant
494:seeds
297:, or
279:Water
256:light
244:water
194:fruit
144:sieve
133:plugs
115:of a
101:fungi
97:spore
75:of a
69:spore
3228:Grex
3110:Self
2644:Seed
2506:Stem
2484:Leaf
2459:Root
2454:Bulb
2438:Wood
2399:Cork
2297:Fern
2096:link
2075:OCLC
2058:PMID
2012:PMID
1969:PMID
1920:PMID
1877:PMID
1842:PMID
1788:ISBN
1761:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1709:PMID
1660:PMID
1607:PMID
1572:PMID
1515:PMID
1464:ISBN
1439:PMID
1380:PMID
1339:PMID
1312:PMID
1223:ISBN
1196:ISBN
1177:2022
1166:PMID
1088:ISBN
939:PIF1
935:PHYB
883:and
710:cone
683:and
659:and
622:and
511:and
457:malt
341:rice
333:soil
299:oils
198:cone
184:and
146:-lid
81:seed
2917:Sap
2634:Nut
2479:Bud
2050:doi
2004:doi
1959:PMC
1951:doi
1947:143
1912:doi
1900:123
1869:doi
1832:doi
1699:PMC
1691:doi
1652:doi
1638:108
1599:doi
1562:PMC
1546:doi
1505:PMC
1497:doi
1429:PMC
1419:doi
1407:113
1370:doi
1302:doi
1261:doi
1156:PMC
1148:doi
1144:103
1117:doi
933:B (
911:or
863:In
834:In
782:or
651:In
565:ATM
507:In
496:of
385:or
258:or
252:air
250:or
196:or
87:or
34:or
3381::
2092:}}
2088:{{
2081:.
2056:.
2046:63
2044:.
2040:.
2010:.
2002:.
1992:17
1990:.
1967:.
1957:.
1945:.
1941:.
1918:.
1910:.
1898:.
1875:.
1865:67
1863:.
1840:.
1830:.
1820:27
1818:.
1814:.
1802:^
1707:.
1697:.
1685:.
1681:.
1658:.
1650:.
1636:.
1613:.
1605:.
1595:56
1593:.
1570:.
1560:.
1552:.
1542:37
1540:.
1536:.
1513:.
1503:.
1493:49
1491:.
1487:.
1437:.
1427:.
1417:.
1405:.
1401:.
1378:.
1366:63
1364:.
1360:.
1335:47
1333:.
1310:.
1298:66
1296:.
1292:.
1269:.
1257:36
1255:.
1249:.
1237:^
1164:.
1154:.
1142:.
1138:.
1113:15
1111:.
1086:.
1042:^
871:,
790:,
534:.
459:.
293:,
274:.
246:,
242:,
119:.
2341:)
2337:(
2149:e
2142:t
2135:v
2098:)
2064:.
2052::
2018:.
2006::
1998::
1975:.
1953::
1926:.
1914::
1906::
1883:.
1871::
1848:.
1834::
1826::
1796:.
1769:.
1742:.
1715:.
1693::
1687:4
1666:.
1654::
1621:.
1601::
1578:.
1548::
1521:.
1499::
1472:.
1445:.
1421::
1413::
1386:.
1372::
1345:.
1318:.
1304::
1277:.
1263::
1231:.
1204:.
1179:.
1150::
1123:.
1119::
1096:.
38:.
20:)
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