Genetic testing - Knowledge

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Russian Federation on readmission and is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on citizenship of the Russian Federation. Information characterizing the physiological and biological characteristics of a person, on the basis of which it is possible to establish his identity (biometric personal data), can be processed without the consent of the subject of personal data in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission, administration of justice and execution of judicial acts, compulsory state fingerprinting registration, as well as in cases stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on defense, security, anti-terrorism, transport security, anti-corruption, operational investigative activities, public service, as well as in cases stipulated by the criminal-executive legislation of Russia, the legislation of Russia on the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation, citizenship of the Russian Federation and notaries.

583: – used to diagnose or rule out a specific genetic or chromosomal condition. In many cases, genetic testing is used to confirm a diagnosis when a particular condition is suspected based on physical mutations and symptoms. Diagnostic testing can be performed at any time during a person's life, but is not available for all genes or all genetic conditions. The results of a diagnostic test can influence a person's choices about health care and the management of the disease. For example, people with a family history of polycystic kidney disease (PKD) who experience pain or tenderness in their abdomen, blood in their urine, frequent urination, pain in the sides, a urinary tract infection or kidney stones may decide to have their genes tested and the result could confirm the diagnosis of PKD. Despite the several implications of genetic testing in conditions such as epilepsy or neurodevelopmental disorders, many patients (specially adults) do not have access to these modern diagnostic approaches, showing a relevant diagnostic gap. 674: – determines the influence of genetic variation on drug response. When a person has a disease or health condition, pharmacogenomics can examine an individual's genetic makeup to determine what medicine and what dosage would be the safest and most beneficial to the patient. In the human population, there are approximately 11 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in people's genomes, making them the most common variations in the human genome. SNPs reveal information about an individual's response to certain drugs. This type of genetic testing can be used for cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. A sample of the cancer tissue can be sent in for genetic analysis by a specialized lab. After analysis, information retrieved can identify mutations in the tumor which can be used to determine the best treatment option. 557: – used just after birth to identify genetic disorders that can be treated early in life. A blood sample is collected with a heel prick from the newborn 24–48 hours after birth and sent to the lab for analysis. In the United States, newborn screening procedure varies state by state, but all states by law test for at least 21 disorders. If abnormal results are obtained, it does not necessarily mean the child has the disorder. Diagnostic tests must follow the initial screening to confirm the disease. The routine testing of infants for certain disorders is the most widespread use of genetic testing—millions of babies are tested each year in the United States. All states currently test infants for 664:. Hereditary breast cancer along with ovarian cancer syndrome are caused by gene alterations in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Major cancer types related to mutations in these genes are female breast cancer, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic, and male breast cancer. Li-Fraumeni syndrome is caused by a gene alteration on the gene TP53. Cancer types associated with a mutation on this gene include breast cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, osteosarcoma (bone cancer), leukemia and brain tumors. In the Cowden syndrome there is a mutation on the PTEN gene, causing potential breast, thyroid or endometrial cancer. Presymptomatic testing can determine whether a person will develop a genetic disorder, such as 60: 638:, which removes a sample of fluid from the mother's amniotic sac 15 to 20 or more weeks into pregnancy. The fluid is then tested for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and trisomy 18, which can result in neonatal or fetal death. Test results can be retrieved within 7–14 days after the test is done. This method is 99.4% accurate at detecting and diagnosing fetal chromosome abnormalities. There is a slight risk of miscarriage with this test, about 1:400. Another method of prenatal testing is 229: 1050:

of genetic sciences and innovative modern techniques related to profiling and genetic sequencing, in order to identify the genetic footprint and prevent the most prevalent diseases in the country, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and asthma. It aims to achieve personalized treatment for each patient based on genetic factors. Additionally, a study by Khalifa University has identified, for the first time, four genetic markers associated with type 2 diabetes among UAE citizens.

548: 343: 589: – used to identify people who carry one copy of a gene mutation that, when present in two copies, causes a genetic disorder. This type of testing is offered to individuals who have a family history of a genetic disorder and to people in ethnic groups with an increased risk of specific genetic conditions. If both parents are tested, the test can provide information about a couple's risk of having a child with a genetic condition like 1067:; however, genetic tests may be conducted outside Israel. The law also forbids discrimination for employment or insurance purposes based on genetic test results. Finally, the law takes a strict approach to genetic testing on minors, which is permitted only for the purpose of finding a genetic match with someone ill for the sake of medical treatment, or to see whether the minor carries a gene related to an illness that can be prevented or postponed. 613: 970:, which was a fifteen-year project that was discontinued in 2020. Over one million people participated in the DNA sampling from more than 140 countries, which made the project the largest of its kind ever conducted. The project asked for DNA samples from indigenous people as well as the general public, which spurred political controversy among some indigenous groups, leading to the coining of the term "biocolonialism". 1117:

legal reasons, health care providers should be cautious in providing minors with predictive genetic testing without the involvement of parents or guardians. Within the guidelines set by AAP and ACMG, health care providers have an obligation to inform parents or guardians on the implication of test results. AAP and ACMG state that any type of predictive genetic testing should be offered with

3556: 3534: 642:(CVS). Chorionic villi are projections from the placenta that carry the same genetic makeup as the baby. During this method of prenatal testing, a sample of chorionic villi is removed from the placenta to be tested. This test is performed 10–13 weeks into pregnancy and results are ready 7–14 days after the test was done. Another test using blood taken from the fetal umbilical cord is 698: – uses special DNA markers to identify the same or similar inheritance patterns between related individuals. Based on the fact that we all inherit half of our DNA from the father, and half from the mother, DNA scientists test individuals to find the match of DNA sequences at some highly differential markers to draw the conclusion of relatedness. 962:. These companies will send the consumer a kit at their home address, with which they will provide a saliva sample for their lab to analyze. The company will then send back the consumer's results in a few weeks, which is a breakdown of their ancestral heritage and possible health risks that accompany it. Other companies, like 1028:(GDPR). The GDPR is a set of rules/regulations that helps an individual take control of their data that is collected, used, and stored digitally or in a structured filing system on paper, and restricts a company's use of personal data. The regulation also applies to companies that offer products/services outside the EU. 901:-predictive genetic test for breast cancer stated: "There is no stronger antidote for fear than information." Apart from rare diseases that are directly caused by specific, single-gene mutation, diseases "have complicated, multiple genetic links that interact strongly with personal environment, lifestyle, and behavior." 1150:

From the date that a sample is taken, results may take weeks to months, depending upon the complexity and extent of the tests being performed. Results for prenatal testing are usually available more quickly because time is an important consideration in making decisions about a pregnancy. Prior to the

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passed the Genetic Information Law in 2000, becoming one of the first countries to establish a regulatory framework for the conducting of genetic testing and genetic counseling and for the handling and use identified genetic information. Under the law, genetic tests must be done in labs accredited by

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By the end of 2021, the UAE Genome Project will be in full swing, as part of the National Innovation Strategy, establishing strategic partnerships with top medical research centers, and making sustainable investments in healthcare services. The project aims to prevent genetic diseases through the use

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Genetic testing is often done as part of a genetic consultation and as of mid-2008 there were more than 1,200 clinically applicable genetic tests available. Once a person decides to proceed with genetic testing, a medical geneticist, genetic counselor, primary care doctor, or specialist can order the

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procedure. Pre-implantation testing is used when individuals try to conceive a child through in vitro fertilization. Eggs from the woman and sperm from the man are removed and fertilized outside the body to create multiple embryos. The embryos are individually screened for abnormalities, and the ones

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gland). People with PKU do not have an enzyme needed to process the amino acid phenylalanine, which is responsible for normal growth in children and normal protein use throughout their lifetime. If there is a buildup of too much phenylalanine, brain tissue can be damaged, causing developmental delay.

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decisions. Although GINA protects against genetic discrimination, Section 210 of the law states that once the disease has manifested, employers can use the medical information and not be in violation of the law, even if the condition has a genetic basis. The legislation, the first of its kind in the

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DTC genetic testing involves many of the same risks associated with any genetic test. One of the more obvious and dangerous of these is the possibility of misreading of test results. Without professional guidance, consumers can potentially misinterpret genetic information, causing them to be deluded

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The physical risks associated with most genetic tests are very small, particularly for those tests that require only a blood sample or buccal smear (a procedure that samples cells from the inside surface of the cheek). The procedures used for prenatal testing carry a small but non-negligible risk of

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The variety of genetic tests has expanded throughout the years. Early forms of genetic testing which began in the 1950s involved counting the number of chromosomes per cell. Deviations from the expected number of chromosomes (46 in humans) could lead to a diagnosis of certain genetic conditions such

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Many of the risks associated with genetic testing involve the emotional, social, or financial consequences of the test results. People may feel angry, depressed, anxious, or guilty about their results. The potential negative impact of genetic testing has led to an increasing recognition of a "right

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Predictive and presymptomatic testing – used to detect gene mutations associated with disorders that appear after birth, often later in life. These tests can be helpful to people who have a family member with a genetic disorder, but who have no features of the disorder themselves at

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of children in the United States. Their guidelines state that performing pediatric genetic testing should be in the best interest of the child. AAP and ACMG recommend holding off on genetic testing for late-onset conditions until adulthood, unless diagnosing genetic disorders during childhood can

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In Israel, DNA testing is used to determine if people are eligible for immigration. The policy where "many Jews from the former Soviet Union (FSU) are asked to provide DNA confirmation of their Jewish heritage in the form of paternity tests in order to immigrate as Jews and become citizens under

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and home kit genetic tests because of concerns regarding the accuracy, interpretation and oversight of test content. Guidelines also state that parents or guardians should be encouraged to inform their child of the results from the genetic test if the minor is of appropriate age. For ethical and

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Russian law provides that the processing of special categories of personal data relating to race, nationality, political views, religious or philosophical beliefs, health status, intimate life is allowed if it is necessary in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the

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Another limitation to genetic testing for a hereditary linked cancer, is the variants of unknown clinical significance. Because the human genome has over 22,000 genes, there are 3.5 million variants in the average person's genome. These variants of unknown clinical significance means there is a

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acquire their patient's permission and then order the desired test, which may or may not be covered by health insurance. DTC genetic tests, however, allow consumers to bypass this process and purchase DNA tests themselves. DTC genetic testing can entail primarily genealogical/ancestry-related

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for legal purposes. Unlike the tests described above, forensic testing is not used to detect gene mutations associated with disease. This type of testing can identify crime or catastrophe victims, rule out or implicate a crime suspect, or establish biological relationships between people (for

828:(DTC) genetic testing (also called at-home genetic testing) is a type of genetic test that is accessible directly to the consumer without having to go through a health care professional. Usually, to obtain a genetic test, health care professionals such as physicians, nurse practitioners, or 798:

Genetic testing can provide only limited information about an inherited condition. The test often can't determine if a person will show symptoms of a disorder, how severe the symptoms will be, or whether the disorder will progress over time. Another major limitation is the lack of treatment

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in employment or insurance is also a concern. Some individuals avoid genetic testing out of fear it will affect their ability to purchase insurance or find a job. Health insurers do not currently require applicants for coverage to undergo genetic testing, and when insurers encounter genetic

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In June 2013 the US Supreme Court issued two rulings on human genetics. The Court struck down patents on human genes, opening up competition in the field of genetic testing. The Supreme Court also ruled that police were allowed to collect DNA from people arrested for serious offenses.

814:—a discovery of some possible problem found while looking for something else. In 2013 the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) recommended that certain genes always be included any time a genomic sequencing was done, and that labs should report the results. 668:(an iron overload disorder), before any signs or symptoms appear. The results of predictive and presymptomatic testing can provide information about a person's risk of developing a specific disorder, help with making decisions about medical care and provide a better prognosis. 539:(cffDNA) testing – a non-invasive (for the fetus) test. It is performed on a sample of venous blood from the mother, and can provide information about the fetus early in pregnancy. As of 2015 it is the most sensitive and specific screening test for 626:'s genes or chromosomes before birth. This type of testing is offered to couples with an increased risk of having a baby with a genetic or chromosomal disorder. In some cases, prenatal testing can lessen a couple's uncertainty or help them decide whether to 711:

Research testing – includes finding unknown genes, learning how genes work and advancing understanding of genetic conditions. The results of testing done as part of a research study are usually not available to patients or their healthcare

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DTC genetic testing has been controversial due to outspoken opposition within the medical community. Critics of DTC genetic testing argue against the risks involved in several steps of the testing process, such as the unregulated advertising and

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Some advertising for DTC genetic testing has been criticized as conveying an exaggerated and inaccurate message about the connection between genetic information and disease risk, utilizing emotions as a selling factor. An advertisement for a

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of their database by police investigating a murder. The warrantless search led to a search warrant to force the gathering of a DNA sample from a New Orleans filmmaker; however he turned out not to be a match for the suspected killer.

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A genetics professional can explain in detail the benefits, risks, and limitations of a particular test. It is important that any person who is considering genetic testing understand and weigh these factors before making a decision.

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Under the Genetic Information Law as of 2019, commercial DNA tests are not permitted to be sold directly to the public, but can be obtained with a court order, due to data privacy, reliability, and misinterpretation concerns.

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for specific conditions, or gain information that can be used to customize medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup. Genetic testing can also be used to determine biological relatives, such as a child's

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As part of its healthcare system, Estonia is offering all of its residents genome-wide genotyping. This will be translated into personalized reports for use in everyday medical practice via the national e-health portal.

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Within the framework of this program, it is also planned to include the peoples of neighboring countries, which are the main source of migration, into the genogeographic study on the basis of existing collections.

2812:"Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project Wells Spencer . Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project. 2006. National Geographic Society. Washington, DC. $ 12.95, paperback. 247 pp. ISBN 13: 978-1426201189" 757:

may be swished in the mouth to collect the cells. The sample is sent to a laboratory where technicians look for specific changes in chromosomes, DNA, or proteins, depending on the suspected disorders, often using

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The aim is to minimise health problems by warning participants most at risk of conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It is also hoped that participants who are given early warnings will adopt

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not to know". In some cases, genetic testing creates tension within a family because the results can reveal information about other family members in addition to the person who is tested. The possibility of

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reduce morbidity or mortality (e.g., to start early intervention). Testing asymptomatic children who are at risk of childhood onset conditions can also be warranted. Both AAP and ACMG discourage the use of

3560: 3538: 439:. Genetic testing of plants and animals can be used for similar reasons as in humans (e.g. to assess relatedness/ancestry or predict/diagnose genetic disorders), to gain information used for 3242: 2087: 844:. Possible additional risks of DTC genetic testing are the lack of governmental regulation, the potential misinterpretation of genetic information, issues related to testing minors, 791:

information, it is subject to the same confidentiality protections as any other sensitive health information. In the United States, the use of genetic information is governed by the

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that will result from the better understanding of human heredity the rapid expansion of genetic risk assessment by genetic testing which would be facilitated by this project.

3471: 1926: 1850:"Average risks of breast and ovarian cancer associated with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations detected in case Series unselected for family history: a combined analysis of 22 studies" 1750:

Aledo-Serrano A, García-Morales I, Toledano R, Jiménez-Huete A, Parejo B, Anciones C, et al. (October 2020). "Diagnostic gap in genetic epilepsies: A matter of age".

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All policy statements from the American Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, revised, or retired at or before that time

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testing, the doctor or genetic counselor who is requesting a particular test can provide specific information about the cost and time frame associated with that test.

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the time of testing. Predictive testing can identify mutations that increase a person's chances of developing disorders with a genetic basis, such as certain types of

2723: 487:, there are tests available for more than 2,000 genetic conditions, and one study estimated that as of 2018 there were more than 68,000 genetic tests on the market. 2475: 2105: 2181: 3571: 3549: 2200: 3174: 467:

of chromosome structure and diagnosis of genetic disorders that involved large structural rearrangements. In addition to analyzing whole chromosomes (

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prohibits group health plans and health insurers from denying coverage to a healthy person or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a

3275: 1950: 856:. As of 2019, the tests that have received marketing authorization by the FDA include 23andMe's genetic health risk reports for select variants of 2989: 2771: 3890: 966:, have conducted public DNA surveys in an effort to better understand global ancestry and heritage. In 2005, National Geographic launched the 3828: 1514: 817:

DNA studies have been criticised for a range of methodological problems and providing misleading, interpretations on racial classifications.

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uses a small brush or cotton swab to collect a sample of cells from the inside surface of the cheek. Alternatively, a small amount of saline

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change in the DNA sequence, however the increase for cancer is unclear because it is unknown if the change affects the gene's function.

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Newborn screening can detect the presence of PKU, allowing children to be placed on special diets to avoid the effects of the disorder.

374: 3105: 848:, and downstream expenses for the public health care system. In the United States, most DTC genetic test kits are not reviewed by the 2328: 984: 864:

reports that test for selected variants associated with metabolism of certain pharmaceutical compounds, a carrier screening test for

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This article is about genetic tests for disease and ancestry or biological relationships. For use in genealogy and archaeology, see

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Holtzman NA, Murphy PD, Watson MS, Barr PA (October 1997). "Predictive genetic testing: from basic research to clinical practice".

840:. Possible benefits of DTC genetic testing are the accessibility of tests to consumers, promotion of proactive healthcare, and the 4652: 4336: 3019: 2942: 1819: 1794: 2363: 2338: 3049: 2304: 2291: 4552: 4542: 1490: 1332:"UC Davis Veterinary Genetics Laboratory | Animal DNA testing | forensic testing | animal genetic research and diagnostics" 1190: 1100: 3489: 2731: 3349: 4493: 2137:

King E, Mahon SM (October 2017). "Genetic Testing: Challenges and Changes in Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes".

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to developing a disease in the future. The legislation also bars employers from using genetic information when making

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losing the pregnancy (miscarriage) because they require a sample of amniotic fluid or tissue from around the fetus.

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Hunter DJ, Khoury MJ, Drazen JM (January 2008). "Letting the genome out of the bottle--will we get our wish?".

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There are a variety of DTC genetic tests, ranging from tests for breast cancer alleles to mutations linked to

247: 4532: 4527: 4273: 4189: 3845: 3754: 2709: 2406:"Where are you going, where have you been: a recent history of the direct-to-consumer genetic testing market" 2124: 484: 17: 889:, the potential reselling of genetic data to third parties, and the overall lack of governmental oversight. 4637: 4029: 3936: 3814: 3785: 3598: 849: 1900: 4537: 4163: 4148: 4092: 4083: 4034: 3959: 3900: 3885: 1064: 811: 2679: 1958: 4194: 4100: 3995: 3867: 3858: 3614: 3001: 2811: 983:

With regard to genetic testing and information in general, legislation in the United States called the

136: 3177:[The UAE promises to complete the strategic health project for the country’s people in 2021]. 4647: 4389: 4331: 4235: 4170: 4153: 4064: 3918: 2267:"The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians" In Egypt in Africa 1215: 996: 639: 360: 2571:"Valuable Genomes: Taxonomy and Archetypes of Business Models in Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing" 2379: 1281: 2997: 154: 2965: 2785: 1522: 3749: 3682: 4039: 762:. The laboratory reports the test results in writing to a person's doctor or genetic counselor. 4642: 1200: 988: 873: 787: 604: 2622:"Policy Guidance for Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing Services: Framework Development Study" 402:

structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as

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screening tests are done on a small blood sample obtained by pricking the baby's heel with a

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which can identify changes at the level of individual genes, parts of genes, or even single

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output. In a medical setting, genetic testing can be used to diagnose or rule out suspected

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Antoniou A, Pharoah PD, Narod S, Risch HA, Eyfjord JE, Hopper JL, et al. (May 2003).

8: 4473: 4405: 4343: 4207: 3837: 3723: 3697: 3672: 3656: 1230: 1175: 967: 963: 536: 423: 302: 282: 217: 174: 168: 159: 131: 2656: 2088:"You have a genetic disorder: Should your family be told they might carry the mutation?" 1396: 59: 4351: 4202: 3448: 3423: 3401: 3218: 3193: 2919: 2894: 2839: 2694: 2597: 2570: 2430: 2405: 2327:

Eltis D, Bradley KR, Perry C, Engerman SL, Cartledge P, Richardson D (12 August 2021).

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Fallat ME, Katz AL, Mercurio MR, Moon MR, Okun AL, Webb SA, et al. (March 2013).

3308:. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. 4588: 4478: 4468: 3677: 3637: 3565: 3518: 3453: 3393: 3323: 3313: 3223: 3160: 2924: 2831: 2661: 2643: 2602: 2551: 2516: 2435: 2359: 2334: 2270: 2239: 2154: 2068: 1989: 1879: 1779: 1767: 1668: 1643: 1584: 1472: 1418: 1122: 868:, and genetic health risk reports for a handful of other medical conditions, such as 746: 745:(the fluid that surrounds a fetus during pregnancy), or other tissue. For example, a 705: 684: 554: 444: 419: 347: 232: 111: 3977: 3519:"What is the cost of genetic testing, and how long does it take to get the results?" 3405: 3133:

Articles 10 and 11 of the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 No. 152-FZ "On Personal Data"

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Nisbet MC (2019). "DNA Is Not Destiny: Challenging the Hype over Genetic Testing".

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Effective as of 25 May 2018, companies that process genetic data must abide by the

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What is the cost of genetic testing, and how long does it take to get the results?

2235: 2182:"Personal gene maps: Is there such a thing as too much information about our DNA?" 1628: 4294: 4253: 4212: 4122: 3687: 1580: 959: 886: 869: 841: 837: 665: 590: 586: 558: 456: 407: 3303: 1763: 1749: 1698: 4436: 4431: 4366: 4356: 4268: 4105: 4069: 3280: 3054: 3024: 1009: 865: 759: 742: 569: 562: 287: 212: 2421: 4631: 4611: 4488: 4426: 4243: 4132: 4019: 2835: 2680:"Limitations of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising for Clinical Genetic Testing," 2647: 2569:

Thiebes S, Toussaint PA, Ju J, Ahn JH, Lyytinen K, Sunyaev A (January 2020).

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Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches

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Hunter ME, Hoban SM, Bruford MW, Segelbacher G, Bernatchez L (August 2018).

459:). In the 1970s, a method to stain specific regions of chromosomes, called 4400: 4299: 4278: 4127: 3949: 3457: 3397: 3388: 3371: 3327: 3276:"Want to fully understand your family genealogy? Not without a court order" 3227: 2928: 2665: 2606: 2555: 2520: 2439: 2158: 2072: 1883: 1771: 1647: 1476: 1422: 1235: 1008:

on April 24, 2008, on a vote of 95–0, and was signed into law by President

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Durmaz AA, Karaca E, Demkow U, Toruner G, Schoumans J, Cogulu O (2015).

634:, however. One method of performing a prenatal genetic test involves an 4304: 3967: 1104: 939: 795:(GINA) (see discussion below in the section on government regulation). 630:

the pregnancy. It cannot identify all possible inherited disorders and

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Genetic testing has also been taken on by private companies, such as

908: 754: 704: – used to determine ancestry or ethnic heritage for 520: 516: 464: 460: 164: 3606: 3209: 3175:"الإمارات تعد بإنجاز المشروع الصحي الاستراتيجي لأبنــاء الدولة 2021" 1795:"Genetic testing Why it's done - Tests and Procedures - Mayo Clinic" 4606: 4573: 4376: 4371: 4248: 3507:

Is It Possible to Make Aliyah to Israel on the Basis of a DNA Test?

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10.1002/1520-6505(2001)10:1<34::AID-EVAN1011>3.0.CO;2-P

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Assessing Genetic Risks: Implications for Health and Social Policy

2943:"Kennedy in support of genetic information nondiscrimination bill" 2638: 2587: 2269:. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 20–33. 1515:"NIH Fact Sheets - Genetic Testing: How it is Used for Healthcare" 612: 4601: 4578: 4158: 3908: 3880: 3875: 3651: 3247: 1160: 1059: 951: 853: 766: 573: 415: 3424:"Genetic citizenship: DNA testing and the Israeli Law of Return" 3301: 2966:"Genetic Discrimination by Insurers, Employers Becomes a Crime" 1895: 1893: 1664:

Beischer & MacKay's Obstetrics, Gynaecology and the Newborn

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strategies for many genetic disorders once they are diagnosed.

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Audeh MW (May 2008). "Letting the genome out of the bottle".

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Candelora D, Ben-Marzouk N, Cooney K, eds. (31 August 2022).

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Onstwedder SM, Jansen ME, Cornel MC, Rigter T (2024-07-17).

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information, health and trait-related information, or both.

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Andrews LB, Fullarton JE, Holtzman NA, Motulsky AG (1994).

1612:"Recent advances in prenatal genetic screening and testing" 1084: 1012:

on May 21, 2008. It went into effect on November 21, 2009.

852:, with the exception of a few tests offered by the company 738: 734: 616:

Small amounts of the chorionic villi are sampled during CVS

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for clinical purposes." It can provide information about a

3106:"It's your Data - Take Control: Data Protection in the EU" 2358:. Abingdon, Oxon: Taylor & Francis. pp. 101–122. 2353: 2828:

10.3398/1527-0904(2008)68[260:daitgp]2.0.co;2

2753:"Estonia offering 100,000 residents free genetic testing" 2326: 1847: 1438: 1186:

Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis to avoid birth defects

500: 471:), genetic testing has expanded to include the fields of 403: 395: 86: 81: 3472:"'Who is a Jew?' can now be answered by genetic testing" 2892: 2020:"What are the risks and limitations of genetic testing?" 1566: 1660: 1079:

Three to five percent of the funding available for the

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What are the risks and limitations of genetic testing?

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United States Department of Health and Human Services

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United States Department of Health and Human Services

2786:"At-home DNA test kits for 2022 | Medical News Today" 2568: 820: 3891:

List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn

3490:"Should Jewishness be determined by a genetic test?" 1731:. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research 1693: 1691: 3076:"Processing of special categories of personal data" 2121:"Genetic Information and Medical Expense Insurance" 2039:"The right not to know: an autonomy based approach" 1824:

John A. Haugen Associates Obstetrics and Gynecology

2893:Chapman CR, Mehta KS, Parent B, Caplan AL (2020). 2533: 2386:. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US) 1705:. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US) 608:without abnormalities are implanted in the uterus. 2403: 1979: 1901:"Genetic Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes" 1688: 4629: 3350:"New Guidelines for Genetic Testing in Children" 2463:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2018-11-03. 2404:Borry P, Cornel MC, Howard HC (September 2010). 2217: 1544:"10 New Genetic Tests Reach the Market Each Day" 654:. For example, an individual with a mutation in 435:, or be used to broadly predict an individual's 3421: 3050:"Justices Allow DNA Collection After an Arrest" 919: 622: – used to detect changes in a 2858:"Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism" 2289: 2106:"Insurance Fears Lead Many to Shun DNA Tests," 1609: 3822: 3622: 3365: 3363: 2380:"What is direct-to-consumer genetic testing?" 2292:"Apportionment of racial diversity: A review" 1973: 1792: 1722: 1434: 1432: 1308:"The limits of ancestry DNA tests, explained" 507:in order to detect heritable disease-related 483:"letters" of DNA sequence. According to the 368: 2886: 2527: 2492: 2451: 2449: 1986:Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News 1090: 4464:Detection of genetically modified organisms 3142: 2874: 2698:. Vol. 43, no. 4. pp. 28–30. 2179: 2085: 2014: 2012: 2010: 1560: 729:Genetic tests are performed on a sample of 463:, was developed that allowed more detailed 3829: 3815: 3629: 3615: 3360: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3020:"Justices, 9-0, Bar Patenting Human Genes" 2935: 2769: 1907:. National Institute of Health. 2013-04-22 1661:Permezel M, Walker S, Kyprianou K (2015). 1429: 945: 644:percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling 551:Newborn heel-prick blood sample collection 527:'s genes and chromosomes throughout life. 375: 361: 3447: 3387: 3217: 3198:Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine 3194:"Genetics and genomic medicine in Israel" 3191: 3185: 2918: 2655: 2637: 2596: 2586: 2446: 2429: 2303: 2136: 2062: 1873: 1637: 1627: 1491:"Karyotyping | Learn Science at Scitable" 1466: 1456: 1412: 985:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act 793:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act 687: – uses DNA sequences to 678: 3341: 2198: 2007: 1667:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 74. 1356:"Selective breeding and gene technology" 1074: 1019: 973: 907:, a company providing DTC DNA tests for 776: 611: 603:prior to the implantation as part of an 546: 3836: 3347: 3093: 2721: 2461:Center for Drug Evaluation and Research 2264: 2220:"Race and Three Models of Human Origin" 2036: 1305: 1085:social, ethical, and legal implications 978: 14: 4630: 3273: 3044: 3014: 2691: 2330:The Cambridge World History of Slavery 3810: 3636: 3610: 3422:McGonigle IV, Herman LW (July 2015). 2809: 2498: 1654: 1610:Van den Veyver IB (28 October 2016). 1252: 1250: 911:purposes, has reportedly allowed the 561:(PKU, a genetic disorder that causes 530: 3240: 2963: 2626:Journal of Medical Internet Research 2575:Journal of Medical Internet Research 2139:Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing 1955:Cancer Treatment Centers for America 1191:Elective genetic and genomic testing 1101:American College of Medical Genetics 716: 495:Genetic testing is "the analysis of 431:(genetic mother and father) through 3494:The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com 3476:The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com 2957: 2536:The New England Journal of Medicine 2501:The New England Journal of Medicine 2473: 2180:Wendelsdorf K (17 September 2013). 1980:Allingham-Hawkins D (August 2008). 24: 4494:Genetic use restriction technology 3428:Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2899:Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2881:Statement of Administration policy 1854:American Journal of Human Genetics 1817: 1247: 1026:General Data Protection Regulation 850:Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 821:Direct-to-consumer genetic testing 25: 4669: 3243:"A Different Kind of Inheritance" 2994:Kaiser Daily Health Policy Report 2816:Western North American Naturalist 2507:(20): 2184–5, author reply 2185. 1145: 1004:United States, was passed by the 597:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis 394:, is used to identify changes in 3559: This article incorporates 3554: 3537: This article incorporates 3532: 3161:10.34822/2312-3419-2021-1-91-100 2218:Lieberman L, Jackson FL (1995). 2086:Wendelsdorf K (1 October 2013). 1221:List of genetic genealogy topics 1083:was set aside to study the many 599: – performed on 342: 341: 228: 227: 58: 4512:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 3693:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms 3511: 3500: 3482: 3464: 3415: 3348:Rochman B (February 21, 2013). 3295: 3267: 3234: 3167: 3149:Surgut State University Journal 3136: 3127: 3068: 3038: 3008: 2982: 2850: 2803: 2778: 2770:Nesathurai A (April 11, 2018). 2763: 2745: 2715: 2702: 2685: 2672: 2613: 2562: 2467: 2397: 2372: 2347: 2320: 2290:Brown RA, Armelagos GJ (2001). 2283: 2258: 2211: 2192: 2173: 2130: 2114: 2098: 2079: 2030: 1943: 1919: 1841: 1820:"The Facts on Prenatal Testing" 1811: 1786: 1743: 1716: 1603: 1536: 4653:Alternatives to animal testing 3796:Human Genome Diversity Project 2298:. 10, Issue 1 (34–40): 34–40. 1507: 1483: 1372: 1348: 1324: 1299: 1286:American Pregnancy Association 1274: 1097:American Academy of Pediatrics 879: 842:privacy of genetic information 13: 1: 4274:Somatic cell nuclear transfer 3755:Genome-wide association study 3181:(in Arabic). 4 December 2017. 3000:. 22 May 2008. 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For use in forensics, see 7: 1764:10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107266 1725:"Polycystic Kidney Disease" 1154: 447:in endangered populations. 10: 4674: 3192:Zlotogora J (March 2014). 2457:"Direct-to-Consumer Tests" 2037:Andorno R (October 2004). 1951:"Genomic Tumor Assessment" 1129:or health care providers. 443:, or for efforts to boost 31: 4597: 4566: 4520: 4502: 4449: 4419: 4387: 4332:Genetically modified food 4324: 4317: 4287: 4234: 4225: 4188: 4141: 4091: 4082: 4012: 3994: 3976: 3958: 3935: 3917: 3899: 3866: 3857: 3844: 3773: 3742: 3711: 3665: 3644: 3594:Resources in your library 2682:JAMA.2002; 288: 1762-1767 2422:10.1007/s12687-010-0023-z 2296:Evolutionary Anthropology 2043:Journal of Medical Ethics 1905:National Cancer Institute 1385:Evolutionary Applications 1216:List of genetic disorders 1132: 1091:Pediatric genetic testing 1044: 640:chorionic villus sampling 503:), proteins, and certain 406:analysis as an output of 2998:Kaiser Family Foundation 2790:www.medicalnewstoday.com 2728:The New Orleans Advocate 2205:Genetic Literacy Project 2186:Genetic Literacy Project 2092:Genetic Literacy Project 1306:Resnick B (2019-01-28). 490: 3750:Whole genome sequencing 3683:Human genetic variation 3523:Genetics Home Reference 3274:Keyser Z (2019-03-30). 2964:Keim B (May 21, 2008). 2384:Genetics Home Reference 2224:American Anthropologist 2151:10.1188/17.cjon.589-598 2055:10.1136/jme.2002.001578 2024:Genetics Home Reference 1752:Epilepsy & Behavior 1703:Genetics Home Reference 946:Private genetic testing 565:if left untreated) and 3561:public domain material 3539:public domain material 3389:10.1542/peds.2012-3680 3143:Mirolyubova S (2021). 1201:Full genome sequencing 989:genetic predisposition 874:late-onset Alzheimer's 788:genetic discrimination 689:identify an individual 679:Non-diagnostic testing 617: 605:in vitro fertilization 552: 4658:Personalized medicine 3945:Roundup ready soybean 3719:Personalized medicine 3310:Institute of Medicine 3241:Even D (2009-10-22). 2810:Duane J (June 2008). 1181:Personalized medicine 1075:Children and religion 1020:In the European Union 974:Government regulation 777:Risks and limitations 722:test after obtaining 702:Genealogical DNA test 615: 550: 433:DNA paternity testing 328:Personalized medicine 322:Personalized medicine 185:Quantitative genetics 180:Mendelian inheritance 34:genealogical DNA test 4484:Reverse transfection 4259:Genetic transduction 3791:1000 Genomes Project 3781:Human Genome Project 3729:Genetic epidemiology 2548:10.1056/NEJMp0708162 1107:genetic testing and 1081:Human Genome Project 1006:United States Senate 999:, job placement, or 979:In the United States 936:healthier lifestyles 810:Other risks include 692:example, paternity). 429:biological parentage 414:to measure specific 412:biochemical analysis 248:Branches of genetics 4638:Genetics techniques 4474:Genetics in fiction 4406:Genetic enhancement 4208:Hepatitis B vaccine 3838:Genetic engineering 3743:Analysis techniques 3724:Predictive medicine 3698:Identity by descent 3673:Biological specimen 3657:Biological database 3496:. 25 November 2017. 3113:European Commission 2513:10.1056/nejmc086053 2111:, February 24, 2008 1961:on 19 November 2016 1793:Mayo Clinic Staff. 1723:Mayo Clinic Staff. 1699:"Newborn Screening" 1458:10.1155/2015/461524 1397:2018EvApp..11.1029H 1336:www.vgl.ucdavis.edu 1282:"Paternity Testing" 1231:Non-paternity event 1176:Genographic Project 968:Genographic Project 964:National Geographic 812:incidental findings 572:(a disorder of the 537:Cell-free fetal DNA 218:Genetic engineering 175:Population genetics 46:Part of a series on 4584:Stem cell research 4203:Ice-minus bacteria 3440:10.1093/jlb/lsv027 2911:10.1093/jlb/lsz016 2695:Skeptical Inquirer 2265:Celenko T (1996). 2109:The New York Times 1211:Genetic counseling 1127:genetic counselors 1119:genetic counseling 1114:direct-to-consumer 1065:Ministry of Health 940:preventative drugs 913:warrantless search 830:genetic counselors 826:Direct-to-consumer 620:Prenatal diagnosis 618: 581:Diagnostic testing 553: 531:Diagnostic testing 473:molecular genetics 461:chromosome banding 441:selective breeding 190:Molecular genetics 149:History and topics 4625: 4624: 4589:Synthetic biology 4479:Human enhancement 4469:Genetic pollution 4445: 4444: 4313: 4312: 4221: 4220: 4184: 4183: 4078: 4077: 3804: 3803: 3678:De-identification 3638:Personal genomics 3580:Library resources 3478:. 3 October 2017. 3018:(June 13, 2013), 2759:. March 20, 2018. 2365:978-0-367-43463-2 2340:978-0-521-84067-5 1927:"Genetic Testing" 1575:(5338): 602–605. 1405:10.1111/eva.12661 1258:"Genetic testing" 1123:clinical genetics 747:medical procedure 717:Medical procedure 706:genetic genealogy 696:Paternity testing 555:Newborn screening 455:) or monosomy X ( 445:genetic diversity 420:genetic disorders 385: 384: 112:Genetic variation 16:(Redirected from 4665: 4648:Medical genetics 4362:Dow AgroSciences 4322: 4321: 4232: 4231: 4089: 4088: 3864: 3863: 3855: 3854: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3808: 3807: 3734:Pharmacogenomics 3703:Genetic disorder 3631: 3624: 3617: 3608: 3607: 3575: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3536: 3535: 3527: 3526: 3515: 3509: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3451: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3391: 3367: 3358: 3357: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3251:. Archived from 3238: 3232: 3231: 3221: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3110: 3102: 3091: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3048:(June 3, 2013), 3042: 3036: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3012: 3006: 3005: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2976: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2939: 2933: 2932: 2922: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2797: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2730:. Archived from 2719: 2713: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2689: 2683: 2678:Gollust et al., 2676: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2641: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2600: 2590: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2453: 2444: 2443: 2433: 2401: 2395: 2394: 2392: 2391: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2307: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2177: 2171: 2170: 2134: 2128: 2118: 2112: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2083: 2077: 2076: 2066: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2016: 2005: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1938: 1937: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1897: 1888: 1887: 1877: 1860:(5): 1117–1130. 1845: 1839: 1838: 1836: 1835: 1826:. Archived from 1815: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1805: 1790: 1784: 1783: 1747: 1741: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1720: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1710: 1695: 1686: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1641: 1631: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1554: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1531: 1530: 1521:. 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2031: 2018: 2017: 2008: 1998: 1996: 1978: 1974: 1964: 1962: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1935: 1933: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1910: 1908: 1899: 1898: 1891: 1846: 1842: 1833: 1831: 1816: 1812: 1803: 1801: 1791: 1787: 1748: 1744: 1734: 1732: 1721: 1717: 1708: 1706: 1697: 1696: 1689: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1659: 1655: 1608: 1604: 1565: 1561: 1552: 1550: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1528: 1526: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1499: 1497: 1489: 1488: 1484: 1437: 1430: 1377: 1373: 1364: 1362: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1340: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1316: 1314: 1304: 1300: 1291: 1289: 1280: 1279: 1275: 1266: 1264: 1256: 1255: 1248: 1244: 1157: 1148: 1135: 1093: 1077: 1056: 1047: 1034: 1022: 981: 976: 960:Family Tree DNA 948: 927: 922: 882: 862:pharmacogenetic 846:privacy of data 838:cystic fibrosis 823: 779: 719: 681: 666:hemochromatosis 591:cystic fibrosis 587:Carrier testing 559:phenylketonuria 533: 493: 457:Turner syndrome 451:as trisomy 21 ( 408:gene expression 388:Genetic testing 381: 340: 333: 332: 323: 315: 314: 313: 312: 261: 253: 252: 244: 222: 203: 195: 194: 150: 142: 141: 128: 127: 126: 70: 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4671: 4661: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4570: 4568: 4567:Similar fields 4564: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4524: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4514: 4508: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4455: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4437:Gene targeting 4434: 4432:Gene knockdown 4429: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4397: 4395: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4367:DuPont Pioneer 4364: 4359: 4354: 4346: 4341: 4340: 4339: 4328: 4326: 4325:In agriculture 4319: 4315: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4291: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4269:Microinjection 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4240: 4238: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4199: 4197: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4179: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4151: 4145: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4106:Knockout mouse 4097: 4095: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3982: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3964: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3941: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3923: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3905: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3872: 3870: 3861: 3852: 3842: 3841: 3834: 3833: 3826: 3819: 3811: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3777: 3775: 3774:Major projects 3771: 3770: 3768: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3715: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3669: 3667: 3666:Field concepts 3663: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3654: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3641: 3634: 3633: 3626: 3619: 3611: 3602: 3601: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3578: 3577: 3529: 3528: 3510: 3499: 3481: 3463: 3434:(2): 469–478. 3414: 3382:(3): 620–622. 3359: 3340: 3318: 3294: 3281:Jerusalem Post 3266: 3233: 3184: 3166: 3155:(31): 91–100. 3135: 3126: 3092: 3067: 3055:New York Times 3037: 3025:New York Times 3007: 3004:on 2009-03-29. 2981: 2956: 2934: 2885: 2873: 2849: 2822:(2): 260–261. 2802: 2777: 2762: 2744: 2714: 2701: 2684: 2671: 2612: 2561: 2542:(2): 105–107. 2526: 2491: 2466: 2445: 2416:(3): 101–106. 2396: 2371: 2364: 2346: 2339: 2319: 2282: 2275: 2257: 2230:(2): 231–242. 2210: 2191: 2172: 2145:(5): 589–598. 2129: 2113: 2097: 2078: 2049:(5): 435–439. 2029: 2006: 1972: 1942: 1918: 1889: 1866:10.1086/375033 1840: 1810: 1785: 1742: 1715: 1687: 1673: 1653: 1602: 1559: 1535: 1519:report.nih.gov 1506: 1495:www.nature.com 1482: 1428: 1371: 1347: 1323: 1298: 1273: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1156: 1153: 1147: 1146:Costs and time 1144: 1134: 1131: 1099:(AAP) and the 1092: 1089: 1076: 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Bush 980: 977: 975: 972: 947: 944: 926: 923: 921: 918: 881: 878: 870:celiac disease 866:Bloom syndrome 822: 819: 778: 775: 760:DNA sequencing 743:amniotic fluid 718: 715: 714: 713: 709: 699: 693: 680: 677: 676: 675: 669: 647: 609: 594: 584: 578: 570:hypothyroidism 563:mental illness 544: 532: 529: 492: 489: 383: 382: 380: 379: 372: 365: 357: 354: 353: 352: 351: 335: 334: 331: 330: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 311: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 288:Immunogenetics 285: 280: 275: 270: 264: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 254: 251: 250: 243: 242: 237: 220: 215: 213:DNA sequencing 210: 204: 201: 200: 197: 196: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 162: 157: 151: 148: 147: 144: 143: 140: 139: 134: 125: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 73: 72: 71: 69:Key components 68: 67: 64: 63: 55: 54: 48: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4670: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4643:Medical tests 4641: 4639: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4612:Biotechnology 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4596: 4590: 4587: 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