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702:. While the physical map could be a more accurate representation of the genome, genetic maps often offer insights into the nature of different regions of the chromosome, for example the genetic distance to physical distance ratio varies greatly at different genomic regions which reflects different recombination rates, and such rate is often indicative of euchromatic (usually gene-rich) vs heterochromatic (usually gene-poor) regions of the genome.
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670:) include physical mapping and genetic mapping. Physical mapping utilizes molecular biology techniques to inspect chromosomes. These techniques consequently allow researchers to observe chromosomes directly so that a map may be constructed with relative gene positions. Genetic mapping on the other hand uses genetic techniques to indirectly find association between genes. Techniques can include cross-breeding (
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recorded for both parents and each individual in the following generations. The quality of the genetic maps is largely dependent upon these factors: the number of genetic markers on the map and the size of the mapping population. The two factors are interlinked, as a larger mapping population could increase the "resolution" of the map and prevent the map from being "saturated".
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same way as if they are common markers and the actual gene loci are then bracketed in a region between the two nearest neighboring markers. The entire process is then repeated by looking at more markers that target that region to map the gene neighborhood to a higher resolution until a specific causative locus can be identified. This process is often referred to as "
735:
two genes is measured in units known as centimorgan or map units, these terms are interchangeable. A centimorgan is a distance between genes for which one product of meiosis in one hundred is recombinant. The farther two genes are from each other, the more likely they are going to recombine. If it were closer, the opposite would occur.
923:. By attaching fluorochromes to probes, researchers are able to visualize multiple DNA sequences simultaneously. When a probe comes into contact with DNA on a specific chromosome, hybridization will occur. Consequently, information regarding the location of that sequence of DNA will be attained. FISH analyzes single stranded DNA (
845:, which provides one with information regarding the size of these digested fragments. The sizes of these fragments help indicate the distance between restriction enzyme sites on the DNA analyzed, and provides researchers with information regarding the structure of DNA analyzed. The resulting pattern of DNA migration – its
821:
Since actual base-pair distances are generally hard or not possible to directly measure, physical maps are actually constructed by first shattering the genome into hierarchically smaller pieces. By characterizing each single piece and assembling back together, the overlapping path or "tiling path" of
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and a mapping population. The closer two markers are on the chromosome, the more likely they are to be passed on to the next generation together. Therefore, the "co-segregation" patterns of all markers can be used to reconstruct their order. With this in mind, the genotypes of each genetic marker are
722:
In gene mapping, any sequence feature that can be faithfully distinguished from the two parents can be used as a genetic marker. Genes, in this regard, are represented by "traits" that can be faithfully distinguished between two parents. Their linkage with other genetic markers is calculated in the
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Researchers begin a genetic map by collecting samples of blood, saliva, or tissue from family members that carry a prominent disease or trait and family members that do not. The most common sample used in gene mapping, especially in personal genomic tests is saliva. Scientists then isolate DNA from
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Using the methods mentioned above, researchers are capable of mapping disease genes. Generating a gene map is the critical first step towards identifying disease genes. Gene maps allow for variant alleles to be identified and allow for researchers to make predictions about the genes they think are
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Genetic mapping is a way to identify exactly which chromosome has which gene and exactly pinpointing where that gene lies on that particular chromosome. Mapping also acts as a method in determining which gene is most likely to recombine based on the distance between two genes. The distance between
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of the gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of its encoded protein. Thus the genetic code was shown to be a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. They also obtained evidence that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence
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onto their respective positions on the genome. Molecular markers come in all forms. Genes can be viewed as one special type of genetic markers in the construction of genome maps, and mapped the same way as any other markers. In some areas of study, gene mapping contributes to the creation of new
1031:
resembles the process of physical mapping: it shatters the genome into small fragments, characterizes each fragment, then puts them back together (more recent sequencing technologies are drastically different). While the scope, purpose and process are totally different, a genome assembly can be
1011:
Edgar et al. performed mapping experiments with r mutants of bacteriophage T4 showing that recombination frequencies between rII mutants are not strictly additive. The recombination frequency from a cross of two rII mutants (a x d) is usually less than the sum of recombination frequencies for
908:, which provides one with information regarding the size of these digested fragments. The sizes of these fragments help indicate the distance between restriction enzyme sites on the DNA analyzed, and provides researchers with information regarding the structure of DNA analyzed.
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the samples and closely examine it, looking for unique patterns in the DNA of the family members who do carry the disease and the DNA of those who do not carry the disease do not have. These unique molecular patterns in the DNA are referred to as polymorphisms, or markers.
804:
Gene association analysis is population based; it is not focused on inheritance patterns, but rather is based on the entire history of a population. Gene association analysis looks at a particular population and tries to identify whether the frequency of an
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Identification of genes is usually the first step in understanding a genome of a species; mapping of the gene is usually the first step of identification of the gene. Gene mapping is usually the starting point of many important downstream studies.
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in a group of clones overlaps without completely sequencing the clones. Once the map is determined, the clones can be used as a resource to efficiently contain large stretches of the genome. This type of mapping is more accurate than genetic maps.
869:. By this approach, physical map contigs can be "anchored" onto a genetic map. The clones used in the physical map contigs can then be sequenced on a local scale to help new genetic marker design and identification of the causative loci.
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to find the distance between other genes on a chromosome. Maps provide researchers with the opportunity to predict the inheritance patterns of specific traits, which can eventually lead to a better understanding of disease-linked traits.
1179:. For example, with Cystic Fibrosis (CF), DNA samples from fifty families affected by CF were analyzed using linkage analysis. Hundreds of markers pertaining to CF were analyzed throughout the genome until CF was identified on the
864:
In physical mapping, there are no direct ways of marking up a specific gene since the mapping does not include any information that concerns traits and functions. Genetic markers can be linked to a physical map by processes like
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of chromosome 7. Researchers then had completed linkage analysis on additional DNA markers within chromosome 7 to identify an even more precise location of the CF gene. They found that the CF gene resides around 7q31-q32 (see
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that help cut segments of DNA at specific recognition sequences. The basis to restriction mapping involves digesting (or cutting) DNA with restriction enzymes. The digested DNA fragments are then run on an agarose gel using
840:
that help cut segments of DNA at specific recognition sequences. The basis to restriction mapping involves digesting (or cutting) DNA with restriction enzymes. The digested DNA fragments are then run on an agarose gel using
943:
in length) that is seen to appear multiple times within an individual's genome. These sites are easily recognizable, usually appearing at least once in the DNA being analyzed. These sites usually contain genetic
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in affected individuals is different from that of a control set of unaffected individuals of the same population. This method is particularly useful to identify complex diseases that do not have a
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adjacent internal sub-intervals (a x b) + (b x c) + (c x d). Although not strictly additive, a systematic relationship was demonstrated that likely reflects the underlying molecular mechanism of
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making them sources of viable genetic markers (as they differ from other sequences). Sequenced tagged sites can be mapped within our genome and require a group of overlapping DNA fragments.
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are assembled by automated (FPC) or manual means (pathfinders) into overlapping DNA stretches. Now a good choice of clones can be made to efficiently sequence the clones to determine the
919:(FISH) is a method used to detect the presence (or absence) of a DNA sequence within a cell. DNA probes that are specific for chromosomal regions or genes of interest are labeled with
686:
There are two distinctive mapping approaches used in the field of genome mapping: genetic maps (also known as linkage maps) and physical maps. While both maps are a collection of
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between STSs can be analyzed. In order to calculate the map distance between STSs, researchers determine the frequency at which breaks between the two markers occur (see
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Macrorestriction is a type of physical mapping wherein the high molecular weight DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme having a low number of restriction sites.
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viewed as the "ultimate" form of physical map, in that it provides in a much better way all the information that a traditional physical map can offer.
999:
In 1961, Francis Crick, Leslie
Barnett, Sydney Brenner and Richard Watts-Tobin performed genetic experiments that demonstrated the basic nature of the
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for proteins. These experiments, involving mapping of mutational sites within the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4, demonstrated that three sequential
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could be mapped in a linear order. This result provided evidence for the key idea that the gene has a linear structure equivalent to a length of
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is also referred to as "mapping". If the locus in which the search is performed is already considerably constrained, the search is called the
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Hartwell, Leland H.; Hood, Leroy; Goldberg, Michael L.; Reynolds, Anne E.; Silver, Lee M.; Karagiannis, Jim; Papaconstantinou, Maria (2014).
727:", and it is used extensively in the study of plant species. One plant species, in particular in which positional cloning is utilized is in
731:. The great advantage of genetic mapping is that it can identify the relative position of genes based solely on their phenotypic effect.
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678:. These technique allow for maps to be constructed so that relative positions of genes and other important sequences can be analyzed.
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characteristics on the second
Drosophila chromosome. The distance between the genes (map units) are equal to the percentage of
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655:. A gene map helps point out the relative positions of genes and allows researchers to locate regions of interest in the
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and the distances between genes. Gene mapping can also describe the distances between different sites within a gene.
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1980:
Crick FH, Barnett L, Brenner S, Watts-Tobin RJ (December 1961). "General nature of the genetic code for proteins".
1289:. Bethesda, MD: Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications, an Intramural Research Division of the
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of diseases. Because linkage analysis can identify inheritance patterns, these studies are usually family based.
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of a gene. This information is derived from the investigation of disease manifestations in large families (
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is generally used to produce the collection of DNA fragments. After overlapping fragments are created, the
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The genetic basis to gene maps is to provide an outline that can potentially help researchers carry out
1766:"The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association"
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Ladejobi O, Elderfield J, Gardner KA, Gaynor RC, Hickey J, Hibberd JM, et al. (December 2016).
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these small fragments would allow researchers to infer physical distances between genomic features.
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2115:"Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension"
1627:"Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension"
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The earliest gene maps were done by linkage analysis of fruitflies, in the research group around
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Aguilera-Galvez C, Champouret N, Rietman H, Lin X, Wouters D, Chu Z, et al. (March 2018).
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information, while physical maps use actual physical distances usually measured in number of
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is understanding chromosomal location and identifying disease genes. Certain genes that are
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is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "genome mapping" by non-biologists. The process of
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927:). Once the DNA is in its single stranded state, the DNA can bind to its specific probe.
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or associated with each other reside close to each other on the same chromosome. During
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Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, et al. (2017-04-01).
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encoding a protein, and that such a sequence is read from a fixed starting point.
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Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, et al. (2018).
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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phenotype. An example of a disorder that was identified by
Linkage analysis is
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1829:(Canadian ed.). Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. pp. 456–459, 635–636.
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and arranged like beads on a string. During 1955 to 1959, Benzer performed
588:, segments with labels on the outside are on the A strand. Notches indicate
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639:. Genes are designated to a specific location on a chromosome known as the
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2015:
Edgar RS, Feynman RP, Klein S, Lielausis I, Steinberg CM (February 1962).
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Nussbaum, Robert L.; McInnes, Roderick R.; Wilard, Huntington F. (2016).
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1070: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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The process to identify a genetic element that is responsible for a
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988:. He found that, on the basis of recombination tests, the sites of
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is a method in which structural information regarding a segment of
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is a method in which structural information regarding a segment of
50:
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First genetic map (Sturtevant, 1913). It shows 6 sex-linked genes.
1397:(Eighth ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. pp. 178–187.
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The first steps of building a genetic map are the development of
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In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a
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584:. Segments with labels on the inside reside on the B strand of
62:
2066:"The additivity of intervals in the RIIA cistron of phage T4D"
1979:
1578:"Positional cloning in maize (Zea mays subsp. mays, Poaceae)"
1344:"Maximizing the potential of multi-parental crop populations"
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1633:. Advances in Crop Science: Innovation and Sustainability.
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2017:"Mapping experiments with r mutants of bacteriophage T4D"
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and confer distinct resistance specificities in potato"
1261:(Ninth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 209.
1884:"Fine structure of a genetic region in bacteriophage"
1753:. MBLWHOI Library. New Haven, Yale University Press;
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930:
911:
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help describe the spatial arrangement of genes on a
1674:Goldberg M, Fischer J, Hood L, Hartwell L (2020).
939:(STS) is a short sequence of DNA (about 100 - 500
849:is used to identify what stretch of DNA is in the
1575:
53:produced and provides important evidence for the
2246:
2231:"Canada's Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre"
2063:
1933:"On the topology of the genetic fine structure"
1858:"Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization Fact Sheet"
1678:. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. pp. 125–128.
996:with many sites that can independently mutate.
69:events that occurs between different alleles.
2008:
1973:
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1461:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1394:Thompson & Thompson Genetics in Medicine
875:There are alternative ways to determine how
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694:, genetic maps' distances are based on the
659:. Genes can then be identified quickly and
605:describes the methods used to identify the
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61:. The map shows the relative positions of
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1576:Gallavotti A, Whipple CJ (January 2015).
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1130:Learn how and when to remove this message
2213:National Human Genome Research Institute
2064:Fisher KM, Bernstein H (December 1965).
1807:
784:Genetic map of drosophila, published in
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666:Two approaches to generating gene maps (
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972:are discrete entities, indivisible by
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1348:Applied & Translational Genomics
1198:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
1068:adding citations to reliable sources
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624:mapping is to place a collection of
1441:. Manchester, UK: Garland Science.
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796:. The first was published in 1913.
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931:Sequence-tagged site (STS) mapping
917:Fluorescence in situ hybridization
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27:Process of locating specific genes
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1291:U.S. National Library of Medicine
912:Fluorescent in situ hybridization
853:. By analyzing the fingerprints,
629:recombinants within an organism.
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49:. This was the first successful
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1826:Genetics: From Genes to Genomes
1773:Journal of Experimental Zoology
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1676:Genetics: From Genes to Genomes
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1283:"Gene mapping - Glossary Entry"
1055:needs additional citations for
55:Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory
1699:Pulst, Stefan M. (June 1999).
1582:Applications in Plant Sciences
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1:
2233:. Vancouver, British Columbia
2217:National Institutes of Health
2132:10.1080/1828051X.2018.1462110
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861:of the organism under study.
2209:"Genetic Mapping Fact Sheet"
1747:Morgan, Thomas Hunt (1926).
1563:"Genetic Mapping Fact Sheet"
1531:10.1016/j.simyco.2018.01.002
1163:) or from populations-based
674:) experiments and examining
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1435:Brown, Terence, A. (2002).
1191:
574:An interactive gene map of
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2175:Garland Science Publishing
2082:10.1093/genetics/52.6.1127
1931:Benzer S (November 1959).
1764:Sturtevant, A. H. (1913).
1701:"Genetic Linkage Analysis"
1507:gene loci co-evolved with
899:. Restriction enzymes are
836:. Restriction enzymes are
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225:replication origin regions
197:replication origin regions
2033:10.1093/genetics/47.2.179
1718:10.1001/archneur.56.6.667
1360:10.1016/j.atg.2016.10.002
800:Gene association analysis
1643:10.1016/j.cj.2016.06.003
1287:Genetics Home Reference]
1233:Quantitative trait locus
1186:chromosomal nomenclature
964:Mapping mutational sites
1949:10.1073/pnas.45.11.1607
40:Drosophila melanogaster
1882:Benzer S (June 1955).
1793:10.1002/jez.1400140104
1750:The theory of the gene
1513:Phytophthora infestans
1213:Genetic fingerprinting
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786:The theory of the gene
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533:atp-dependent protease
97:acetyl-CoA carboxylase
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2119:Pulmonary Circulation
1900:10.1073/pnas.41.6.344
1631:Pulmonary Circulation
1014:genetic recombination
978:genetic recombination
974:genetic recombination
867:in situ hybridization
811:Mendelian inheritance
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765:to help identify the
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1594:10.3732/apps.1400092
1223:Human Genome Project
1064:improve this article
937:sequence-tagged site
1785:1913JEZ....14...43S
1519:Studies in Mycology
1165:genetic association
1147:Disease association
897:restriction enzymes
889:Restriction mapping
884:Restriction mapping
847:genetic fingerprint
834:restriction enzymes
826:Restriction mapping
643:and can be used as
620:The essence of all
512:initiation factor 1
1029:shotgun sequencing
980:experiments using
958:shotgun sequencing
895:is obtained using
832:is obtained using
794:Thomas Hunt Morgan
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755:genetically linked
725:positional cloning
682:Mapping approaches
540:ribosomal proteins
519:ribosomal proteins
505:ribosomal proteins
484:nadh dehydrogenase
463:nadh dehydrogenase
330:ribosomal proteins
316:nadh dehydrogenase
274:ribosomal proteins
183:ribosomal proteins
176:nadh dehydrogenase
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35:Thomas Hunt Morgan
2169:Brown TA (2007).
1994:10.1038/1921227a0
1836:978-0-07-094669-9
1685:978-1-260-24087-0
1404:978-1-4377-0696-3
1268:978-0-07-325839-3
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1025:Genome sequencing
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645:molecular markers
626:molecular markers
581:Nicotiana tabacum
555:nicotiana tabacum
477:ribosomal protein
449:ribosomal protein
386:ribosomal protein
365:ribosomal protein
218:ribosomal protein
16:(Redirected from
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2185:
2164:
2162:Further reading
2159:
2158:
2111:
2107:
2062:
2058:
2013:
2009:
1978:
1974:
1943:(11): 1607–20.
1929:
1925:
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1556:
1503:"Two different
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
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1424:
1414:
1412:
1411:on 4 March 2016
1405:
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1312:
1305:
1296:
1294:
1281:
1280:
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1255:
1251:
1246:
1228:Optical mapping
1194:
1177:Cystic Fibrosis
1161:genetic linkage
1149:
1136:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1073:
1071:
1061:
1049:
1038:
1022:
966:
933:
914:
906:electrophoresis
886:
843:electrophoresis
819:
802:
747:
745:Genetic linkage
741:
716:genetic markers
708:
706:Genetic mapping
696:genetic linkage
688:genetic markers
684:
596:
595:
594:
593:
576:chloroplast DNA
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44:genetic linkage
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2203:
2202:External links
2200:
2198:
2197:
2183:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2125:(1): 890–898.
2105:
2076:(6): 1127–36.
2056:
2027:(2): 179–186.
2007:
1972:
1923:
1874:
1849:
1835:
1806:
1756:
1739:
1711:(6): 667–672.
1705:JAMA Neurology
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1637:(1): 175–184.
1617:
1588:(1): 1400092.
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1218:Genome project
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1079:"Gene mapping"
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763:genetic marker
740:
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683:
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653:DNA sequencing
603:genome mapping
573:
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526:RNA polymerase
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400:photosystem II
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358:RNA polymerase
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351:photosystem II
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2018:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1964:
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1954:
1950:
1946:
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1938:
1934:
1927:
1919:
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1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1894:(6): 344–54.
1893:
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1497:
1482:
1478:
1477:"Genetic Map"
1472:
1464:
1458:
1450:
1448:0-471-25046-5
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1239:
1238:Sulston score
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1234:
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1123:
1120:December 2023
1112:
1109:
1105:
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1091:
1088:
1084:
1081: –
1080:
1076:
1075:Find sources:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1053:This section
1051:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1033:
1030:
1026:
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1002:
997:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
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971:
961:
959:
955:
951:
947:
946:polymorphisms
942:
938:
928:
926:
922:
921:fluorochromes
918:
909:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
881:
878:
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860:
856:
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844:
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831:
827:
823:
814:
812:
808:
797:
795:
788:1926 edition.
787:
782:
774:
770:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
749:The basis to
746:
736:
732:
730:
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703:
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693:
689:
679:
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591:
587:
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571:
570:
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558:
556:
549:
542:
535:
528:
521:
514:
507:
500:
493:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
456:photosystem I
451:
444:
437:
435:ribosomal RNA
430:
423:
421:ribosomal RNA
416:
409:
402:
395:
388:
381:
374:
367:
360:
353:
346:
339:
337:photosystem I
332:
325:
318:
311:
304:
297:
290:
283:
281:photosystem I
276:
269:
262:
255:
248:
246:ribosomal RNA
241:
234:
232:ribosomal RNA
227:
220:
213:
206:
199:
192:
185:
178:
171:
164:
157:
148:
141:
134:
127:
120:
113:
106:
99:
92:
90:photosystem I
85:
68:
67:crossing-over
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
45:
42:
41:
36:
32:
19:
2235:. Retrieved
2220:. Retrieved
2170:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2024:
2020:
2010:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1865:. Retrieved
1861:
1852:
1840:. Retrieved
1825:
1779:(1): 43–59.
1776:
1772:
1759:
1749:
1742:
1730:. Retrieved
1708:
1704:
1694:
1675:
1669:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1557:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1484:. Retrieved
1480:
1471:
1437:
1413:. Retrieved
1409:the original
1393:
1386:
1351:
1347:
1322:. Retrieved
1318:
1295:. Retrieved
1293:. 2013-09-03
1286:
1277:
1258:
1252:
1203:Fate mapping
1171:causing the
1169:
1157:fine mapping
1156:
1150:
1141:
1126:
1117:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1074:
1062:Please help
1057:verification
1054:
1023:
1010:
1001:genetic code
998:
967:
954:map distance
934:
915:
887:
874:
871:
863:
859:DNA sequence
824:
820:
803:
791:
785:
748:
733:
721:
713:
709:
685:
668:gene mapping
667:
665:
650:
632:
631:
619:
602:
599:Gene mapping
598:
597:
579:
567:
561:
554:
372:atp synthase
302:atp synthase
38:
1988:: 1227–32.
1525:: 105–115.
1005:nucleobases
984:mutants of
288:cytochromes
260:cytochromes
59:inheritance
2237:2013-09-06
2222:2013-09-06
1862:Genome.gov
1842:13 October
1732:13 October
1481:Genome.gov
1415:13 October
1319:Genome.gov
1297:2013-09-06
1244:References
1090:newspapers
970:chromosome
941:base pairs
743:See also:
700:base pairs
637:chromosome
615:chromosome
83:cytochrome
2193:444522997
2171:Genomes 3
1457:cite book
1315:"Mapping"
1208:G banding
1167:studies.
813:pattern.
767:phenotype
690:and gene
676:pedigrees
663:quickly.
661:sequenced
633:Gene maps
211:small RNA
153:ribosomal
2255:Genetics
2249:Category
2151:32166015
2070:Genetics
2051:13889186
2021:Genetics
2002:13882203
1967:16590553
1918:16589677
1801:82583173
1727:10369304
1661:32166015
1612:25606355
1549:29910517
1378:28018845
1354:: 9–17.
1192:See also
1181:long arm
990:mutation
607:location
155:proteins
51:gene map
18:Gene map
2142:7052475
2100:5882191
2091:1210971
2042:1210321
1781:Bibcode
1652:7052475
1603:4298233
1540:6002340
1438:Genomes
1369:5167364
1259:Biology
1153:disease
1104:scholar
901:enzymes
855:contigs
838:enzymes
759:meiosis
590:introns
104:rubisco
63:allelic
2191:
2181:
2149:
2139:
2098:
2088:
2049:
2039:
2000:
1982:Nature
1965:
1958:222769
1955:
1916:
1909:528093
1906:
1833:
1799:
1725:
1682:
1659:
1649:
1610:
1600:
1547:
1537:
1445:
1401:
1376:
1366:
1265:
1173:mutant
1106:
1099:
1092:
1085:
1077:
807:allele
672:hybrid
657:genome
622:genome
1867:3 May
1797:S2CID
1769:(PDF)
1486:2 May
1324:3 May
1111:JSTOR
1097:books
925:ssDNA
851:clone
729:maize
641:locus
613:on a
609:of a
578:from
569:image
547:tRNAs
379:tRNAs
344:tRNAs
309:tRNAs
239:tRNAs
139:tRNAs
132:tRNAs
111:tRNAs
2189:OCLC
2179:ISBN
2147:PMID
2096:PMID
2047:PMID
1998:PMID
1963:PMID
1914:PMID
1869:2023
1844:2015
1831:ISBN
1734:2015
1723:PMID
1680:ISBN
1657:PMID
1608:PMID
1545:PMID
1509:Avr2
1488:2023
1463:link
1443:ISBN
1417:2015
1399:ISBN
1374:PMID
1326:2023
1263:ISBN
1083:news
692:loci
611:gene
563:edit
498:tRNA
491:tRNA
470:tRNA
442:tRNA
428:tRNA
414:tRNA
407:tRNA
393:tRNA
323:tRNA
253:tRNA
204:tRNA
190:tRNA
169:tRNA
162:tRNA
118:tRNA
2137:PMC
2127:doi
2086:PMC
2078:doi
2037:PMC
2029:doi
1990:doi
1986:192
1953:PMC
1945:doi
1904:PMC
1896:doi
1789:doi
1713:doi
1647:PMC
1639:doi
1598:PMC
1590:doi
1535:PMC
1527:doi
1511:of
1364:PMC
1356:doi
1188:).
1066:by
1036:Use
994:DNA
982:rII
950:PCR
893:DNA
877:DNA
830:DNA
601:or
586:DNA
57:of
47:map
37:'s
2251::
2215:,
2187:.
2177:.
2145:.
2135:.
2123:10
2121:.
2117:.
2094:.
2084:.
2074:52
2072:.
2068:.
2045:.
2035:.
2025:47
2023:.
2019:.
1996:.
1984:.
1961:.
1951:.
1941:45
1939:.
1935:.
1912:.
1902:.
1892:41
1890:.
1886:.
1860:.
1809:^
1795:.
1787:.
1777:14
1775:.
1771:.
1721:.
1709:56
1707:.
1703:.
1655:.
1645:.
1635:10
1629:.
1606:.
1596:.
1584:.
1580:.
1543:.
1533:.
1523:89
1521:.
1517:.
1479:.
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1455:{{
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1372:.
1362:.
1352:11
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1317:.
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1285:.
1016:.
960:)
935:A
566:·
2240:.
2225:.
2195:.
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2129::
2102:.
2080::
2053:.
2031::
2004:.
1992::
1969:.
1947::
1920:.
1898::
1871:.
1846:.
1803:.
1791::
1783::
1736:.
1715::
1688:.
1663:.
1641::
1614:.
1592::
1586:3
1565:.
1551:.
1529::
1505:R
1490:.
1465:)
1451:.
1419:.
1380:.
1358::
1328:.
1300:.
1271:.
1133:)
1127:(
1122:)
1118:(
1108:·
1101:·
1094:·
1087:·
1060:.
592:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
