261:
French forces out of the
Senegal River region. This action heavily damaged the legitimacy of this jihad's leadership as it showed the people that their leaders could not protect them effectively. One benefit of this occurring however, was that it created a greater sense of Muslim identity and caused many Caliphates to increase their interactions with other Caliphates, unifying them against a common enemy and reducing the internal fighting amongst the different groups. So, although many of the Caliphates were unable to achieve their goal of being able to operate an effective military defence against European invaders, they were able to achieve the goal of increasing intra-Muslim relations and cooperation, by doing so increasing the sense of Islamic unity and identity.
369:
257:. During his conflict, he struggled to establish a strong economy due to his lack of resources to safely guard the roaming cattle herds and as such, large parts of the military activity. Hindered by a lack of military and economic resources, due to a more defensive strategy, the Masina jihad was less successful in conquering other areas and spreading its domain of control on the same scale as the Sokoto Caliphate. It can therefore be seen that the development of a stable economy and a strong armed force were largely linked, with different jihad movements having varying strengths in these departments, resulting in different levels of success.
122:
296:
25:
425:
265:
confusion and ultimately it was decided by council that his son should rule. Unfortunately for his son, this decree did not carry the same sense of legitimacy as if Amadu had himself selected his child. The son's plans actually differed from his father, especially on teaching, and as such he failed to gain the support of the older cohorts of the population.
260:
In their defence against
European invaders few groups were successful and, instead of defeating the invaders, many Muslim populations had to carry out mass migrations across northern Africa to escape. Those fighting under the jihad of Al-Hajj Vmar were forced to flee, as they were unable to push the
252:
and Wazir Gidado established a strong economy based on agriculture and artisan goods. This economic growth allowed them to fund political, educational and military development within the
Caliphate which lead to it invading and conquering surrounding areas, increasing the number of people under its
234:
The reforms aimed to create
Islamic states across Western Africa. The reforms also aimed to counter socio-political problems, including under population and shortages of goods such as food and water, which together intensified existing economic problems. Furthermore, they also wanted to stop the
264:
When it came to the task of establishing strong and legitimate rule over the
Caliphates, the Islamic protagonists were not always successful. In the Hamdullahi Caliphate there was a strong sense of legitimacy under the 30 years rule of Seku Amadu but he failed to name a successor. This led to
253:
administration and so achieving the secondary aim of spreading the word of Islam. However, other groups, even within the Sokoto
Caliphate, were not able to establish such a stable economy, such as under the Massina jihad of
239:
were weakening. These aims were met with mixed results across the several jihad movements and resulting caliphates that emerged during the 19th century, as some were able to achieve these goals better than others.
330:. The Futa Jallon state was born in 1735 when Fulani Muslims decided to rise against the non-Muslim indigenous groups and Djalonke rulers to create a confederation of provinces.
248:
On developing a stable economy to finance development and bring prosperity to the population, some caliphates were largely successful. The Sokoto
Caliphate under the control of
331:
292:
Malick Sy took power in 1690 in the first successful Fula jihad. It provided a safe haven for other Muslim clerics and a staging ground for future jihads.
235:
European invasion of Africa and the
Islamic world, as at this time many European nations were colonizing parts of Africa and Islamic empires such as the
226:
Foremost among the motivators for the jihads was unity through the spread of religion, and the procurement of slaves by conquering neighbouring peoples.
537:
632:
state (title Sarkin Zazzau) on 31 December 1808; new style first Malam, since
October/November 1835 Emir, also styled Sarkin Zaria and Sarkin Zazzau
183:
in 1725, when Fula pastoralists, assisted by Muslim traders, rose against the indigenous chiefdoms. By 1750, the Fula had established the
896:
Last, Murray (1974). "Reform in West Africa: The Jihad
Movements of the Nineteenth Century". In J. F. A. Ajayi; M. Crowder (eds.).
948:
600:, founded in 1817, style Emir; 1892-1893 de facto French protectorate, 1901 part of Northern Nigerian British protectorate
89:
61:
203:, through a series of wars between 1769 and 1776. In the early 19th century, the jihad movement spread eastward to the
927:
780:
562:
replaced the old (Hausa) Katsina state in 1805; the old title Sarkin Katsina is still used, but now also styled Emir.
108:
938:
219:, the largest state in West Africa at that time. An aggressively expansionist polity, it severely weakened the old
68:
958:
Smith, H. F. C. (1961). "A Neglected Theme of West African History: The Islamic Revolutions of the 19th Century".
824:
46:
858:
Curtin, Philip D. (1971). "Jihad in West Africa: Early Phases and Inter-relations in Mauritania and Senegal".
445:
75:
887:
Keddie, Nikkie R. "Islamic Precolonial Revolts of the 18th and 19th Centuries". In Jack A. Goldstone (ed.).
42:
610:, title Amir al-Mu´minin, also styled Lamido Julbe; on 20 April 1817 Sokoto was styled sultanate (title
57:
391:. The following Islamic revolution created the new kingdom of Futa Toro under a government called the
368:
322:, was a major state with a written constitution and ruling alternance between the 2 main parties: the
981:
528:, replaced Biram (title Sarkin Biram) in 1805; new title Sarkin Hadejia, from 1808 also styled Emir
35:
309:
220:
184:
991:
770:
732:
controlled the region until French colonization, at which time the last leader of the state,
550:) Kano state in March 1807; the old title Sarkin Kano is still used, but now also styled Emir
406:). Before formal colonization this state was weakened by French incursions and the effort by
986:
363:
200:
568:, founded in 1818; title Emir, also styled Sarkin *Arewa (apparently imitating neighbours)
8:
169:
82:
622:), the suzerain of all Fulbe jihad states; in 1903 the British occupied Sokoto Sultanate
615:
875:
825:"WESTERN AFRICA TO c1860 A.D. A PROVISIONAL HISTORICAL SCHEMA BASED ON CLIMATE PERIODS"
347:
121:
944:
923:
879:
776:
729:
705:
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688:
407:
192:
915:
867:
668:
419:
384:
343:
216:
656:
607:
472:
433:
400:
388:
208:
142:
772:
From Africa to Brazil: Culture, Identity, and an Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1830
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672:
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491:
327:
249:
236:
871:
975:
725:
625:
580:
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503:
485:
455:
437:
396:
334:
was elected as the first Almaamy in 1725 at the capital Timbo in present-day
196:
176:
660:
204:
444:. Most of these empire's constituent states were brought into the British
733:
591:
543:
441:
380:
315:
279:
180:
165:
158:
713:
709:
680:
664:
459:
254:
212:
16:
Series of Jihads across West Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries
684:
606:, the center of the Fulani jihad, established on 21 February 1804 by
531:
295:
676:
24:
476:
424:
410:
to carry his "jihad" eastward (see also Toucouleur Empire, below).
451:
The jihad states in the region controlled by the empire included:
346:, dismantled the state and integrated it into their new colony of
651:, this state lasted from 1818 until 1862. Inspired by the recent
565:
559:
553:
525:
289:
285:
914:
Robinson, David (2000). "Revolutions in the Western Sudan". In
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717:
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188:
162:
571:
154:
648:
467:
750:
556:, founded in 1807; title Sarkin Katagum, also styled Emir
440:
which continued until it was divided up by the European
522:, a major Fulbe jihad state, founded in 1817; title Emir
428:
Sokoto Sultanate during the reign of sultan Ahmadu Rufai
922:. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. pp. 131–152.
161:
during the 18th and 19th centuries, led largely by the
168:. The jihads and the jihad states came to an end with
372:
Map of the Imamate of Futa Toro, early 19th century
338:. The Futa Jallon state lasted until 1898 when the
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
907:Jihād in West Africa during the Age of Revolutions
342:colonial troops defeated the last Almamy (Ruler)
973:
179:in 1690. The first armed uprising took place in
806:
804:
383:revolted against the non-Muslim Fulani of the
506:), meaning "ruler" (similar meaning to Emir )
175:The earliest Fulbe polity was established in
960:Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria
936:
801:
756:
125:Fulani jihad states of West Africa, c. 1830
832:Indiana University African Studies Program
775:. Cambridge University Press. p. 70.
436:overthrew the Hausa kings to create a new
229:
889:The Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions
768:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
913:
810:
577:Lafiagi, founded in 1824; new title Emir
423:
376:Under the unifying banner of Islam, the
367:
294:
120:
904:
974:
900:. Vol. 2. Longman. pp. 1–29.
857:
822:
675:. The empire expanded rapidly, taking
432:At the beginning of the 19th century,
957:
299:Map of Futa Jallon, late 19th century
243:
943:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
895:
795:
694:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
413:
146:
13:
886:
679:and establishing a new capital at
199:to establish their own state, the
14:
1003:
823:Brooks, George E. (August 1985).
708:led armies east from his base in
636:
769:Hawthorne, Walter (2010-09-13).
683:. It was eventually defeated by
479:), founded in 1809; title Baban-
387:in 1776 under the leadership of
318:, located mainly in present-day
191:law. Their success inspired the
23:
850:
663:, preacher and social reformer
647:Located in what is now central
268:
34:needs additional citations for
920:The History of Islam in Africa
816:
789:
762:
534:, founded in 1811; style Emir.
303:
1:
891:. Routledge. pp. 265–66.
743:
594:, founded in 18..; title Emir
583:, founded in 1825; style Emir
574:, founded in 1802; title Emir
540:, founded in 1810; title Emir
488:, founded in 1822; title emir
446:Northern Nigeria Protectorate
284:A small state in present-day
357:
187:and placed the region under
7:
937:Shillington, Kevin (2012).
215:begun in 1804, created the
10:
1008:
860:Journal of African History
698:
687:and incorporated into the
640:
417:
361:
307:
277:
195:on the banks of the lower
905:Lovejoy, Paul E. (2016).
872:10.1017/S0021853700000049
512:, founded in 1804; title
494:, founded in 1805; title
395:(a term derived from the
909:. Ohio University Press.
728:in the early 1860s. The
462:; the ruler's title was
273:
458:, replacing the former
230:Jihad as Islamic reform
149:) sometimes called the
898:History of West Africa
429:
373:
332:Alpha Ibrahima Sambegu
310:Imamate of Futa Jallon
300:
185:Imamate of Futa Jallon
126:
918:; R. Pouwels (eds.).
628:, superseded the old
427:
371:
298:
170:European colonization
157:that occurred across
124:
364:Imamate of Futa Toro
207:. The revolutionary
201:Imamate of Futa Toro
43:improve this article
667:led a Fula army in
757:Shillington (2012)
546:replaced the old (
475:(now partially in
448:around 1901–1903.
430:
374:
301:
244:Reform in practice
213:a series of jihads
127:
950:978-0-312-12598-1
940:History of Africa
706:El Hajj Umar Tall
701:Toucouleur Empire
695:Toucouleur Empire
689:Toucouleur Empire
466:, from 1828 also
408:El Hadj Umar Tall
399:borrowing of the
153:were a series of
151:Fulani revolution
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616:Amir al-Mu´minin
420:Sokoto Caliphate
414:Sokoto Caliphate
385:Denianke Kingdom
344:Bokar Biro Barry
217:Sokoto Caliphate
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657:Usman dan Fodio
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608:Usman dan Fodio
538:Jema`an Darroro
434:Usman dan Fodio
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389:Sileymaani Baal
366:
360:
350:, which became
348:Rivières du Sud
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246:
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209:Usman dan Fodio
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722:Bambara Empire
699:Main article:
696:
693:
673:Bambara Empire
643:Massina Empire
641:Main article:
638:
637:Massina Empire
635:
634:
633:
623:
620:Sarkin Musulmi
614:, also styled
601:
595:
589:
587:Massina Empire
584:
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551:
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492:Bauchi Emirate
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308:Main article:
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655:uprisings of
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504:Fula language
501:
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469:
465:
464:Sarkin Zazzau
461:
457:
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443:
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438:Fulani Empire
435:
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99:November 2017
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60: –
59:
58:"Fula jihads"
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
992:Fula history
966:(2): 169–85.
963:
959:
939:
919:
906:
897:
888:
866:(1): 11–24.
863:
859:
851:Bibliography
836:. Retrieved
831:
818:
798:, p. 21
791:
771:
764:
752:
704:
671:against the
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450:
431:
403:
392:
375:
313:
283:
269:Jihad states
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205:Hausa states
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
987:West Africa
916:N. Levtzion
796:Last (1974)
734:Ahmadu Tall
716:to conquer
316:Futa Jallon
304:Futa Jallon
280:Bundu State
193:Toucouleurs
181:Futa Jallon
166:Fula people
159:West Africa
147:جهاد الفولا
976:Categories
744:References
736:, fled to
730:Toucouleur
714:Dinguiraye
710:Futa Tooro
681:Hamdullahi
665:Seku Amadu
659:in nearby
442:colonizers
255:Seku Amadu
211:, through
69:newspapers
880:162679179
685:Umar Tall
661:Hausaland
358:Futa Toro
288:in which
532:Jama`are
500:laamiiɗo
477:Cameroon
404:al-imaam
393:Almamate
326:and the
237:Ottomans
726:Massina
566:Kazaure
560:Katsina
554:Katagum
526:Hadejia
473:Adamawa
328:Alphaya
290:Torodbe
286:Senegal
197:Senegal
83:scholar
947:
926:
878:
838:30 May
779:
738:Sokoto
724:, and
720:, the
718:Kaarta
677:Djenné
653:Muslim
630:Zazzau
612:sultan
604:Sokoto
520:Gwandu
516:Gombe.
514:Modibo
496:Lamido
481:Lamido
401:Arabic
397:Pulaar
378:Muslim
352:Guinea
340:French
336:Guinea
324:Soriya
320:Guinea
189:sharia
163:Muslim
155:jihads
143:Arabic
139:jihads
135:Fulani
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
876:S2CID
834:: 209
828:(PDF)
669:jihad
626:Zaria
581:Lapai
572:Keffi
548:Hausa
510:Gombe
486:Agaie
456:Abuja
381:Fulas
274:Bundu
177:Bundu
90:JSTOR
76:books
945:ISBN
924:ISBN
840:2023
777:ISBN
712:and
649:Mali
618:and
598:Muri
592:Mubi
544:Kano
468:Emir
460:Zuba
314:The
133:(or
131:Fula
129:The
62:news
868:doi
502:in
354:.
45:by
978::
962:.
874:.
864:12
862:.
830:.
803:^
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