4022:. Compared with an optimum AM scheme, FM typically has poorer SNR below a certain signal level called the noise threshold, but above a higher level – the full improvement or full quieting threshold – the SNR is much improved over AM. The improvement depends on modulation level and deviation. For typical voice communications channels, improvements are typically 5–15 dB. FM broadcasting using wider deviation can achieve even greater improvements. Additional techniques, such as pre-emphasis of higher audio frequencies with corresponding de-emphasis in the receiver, are generally used to improve overall SNR in FM circuits. Since FM signals have constant amplitude, FM receivers normally have limiters that remove AM noise, further improving SNR.
4274:
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4287:(1890–1954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation (FM) radio. He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the superheterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super-regenerative circuit in 1922. Armstrong presented his paper, "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation", (which first described FM radio) before the New York section of the
6915:
2643:
1131:
798:
355:
4110:(implemented as a filter) to recover the instantaneous phase, and thereafter differentiating this phase (using another filter) to recover the instantaneous frequency. Alternatively, a complex mixer followed by a bandpass filter may be used to translate the signal to baseband, and then proceeding as before.
4097:
demodulates an FM signal by using a tuned circuit which has its resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier. As the frequency rises and falls the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting FM to AM. AM receivers may detect some FM transmissions by this means, although
2617:
With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases but the spacing between spectra remains the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase. If the
523:
conditions it performs much more poorly than AM, with distinct high frequency noise artifacts that are audible with lower volumes and less complex tones. With high enough volume and carrier deviation audio distortion starts to occur that otherwise wouldn't be present without multipath or with an AM
2621:
Frequency modulation can be classified as narrowband if the change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wideband if the change in the carrier frequency is much higher (modulation index > 1) than the signal frequency. For example, narrowband FM (NFM)
2675:
Since the sidebands are on both sides of the carrier, their count is doubled, and then multiplied by the modulating frequency to find the bandwidth. For example, 3 kHz deviation modulated by a 2.2 kHz audio tone produces a modulation index of 1.36. Suppose that we limit ourselves to only
4231:
analysis, the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz and the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and −1 MHz. The result is a reversed-phase sideband on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in unwanted output at 6 – 1 = 5 MHz. The system must be designed so that this unwanted
1336:
It is important to realize that this process of integrating the instantaneous frequency to create an instantaneous phase is quite different from what the term "frequency modulation" naively implies, namely directly adding the modulating signal to the carrier frequency
4226:
These FM systems are unusual, in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting, where the ratio is around 10,000. Consider, for example, a 6-MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5-MHz rate; by
1126:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y(t)&=A_{c}\cos \left(2\pi \int _{0}^{t}f(\tau )d\tau \right)\\&=A_{c}\cos \left(2\pi \int _{0}^{t}\leftd\tau \right)\\&=A_{c}\cos \left(2\pi f_{c}t+2\pi f_{\Delta }\int _{0}^{t}x_{m}(\tau )d\tau \right)\\\end{aligned}}}
2671:
number and the modulation index. The carrier and sideband amplitudes are illustrated for different modulation indices of FM signals. For particular values of the modulation index, the carrier amplitude becomes zero and all the signal power is in the sidebands.
1788:
2676:
those sidebands that have a relative amplitude of at least 0.01. Then, examining the chart shows this modulation index will produce three sidebands. These three sidebands, when doubled, gives us (6 × 2.2 kHz) or a 13.2 kHz required bandwidth.
2658:
Hz sinusoid. The modulation index has been adjusted to around 2.4, so the carrier frequency has small amplitude. Several strong sidebands are apparent; in principle an infinite number are produced in FM but the higher-order sidebands are of negligible
2299:
4940:
Schafer, Erin C.; Bryant, Danielle; Sanders, Katie; Baldus, Nicole; Algier, Katherine; Lewis, Audrey; Traber, Jordan; Layden, Paige; Amin, Aneeqa (June 1, 2014). "Fitting and
Verification of Frequency Modulation on Children with Normal Hearing".
1642:
4473:, FM systems result in better speech perception than hearing aids. They can be coupled with behind-the-ear hearing aids to allow the user to alternate the setting. FM systems are more convenient and cost-effective than alternatives such as
2016:
1469:
4005:
where W is the highest frequency in the modulating signal but non-sinusoidal in nature and D is the
Deviation ratio which the ratio of frequency deviation to highest frequency of modulating non-sinusoidal signal.
3790:
4399:. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used. Analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Narrowband FM is used for voice communications in commercial and
4135:
by lowering their call frequency as they approach a target. This keeps the returning echo in the same frequency range of the normal echolocation call. This dynamic frequency modulation is called the
2094:
from the carrier frequency. For a sine wave modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio of the peak frequency deviation of the carrier wave to the frequency of the modulating sine wave.
4351:"captures" the stronger of two stations on the same frequency while rejecting the other (compare this with a similar situation on an AM receiver, where both stations can be heard simultaneously).
1348:
803:
776:
2634:, in which music and speech are transmitted with up to 75 kHz deviation from the center frequency and carry audio with up to a 20 kHz bandwidth and subcarriers up to 92 kHz.
450:(FSK), in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is shifted among a set of frequencies. The frequencies may represent digits, such as '0' and '1'. FSK is widely used in computer
4000:
2383:
4461:. They intensify signal levels from the source by 15 to 20 decibels. FM systems are used by hearing-impaired people as well as children whose listening is affected by disorders such as
1653:
2630:, in which the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center frequency with speech signals of no more than 3.5 kHz bandwidth. Wideband FM is used for
1873:
1184:
7488:
4441:, reported about his new method of telephony, based on a change in the period of oscillations. Demonstration of frequency modulation was carried out on the laboratory model.
2193:
2551:
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2451:
1499:
of an actual FM signal has components extending infinitely, although their amplitude decreases and higher-order components are often neglected in practical design problems.
4127:
approaches a target, its outgoing sounds return as echoes, which are
Doppler-shifted upward in frequency. In certain species of bats, which produce constant frequency (CF)
1305:
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2086:
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As in other modulation systems, the modulation index indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to variations in the
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For digital modulation systems, for example, binary frequency shift keying (BFSK), where a binary signal modulates the carrier, the modulation index is given by:
4058:
to produce an FM signal. In this modulation, narrowband FM is generated leading to wideband FM later and hence the modulation is known as indirect FM modulation.
4310:. Frequency modulation is also more robust against signal-amplitude-fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency,
1343:
6159:
4918:
500:, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a larger
3924:
is the highest frequency in the modulating signal. Condition for application of Carson's rule is only sinusoidal signals. For non-sinusoidal signals:
4849:
4140:
440:, i.e. the difference between the frequency of the carrier and its center frequency, has a functional relation to the modulating signal amplitude.
2385:
is used as the highest frequency of the modulating binary waveform by convention, even though it would be more accurate to say it is the highest
341:
4685:
4378:
and demultiplexing before and after the FM process. The FM modulation and demodulation process is identical in stereo and monaural processes.
2614:, which uses extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to traditional, better-known spread-spectrum modes).
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which would result in a modulated signal that has spurious local minima and maxima that do not correspond to those of the carrier.
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621:
4175:. FM is the only feasible method of recording the luminance ("black-and-white") component of video to (and retrieving video from)
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is the carrier's amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal:
574:
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600:
4584:
17:
5993:
7312:
6918:
6851:
6697:
4863:
Armstrong, E. H. (May 1936). "A Method of
Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation".
334:
250:
5148:
6623:
5192:
4829:
700:
607:
535:; phase modulation is often used as an intermediate step to achieve frequency modulation. These methods contrast with
6717:
5132:
5040:
McArdle, Rachel; Abrams, Harvey B.; Hnath
Chisholm, Theresa (2005). "When Hearing Aids Go Bad: An FM Success Story".
4737:
4671:
4618:
640:
229:
4453:
that make speech more understandable by improving the signal-to-noise ratio in the user's ear. They are also called
3896:
is the
Modulation index which is the ratio of frequency deviation to highest frequency in the modulating signal and
2663:
For the case of a carrier modulated by a single sine wave, the resulting frequency spectrum can be calculated using
2618:
frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases.
436:
frequency modulation, such as radio broadcasting, of an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous
6944:
6502:
6050:
5852:
4438:
1783:{\displaystyle y(t)=A_{c}\cos \left(2\pi f_{c}t+{\frac {f_{\Delta }}{f_{m}}}\sin \left(2\pi f_{m}t\right)\right)\,}
123:
7523:
6613:
5522:
5375:
5371:
4427:
4082:
3930:
2335:
2090:
1275:
589:
310:
224:
196:
163:
138:
90:
7425:
6608:
5686:
4245:
578:
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327:
4407:, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile, marine mobile and other radio services.
7273:
6633:
5657:
5486:
4040:
3666:
4426:. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation methods requiring linear amplifiers, such as AM and
1898:; this provides the basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain.
1828:
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128:
2294:{\displaystyle h={\frac {\Delta {}f}{f_{m}}}={\frac {\Delta {}f}{\frac {1}{2T_{s}}}}=2\Delta {}fT_{s}\ }
386:, while the FM receiver clearly reproduced a music program from Armstrong's experimental FM transmitter
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1637:{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{t}x_{m}(\tau )d\tau ={\frac {\sin \left(2\pi f_{m}t\right)}{2\pi f_{m}}}\,}
153:
4704:
4081:
Many FM detector circuits exist. A common method for recovering the information signal is through a
2525:
2456:
2420:
6888:
6130:
6065:
6018:
5978:
4477:, but many users use FM systems infrequently due to their conspicuousness and need for recharging.
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173:
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109:
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4200:
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187:
66:
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was a problem in early (or inexpensive) receivers; inadequate selectivity may affect any tuner.
3798:
3665:
states that nearly all (≈98 percent) of the power of a frequency-modulated signal lies within a
2610:
constant, results in an eight-fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio. (Compare this with
1246:
7344:
7258:
7100:
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6435:
6250:
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5681:
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5455:
5395:
5057:
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4103:
2011:{\displaystyle h={\frac {\Delta {}f}{f_{m}}}={\frac {f_{\Delta }\left|x_{m}(t)\right|}{f_{m}}}}
447:
300:
295:
133:
118:
5001:"Speech perception in noise: directional microphones versus frequency modulation (FM) systems"
4556:
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2130:
660:
7445:
7268:
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6355:
6320:
6240:
6220:
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4015:
3899:
3671:
3652:
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2554:
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2307:
2184: is considered NFM and other modulation indices are considered wideband FM (WFM or FM).
2024:
1796:
520:
501:
285:
219:
5884:
4418:). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use
3879:
3822:
2495:
2100:
366:
27:
Encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave
7073:
7013:
6993:
6465:
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5795:
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component is recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as
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4019:
3852:
2627:
2586:
1216:
1189:
536:
359:
143:
75:
38:
4179:
without distortion; video signals have a large range of frequency components – from a few
1464:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y(t)&=A_{c}\cos \left(2\pi \leftt\right)\end{aligned}}}
8:
7180:
7051:
6475:
6415:
6174:
6136:
5934:
5919:
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5597:
5557:
4802:"FM Systems Of Exceptional Bandwidth" Proc. IEEE vol. 112, no. 9, p. 1664, September 1965
4411:
4356:
4220:
4128:
4039:
Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a
1876:
1521:. This method is also named as single-tone modulation. The integral of such a signal is:
1309:
437:
168:
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5158:
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6365:
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4814:
4696:
4392:
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1496:
1495:
that a wider range of frequencies is required to precisely represent an FM signal. The
418:
414:
201:
178:
158:
5303:
4765:
Alan Bloom (2010). "Chapter 8. Modulation". In H. Ward Silver; Mark J. Wilson (eds.).
4273:
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7389:
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4999:
Lewis, M. Samantha; Crandall, Carl C.; Valente, Michael; Enrietto Horn, Jane (2004).
4966:
4958:
4901:«Радиолюбитель». – 1924. – № 6. – С. 86.
4825:
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by an equivalent modulating signal; this also makes the signal more robust against
4295:
4099:
4047:
2088:
is the peak frequency-deviation – i.e. the maximum deviation of the
1492:
532:
528:
375:
374:) rejection than AM, as shown in this dramatic New York publicity demonstration by
275:
270:
95:
85:
7369:
5000:
4035:
FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation:
2389:
of the modulating binary waveform. In the case of digital modulation, the carrier
7435:
7405:
7041:
6375:
6230:
5998:
5973:
5961:
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31:
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and many Hi-band formats – can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist
4086:
2647:
382:
as a source of interference behind it, the AM receiver produced only a roar of
7517:
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7145:
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6964:
6722:
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6400:
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6285:
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3658:
2623:
493:
463:
433:
4912:
4457:, a term which refers to any sound amplification system not classified as a
2417:
is never transmitted. Rather, one of two frequencies is transmitted, either
446:
can be encoded and transmitted with a type of frequency modulation known as
58:
7492:
6967:
6600:
6440:
6385:
6315:
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For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a
543:
of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency and phase remain constant.
473:
443:
406:
379:
315:
255:
234:
4325:
called it "VHF radio" because commercial FM broadcasting uses part of the
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7240:
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6265:
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4611:
Time-Frequency Signal
Analysis and Processing – A Comprehensive Reference
4458:
4249:
4168:
3819:, as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency
402:
383:
5017:
4954:
4449:
Frequency modulated systems are a widespread and commercially available
7297:
7283:
6985:
6805:
6512:
6210:
6119:
6075:
6045:
6023:
5719:
5652:
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5400:
4522:
4256:
4204:
1891:
694:
581: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
50:
30:
For the application of frequency modulation to radio broadcasting, see
1507:
Mathematically, a baseband modulating signal may be approximated by a
7360:
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5826:
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5739:
5714:
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1822:
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462:
systems, garage door openers, and other low-frequency transmissions.
459:
455:
378:
in 1940. The radio has both AM and FM receivers. With a million-volt
260:
5152:
2049:
is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal
556:
7110:
7063:
7021:
6785:
6775:
6692:
6517:
6340:
5577:
5445:
5295:
5106:
Early FM Radio: Incremental technology in twentieth-century
America
4910:
4318:
4215:. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal – as was done on
4212:
3785:{\displaystyle B_{T}=2\left(\Delta f+f_{m}\right)=2f_{m}(\beta +1)}
2668:
1883:
513:
47:
4195:. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, acting as a form of
7150:
7105:
7059:
6780:
6765:
5983:
5350:
4998:
4192:
4106:
implementations the demodulation may be carried out by using the
2489:, depending on the binary state 0 or 1 of the modulation signal.
1240:
being the amplitude of the modulating signal or baseband signal.
485:
4069:
Detector (radio) § Frequency and phase modulation detectors
7374:
7190:
7164:
7159:
7118:
7069:
7055:
6810:
6770:
6092:
5325:
4511:
2642:
4167:(black and white) portions of the video signal. Commonly, the
354:
7195:
7090:
6982:
6795:
6732:
6040:
5491:
5355:
5345:
5340:
4496:
4314:
4216:
4180:
481:
451:
387:
265:
2553:. While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the
6737:
5320:
5039:
4466:
4278:
1647:
In this case, the expression for y(t) above simplifies to:
1477:
While most of the energy of the signal is contained within
4939:
4754:(Fifth ed.). Howard W. Sams & Co. pp. 21–11.
6959:
5335:
5188:
4382:
4326:
4322:
4160:
4124:
489:
5089:. Science/Engineering/Math (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
4437:, during a scientific and technical conversation in the
4294:
As the name implies, wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider
4252:
and became a standard feature in several generations of
4359:
may cause one station to be overtaken by another on an
4291:
on
November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936.
512:
signal. For this reason, most music is broadcast over
4433:
There are reports that on
October 5, 1924, Professor
4341:
for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon known as the
3933:
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1249:
1219:
1213:
being the sensitivity of the frequency modulator and
1192:
1142:
801:
703:
663:
4191:
to work with due to electronic noise below −60
4277:An American FM radio transmitter in Buffalo, NY at
5149:Analog Modulation online interactive demonstration
4813:
4732:, pp. 214–17. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
4548:
3994:
3916:
3888:
3868:
3841:
3811:
3784:
3688:
2602:
2575:
2557:significantly; for example, doubling the value of
2545:
2510:
2481:
2445:
2409:
2377:
2324:
2293:
2176:
2150:
2115:
2080:
2041:
2010:
1867:
1813:
1782:
1636:
1463:
1299:
1265:
1232:
1205:
1178:
1125:
770:
685:
5108:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
4571:morse-code frequency-shift-keying sent-using-fsk.
4370:A wideband FM signal can also be used to carry a
771:{\displaystyle x_{c}(t)=A_{c}\cos(2\pi f_{c}t)\,}
7515:
4914:Guidelines for Fitting and Monitoring FM Systems
4203:can mask variations in playback output, and the
653:If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the
5127:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 1188–1200.
4811:
4444:
1313:, which represents the maximum shift away from
531:are the two complementary principal methods of
5123:Seymour, Ken (2005) . "Frequency Modulation".
4816:Principles of modern communications technology
4414:can be used to transmit FM signals (and other
4244:to synthesize sound. This technique, known as
6945:
5853:
5174:
4911:ASHA Ad Hoc Committee on FM Systems (2002) .
4749:
1502:
335:
5042:Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
5005:Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
4943:Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
4919:American Speech–Language–Hearing Association
4769:. American Radio Relay League. p. 8.7.
6868:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
4589:. Cambridge University Press. p. 310.
4525:, for a list of other modulation techniques
3995:{\displaystyle B_{T}=2(\Delta f+W)=2W(D+1)}
2654:MHz carrier, frequency modulated by a 1,000
2378:{\displaystyle f_{m}={\frac {1}{2T_{s}}}\,}
6952:
6938:
6904:
5860:
5846:
5181:
5167:
4767:The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
4764:
4658:
4656:
4551:Teach yourself electricity and electronics
4232:output is reduced to an acceptable level.
4098:it does not provide an efficient means of
2127:(NFM), and its bandwidth is approximately
342:
328:
37:"NFM" redirects here. For other uses, see
5016:
4862:
4546:
4492:Continuous-wave frequency-modulated radar
3913:
3838:
3808:
3685:
2572:
2542:
2406:
2374:
2321:
2147:
2077:
2038:
1810:
1779:
1633:
1296:
1262:
767:
641:Learn how and when to remove this message
5608:Output power of an analog TV transmitter
4582:
4272:
4146:
4072:
2667:of the first kind, as a function of the
2641:
469:Frequency modulation is widely used for
365:
353:
5122:
5084:
4917:(Technical report) (Revised ed.).
4653:
4629:
413:of the wave. The technology is used in
14:
7516:
5867:
1868:{\displaystyle f_{\Delta }=K_{f}A_{m}}
1179:{\displaystyle f_{\Delta }=K_{f}A_{m}}
484:, seismic prospecting, and monitoring
7330:
6933:
5841:
5638:Direct-broadcast satellite television
5162:
5103:
4054:, and the result is passed through a
1825:is represented in the peak deviation
785:is the carrier's base frequency, and
6914:
4686:"Frequency Modulation (FM) Tutorial"
4633:Radio Frequency Modulation Made Easy
4555:. McGraw-Hill Professional. p.
4018:(SNR), as compared for example with
579:adding citations to reliable sources
550:
5528:Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB)
4248:, was popularized by early digital
4131:calls, the bats compensate for the
2637:
2522:and its bandwidth is approximately
1901:
24:
7331:
5078:
4752:Reference Data for Radio Engineers
4613:, Elsevier Science, Oxford, 2003;
4410:A high-efficiency radio-frequency
4093:can be used as an FM demodulator.
4009:
3953:
3849:from the center carrier frequency
3802:
3727:
2564:
2537:
2473:
2437:
2270:
2233:
2206:
2069:
1961:
1929:
1837:
1722:
1420:
1291:
1148:
1069:
965:
25:
7535:
5142:
4639:. Springer Cham. pp. 33–37.
4118:
4025:
7486:
6913:
6903:
6894:
6893:
6882:
6503:Free-space optical communication
4439:Nizhny Novgorod Radio Laboratory
3646:
555:
57:
5523:Quadrature amplitude modulation
5033:
4992:
4933:
4904:
4891:
4856:
4838:
4805:
4796:
4783:
4683:
4422:and typically cost less than a
4321:" (although for many years the
4113:
4062:
1894:signal can be represented with
566:needs additional citations for
7426:Error detection and correction
5687:Television channel frequencies
4758:
4743:
4722:
4677:
4623:
4603:
4576:
4540:
4317:transmission, hence the term "
3989:
3977:
3965:
3950:
3835:
3829:
3779:
3767:
2546:{\displaystyle 2f_{\Delta }\,}
2482:{\displaystyle f_{c}-\Delta f}
2446:{\displaystyle f_{c}+\Delta f}
1987:
1981:
1666:
1660:
1562:
1556:
1441:
1435:
1360:
1354:
1333:) is limited to the range ±1.
1259:
1253:
1105:
1099:
986:
980:
876:
870:
815:
809:
764:
742:
720:
714:
680:
674:
358:A signal may be carried by an
13:
1:
5658:Digital television transition
5487:Multichannel television sound
4534:
4139:(DSC), and was discovered by
4052:crystal-controlled oscillator
4050:. This is used to modulate a
4041:voltage-controlled oscillator
4030:
2158:. Sometimes modulation index
1300:{\displaystyle f_{\Delta }\,}
519:However, under severe enough
6889:Telecommunication portal
6670:Telecommunications equipment
5730:Field strength in free space
5431:Horizontal blanking interval
4463:auditory processing disorder
4445:Hearing assistive technology
4289:Institute of Radio Engineers
2576:{\displaystyle \Delta {}f\,}
2081:{\displaystyle \Delta {}f\,}
1890:carrier modulated by such a
506:radio frequency interference
7:
7499:Comparison of radio systems
6406:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
5628:Superheterodyne transmitter
4927:10.1044/policy.GL2002-00010
4750:H. P. Westman, ed. (1970).
4662:T.G. Thomas, S. C. Sekhar
4583:Rutledge, David B. (1999).
4480:
4083:Foster–Seeley discriminator
2518:, the modulation is called
2123:, the modulation is called
1320:in one direction, assuming
508:better than an equal power
10:
7540:
7472:International broadcasting
7441:FM extended band in Brazil
6110:Telecommunications history
5466:Vertical blanking interval
5085:Carlson, A. Bruce (2001).
4877:10.1109/JRPROC.1936.227383
4471:sensorineural hearing loss
4416:constant-amplitude signals
4374:signal; this is done with
4329:band – the
4266:
4137:Doppler Shift Compensation
4066:
3812:{\displaystyle \Delta f\,}
3650:
2686:
2332:is the symbol period, and
1503:Sinusoidal baseband signal
1266:{\displaystyle f(\tau )\,}
251:Capacity-approaching codes
36:
29:
7480:
7459:
7398:
7358:
7337:
7326:
7282:
7239:
7209:
7173:
7138:
7131:
7083:
7012:
6981:
6974:
6877:
6819:
6756:
6718:Public Switched Telephone
6678:
6642:
6599:
6540:
6530:telecommunication circuit
6491:Fiber-optic communication
6474:
6236:Francis Blake (telephone)
6183:
6031:Optical telecommunication
5875:
5804:
5768:
5705:
5666:
5536:
5510:
5479:
5441:Nominal analogue blanking
5364:
5313:
5199:
4666:, Tata-McGraw Hill 2005,
4435:Mikhail A. Bonch-Bruevich
2681:
546:
527:Frequency modulation and
510:amplitude modulation (AM)
6629:Orbital angular-momentum
6066:Satellite communications
5905:Communications satellite
5125:The Electronics Handbook
4820:. Artech House. p.
4812:A. Michael Noll (2001).
4789:Haykin, Simon . (2001).
4586:The Electronics of Radio
4547:Gibilisco, Stan (2002).
4262:
4235:
4153:intermediate frequencies
2177:{\displaystyle h<0.3}
2151:{\displaystyle 2f_{m}\,}
1514:signal with a frequency
686:{\displaystyle x_{m}(t)}
7451:Shortwave relay station
7350:Audio signal processing
6508:Molecular communication
6331:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
6160:Undersea telegraph line
5895:Cable protection system
5760:Television interference
5633:Television receive-only
5104:Frost, Gary L. (2010).
4899:Новая система радиофона
4630:Faruque, Saleh (2017).
4514:(FM and Ultra Wideband)
4381:FM is commonly used at
3917:{\displaystyle f_{m}\,}
3689:{\displaystyle B_{T}\,}
2646:Frequency spectrum and
2410:{\displaystyle f_{c}\,}
2325:{\displaystyle T_{s}\,}
2091:instantaneous frequency
2042:{\displaystyle f_{m}\,}
1814:{\displaystyle A_{m}\,}
1276:instantaneous frequency
411:instantaneous frequency
188:Hierarchical modulation
7524:Radio modulation modes
7345:Audio data compression
6650:Communication protocol
6436:Charles Sumner Tainter
6251:Walter Houser Brattain
6196:Edwin Howard Armstrong
6004:Information revolution
5682:Microwave transmission
5648:Terrestrial television
5643:Television transmitter
5603:Intermediate frequency
5396:Chrominance subcarrier
4865:Proceedings of the IRE
4285:Edwin Howard Armstrong
4281:
4104:Software-Defined Radio
4102:for FM broadcasts. In
4078:
4048:phase-modulated signal
3996:
3918:
3890:
3889:{\displaystyle \beta }
3870:
3843:
3842:{\displaystyle f(t)\,}
3813:
3786:
3690:
2660:
2604:
2577:
2547:
2512:
2511:{\displaystyle h\gg 1}
2483:
2447:
2411:
2379:
2326:
2295:
2178:
2152:
2117:
2116:{\displaystyle h\ll 1}
2082:
2043:
2012:
1869:
1815:
1784:
1638:
1465:
1301:
1279:of the oscillator and
1267:
1234:
1207:
1180:
1127:
772:
687:
590:"Frequency modulation"
504:and therefore rejects
448:frequency-shift keying
391:
363:
7446:Multipath propagation
7269:MPEG-1 Audio Layer II
7139:Frequency allocations
7014:Frequency allocations
6624:Polarization-division
6356:Narinder Singh Kapany
6321:Erna Schneider Hoover
6241:Jagadish Chandra Bose
6221:Alexander Graham Bell
5952:online video platform
5554:Broadcast transmitter
5153:Google Colab Platform
5087:Communication Systems
4791:Communication Systems
4730:Communication Systems
4728:Lathi, B. P. (1968).
4609:B. Boashash, editor,
4276:
4147:Magnetic tape storage
4123:When an echolocating
4076:
4016:signal-to-noise ratio
4014:FM provides improved
3997:
3919:
3891:
3871:
3869:{\displaystyle f_{c}}
3844:
3814:
3787:
3691:
3653:Carson bandwidth rule
2645:
2612:chirp spread spectrum
2605:
2603:{\displaystyle f_{m}}
2578:
2555:signal-to-noise ratio
2548:
2513:
2484:
2448:
2412:
2380:
2327:
2296:
2179:
2153:
2118:
2083:
2044:
2013:
1870:
1816:
1785:
1639:
1491:, it can be shown by
1466:
1302:
1268:
1235:
1233:{\displaystyle A_{m}}
1208:
1206:{\displaystyle K_{f}}
1181:
1128:
773:
688:
502:signal-to-noise ratio
476:. It is also used in
401:) is the encoding of
370:FM has better noise (
369:
357:
7399:Technical (emission)
6466:Vladimir K. Zworykin
6426:Almon Brown Strowger
6396:Charles Grafton Page
6051:Prepaid mobile phone
5979:Electrical telegraph
5796:Zero reference pulse
5781:Field strength meter
5518:Frequency modulation
5426:Horizontal scan rate
5054:10.3766/jaaa.16.10.5
4693:Silicon Laboratories
4664:Communication Theory
4487:Amplitude modulation
4451:assistive technology
4300:amplitude modulation
4056:frequency multiplier
3931:
3900:
3880:
3853:
3823:
3799:
3703:
3672:
2628:Family Radio Service
2587:
2561:
2526:
2496:
2457:
2421:
2393:
2336:
2308:
2194:
2162:
2131:
2101:
2066:
2025:
1917:
1829:
1797:
1793:where the amplitude
1654:
1528:
1344:
1283:
1247:
1217:
1190:
1140:
799:
701:
661:
575:improve this article
537:amplitude modulation
395:Frequency modulation
39:NFM (disambiguation)
18:Frequency Modulation
6416:Johann Philipp Reis
6175:Wireless revolution
6137:The Telephone Cases
5994:Hydraulic telegraph
5735:Noise (electronics)
5598:Intercarrier method
5558:Transmitter station
5193:broadcasting topics
5018:10.3766/jaaa.15.6.4
4955:10.3766/jaaa.25.6.3
4871:(5). IRE: 689–740.
4412:switching amplifier
4240:FM is also used at
4221:timebase correction
4159:systems (including
4151:FM is also used at
2687:Sideband amplitude
1877:frequency deviation
1545:
1310:frequency deviation
1088:
941:
866:
438:frequency deviation
6614:Frequency-division
6591:Telephone exchange
6461:Charles Wheatstone
6391:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
6366:Innocenzo Manzetti
6301:Reginald Fessenden
6036:Optical telegraphy
5869:Telecommunications
5623:Split sound system
5573:Differential phase
4469:. For people with
4420:less battery power
4282:
4079:
3992:
3914:
3886:
3866:
3839:
3809:
3782:
3686:
2661:
2600:
2573:
2543:
2508:
2479:
2443:
2407:
2375:
2322:
2291:
2174:
2148:
2113:
2078:
2039:
2008:
1886:distribution of a
1865:
1821:of the modulating
1811:
1780:
1634:
1531:
1497:frequency spectrum
1461:
1459:
1297:
1263:
1243:In this equation,
1230:
1203:
1176:
1123:
1121:
1074:
927:
852:
768:
683:
419:radio broadcasting
415:telecommunications
392:
364:
110:Digital modulation
7511:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7431:FM broadcast band
7338:Technical (audio)
7235:
7234:
7127:
7126:
6927:
6926:
6665:Store and forward
6660:Data transmission
6574:Network switching
6525:Transmission line
6371:Guglielmo Marconi
6336:Internet pioneers
6201:Mohamed M. Atalla
6170:Whistled language
5835:
5834:
5750:Radiation pattern
5568:Differential gain
5190:Analog television
5115:978-0-8018-9440-4
5096:978-0-07-011127-1
4776:978-0-87259-146-2
4646:978-3-319-41200-9
4596:978-0-521-64645-1
4566:978-0-07-137730-0
4475:cochlear implants
4455:auditory trainers
4386:radio frequencies
4337:employ a special
4331:FM broadcast band
4254:personal computer
4242:audio frequencies
4108:Hilbert transform
4091:phase-locked loop
3644:
3643:
2372:
2290:
2262:
2261:
2225:
2006:
1948:
1908:carrier frequency
1737:
1631:
651:
650:
643:
625:
488:for seizures via
423:signal processing
362:or FM radio wave.
352:
351:
67:Analog modulation
16:(Redirected from
7531:
7493:Radio portal
7491:
7490:
7489:
7467:History of radio
7411:AM expanded band
7328:
7327:
7211:Commercial radio
7136:
7135:
6979:
6978:
6954:
6947:
6940:
6931:
6930:
6917:
6916:
6907:
6906:
6897:
6896:
6887:
6886:
6885:
6758:Notable networks
6748:Wireless network
6688:Cellular network
6680:Types of network
6655:Computer network
6542:Network topology
6456:Thomas A. Watson
6311:Oliver Heaviside
6296:Philo Farnsworth
6271:Daniel Davis Jr.
6246:Charles Bourseul
6206:John Logie Baird
5915:Data compression
5910:Computer network
5862:
5855:
5848:
5839:
5838:
5677:Frequency offset
5618:Residual carrier
5563:Cavity amplifier
5461:Television lines
5183:
5176:
5169:
5160:
5159:
5151:using Python in
5138:
5119:
5100:
5073:
5072:
5037:
5031:
5030:
5020:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4937:
4931:
4930:
4908:
4902:
4895:
4889:
4888:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4819:
4809:
4803:
4800:
4794:
4787:
4781:
4780:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4747:
4741:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4709:
4703:. Archived from
4690:
4681:
4675:
4660:
4651:
4650:
4638:
4627:
4621:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4554:
4544:
4529:Phase modulation
4518:History of radio
4424:linear amplifier
4361:adjacent channel
4296:signal bandwidth
4163:) to record the
4001:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3943:
3942:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3887:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3783:
3766:
3765:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3715:
3714:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3684:
3683:
2679:
2678:
2665:Bessel functions
2657:
2653:
2638:Bessel functions
2626:systems such as
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2583:, while keeping
2582:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2568:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2469:
2468:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2433:
2432:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2274:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2073:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1979:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1902:Modulation index
1896:Bessel functions
1874:
1872:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1841:
1840:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1726:
1725:
1716:
1708:
1707:
1681:
1680:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1602:
1575:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1539:
1493:Fourier analysis
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1433:
1424:
1423:
1411:
1410:
1379:
1378:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1212:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1152:
1151:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1051:
1050:
1024:
1023:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
989:
979:
978:
969:
968:
956:
955:
940:
935:
909:
908:
893:
889:
885:
865:
860:
834:
833:
777:
775:
774:
769:
760:
759:
735:
734:
713:
712:
692:
690:
689:
684:
673:
672:
646:
639:
635:
632:
626:
624:
583:
559:
551:
533:angle modulation
529:phase modulation
376:General Electric
344:
337:
330:
61:
44:
43:
21:
7539:
7538:
7534:
7533:
7532:
7530:
7529:
7528:
7514:
7513:
7512:
7503:
7487:
7485:
7476:
7455:
7436:FM broadcasting
7406:AM broadcasting
7394:
7354:
7333:
7322:
7278:
7231:
7205:
7174:Digital systems
7169:
7154:
7123:
7084:Digital systems
7079:
7008:
6970:
6958:
6928:
6923:
6883:
6881:
6873:
6815:
6752:
6674:
6638:
6595:
6544:
6536:
6477:
6470:
6376:Robert Metcalfe
6231:Tim Berners-Lee
6179:
5999:Information Age
5871:
5866:
5836:
5831:
5800:
5776:Distortionmeter
5764:
5701:
5662:
5593:Frequency mixer
5549:Antenna (radio)
5532:
5506:
5475:
5416:Composite video
5360:
5309:
5195:
5187:
5145:
5135:
5116:
5097:
5081:
5079:Further reading
5076:
5048:(10): 809–821.
5038:
5034:
4997:
4993:
4938:
4934:
4909:
4905:
4896:
4892:
4861:
4857:
4850:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4832:
4810:
4806:
4801:
4797:
4788:
4784:
4777:
4763:
4759:
4748:
4744:
4727:
4723:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4688:
4684:Der, Lawrence.
4682:
4678:
4661:
4654:
4647:
4636:
4628:
4624:
4608:
4604:
4597:
4581:
4577:
4567:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4502:FM broadcasting
4483:
4447:
4353:Frequency drift
4347:, in which the
4271:
4269:FM broadcasting
4265:
4238:
4207:effect removes
4197:noise reduction
4187:, too wide for
4149:
4141:Hans Schnitzler
4121:
4116:
4095:Slope detection
4071:
4065:
4033:
4028:
4012:
4010:Noise reduction
3938:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3907:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3860:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3761:
3757:
3740:
3736:
3726:
3722:
3710:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3679:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3655:
3649:
2683:
2655:
2651:
2640:
2632:FM broadcasting
2594:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2567:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2400:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2343:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2315:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2232:
2230:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2205:
2203:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2072:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2057:
2032:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2000:
1996:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1928:
1926:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1836:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1804:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1745:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1715:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1688:
1676:
1672:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1574:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1535:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1519:
1512:continuous wave
1505:
1490:
1482:
1458:
1457:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1386:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1328:
1318:
1290:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1120:
1119:
1093:
1089:
1083:
1078:
1068:
1064:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1019:
1015:
1006:
1005:
974:
970:
964:
960:
951:
947:
946:
942:
936:
931:
920:
916:
904:
900:
891:
890:
861:
856:
845:
841:
829:
825:
818:
802:
800:
797:
796:
790:
783:
755:
751:
730:
726:
708:
704:
702:
699:
698:
668:
664:
662:
659:
658:
655:baseband signal
647:
636:
630:
627:
584:
582:
572:
560:
549:
539:, in which the
498:sound synthesis
466:also uses FSK.
409:by varying the
348:
211:Spread spectrum
42:
35:
32:FM broadcasting
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7537:
7527:
7526:
7509:
7508:
7505:
7504:
7502:
7501:
7496:
7481:
7478:
7477:
7475:
7474:
7469:
7463:
7461:
7457:
7456:
7454:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7438:
7433:
7428:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7408:
7402:
7400:
7396:
7395:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7385:Kahn-Hazeltine
7382:
7377:
7372:
7366:
7364:
7356:
7355:
7353:
7352:
7347:
7341:
7339:
7335:
7334:
7332:Related topics
7324:
7323:
7321:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7295:
7289:
7287:
7280:
7279:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7245:
7243:
7237:
7236:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7229:
7228:
7227:
7216:
7214:
7207:
7206:
7204:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7177:
7175:
7171:
7170:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7148:
7142:
7140:
7133:
7129:
7128:
7125:
7124:
7122:
7121:
7116:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7087:
7085:
7081:
7080:
7078:
7077:
7067:
7049:
7039:
7029:
7018:
7016:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6988:
6976:
6972:
6971:
6957:
6956:
6949:
6942:
6934:
6925:
6924:
6922:
6921:
6911:
6901:
6891:
6878:
6875:
6874:
6872:
6871:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6843:
6842:
6837:
6829:
6823:
6821:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6762:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6684:
6682:
6676:
6675:
6673:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6646:
6644:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6609:Space-division
6605:
6603:
6597:
6596:
6594:
6593:
6588:
6587:
6586:
6581:
6571:
6570:
6569:
6559:
6554:
6548:
6546:
6538:
6537:
6535:
6534:
6533:
6532:
6522:
6521:
6520:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6499:
6498:
6488:
6482:
6480:
6472:
6471:
6469:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6446:Camille Tissot
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6421:Claude Shannon
6418:
6413:
6411:Tivadar Puskás
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6381:Antonio Meucci
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6351:Charles K. Kao
6348:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6326:Harold Hopkins
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6226:Emile Berliner
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6187:
6185:
6181:
6180:
6178:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6165:Videotelephony
6162:
6157:
6156:
6155:
6150:
6140:
6133:
6128:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6068:
6063:
6061:Radiotelephone
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6027:
6026:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5947:Internet video
5939:
5938:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5881:
5879:
5873:
5872:
5865:
5864:
5857:
5850:
5842:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5808:
5806:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5772:
5770:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5711:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5673:
5671:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5583:Dipole antenna
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5551:
5546:
5540:
5538:
5534:
5533:
5531:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5514:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5497:Sound-in-Syncs
5494:
5489:
5483:
5481:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5386:Blanking level
5383:
5378:
5368:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5317:
5315:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5307:
5293:
5251:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5205:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5186:
5185:
5178:
5171:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5144:
5143:External links
5141:
5140:
5139:
5133:
5120:
5114:
5101:
5095:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5032:
5011:(6): 426–439.
4991:
4949:(6): 529–540.
4932:
4903:
4890:
4855:
4837:
4831:978-1580532846
4830:
4804:
4795:
4793:, 4th ed.
4782:
4775:
4757:
4742:
4721:
4676:
4652:
4645:
4622:
4602:
4595:
4575:
4565:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4526:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4482:
4479:
4446:
4443:
4344:capture effect
4267:Main article:
4264:
4261:
4237:
4234:
4148:
4145:
4120:
4119:Doppler effect
4117:
4115:
4112:
4087:ratio detector
4064:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4044:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Implementation
4024:
4011:
4008:
4003:
4002:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3910:
3906:
3885:
3863:
3859:
3837:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3807:
3804:
3793:
3792:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3749:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3682:
3678:
3651:Main article:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3602:
3599:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2648:waterfall plot
2639:
2636:
2597:
2593:
2571:
2566:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2403:
2399:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2318:
2314:
2302:
2301:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2076:
2071:
2053:
2035:
2031:
2019:
2018:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1925:
1922:
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1900:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1848:
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1807:
1803:
1791:
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1627:
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1549:
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1534:
1517:
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1471:
1455:
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1011:
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1007:
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988:
985:
982:
977:
973:
967:
963:
959:
954:
950:
945:
939:
934:
930:
926:
923:
919:
915:
912:
907:
903:
899:
896:
894:
892:
888:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
864:
859:
855:
851:
848:
844:
840:
837:
832:
828:
824:
821:
819:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
804:
788:
781:
766:
763:
758:
754:
750:
747:
744:
741:
738:
733:
729:
725:
722:
719:
716:
711:
707:
682:
679:
676:
671:
667:
649:
648:
563:
561:
554:
548:
545:
390:in New Jersey.
350:
349:
347:
346:
339:
332:
324:
321:
320:
319:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
245:
244:
240:
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227:
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214:
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207:
206:
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199:
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190:
184:
183:
182:
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176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
113:
112:
106:
105:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
70:
69:
63:
62:
54:
53:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7536:
7525:
7522:
7521:
7519:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7494:
7483:
7482:
7479:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7464:
7462:
7458:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7444:
7442:
7439:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7424:
7422:
7421:Digital radio
7419:
7417:
7414:
7412:
7409:
7407:
7404:
7403:
7401:
7397:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
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7351:
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7329:
7325:
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7314:
7311:
7309:
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7301:
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7281:
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7260:
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7250:
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7242:
7238:
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7223:
7222:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7215:
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7208:
7202:
7199:
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7182:
7179:
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7172:
7166:
7163:
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7158:
7156:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7143:
7141:
7137:
7134:
7130:
7120:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7088:
7086:
7082:
7075:
7071:
7068:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7050:
7047:
7043:
7040:
7037:
7033:
7030:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7019:
7017:
7015:
7011:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6980:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6966:
6965:digital audio
6962:
6955:
6950:
6948:
6943:
6941:
6936:
6935:
6932:
6920:
6912:
6910:
6902:
6900:
6892:
6890:
6880:
6879:
6876:
6869:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6832:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6822:
6818:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6755:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6681:
6677:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6641:
6635:
6634:Code-division
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6619:Time-division
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6598:
6592:
6589:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6576:
6575:
6572:
6568:
6565:
6564:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6549:
6547:
6545:and switching
6543:
6539:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6526:
6523:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6497:
6496:optical fiber
6494:
6493:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6486:Coaxial cable
6484:
6483:
6481:
6479:
6473:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6401:Radia Perlman
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6291:Lee de Forest
6289:
6287:
6286:Thomas Edison
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6276:Donald Davies
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6261:Claude Chappe
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6188:
6186:
6182:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6145:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6138:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6105:Smoke signals
6103:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6085:
6084:
6083:Semiconductor
6081:
6077:
6074:
6073:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5942:Digital media
5940:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5882:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5863:
5858:
5856:
5851:
5849:
5844:
5843:
5840:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5803:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5767:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5708:
5704:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5535:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5513:
5509:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5484:
5482:
5478:
5472:
5471:White clipper
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5421:Frame (video)
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5318:
5316:
5314:Color systems
5312:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5294:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5252:
5249:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5229:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5191:
5184:
5179:
5177:
5172:
5170:
5165:
5164:
5161:
5154:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5136:
5134:0-8493-8345-5
5130:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5107:
5102:
5098:
5092:
5088:
5083:
5082:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5061:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5036:
5028:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4978:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4936:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4915:
4907:
4900:
4894:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4847:
4841:
4833:
4827:
4823:
4818:
4817:
4808:
4799:
4792:
4786:
4778:
4772:
4768:
4761:
4753:
4746:
4739:
4738:0-471-51832-8
4735:
4731:
4725:
4710:on 2014-10-21
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4687:
4680:
4673:
4672:0-07-059091-5
4669:
4665:
4659:
4657:
4648:
4642:
4635:
4634:
4626:
4620:
4619:0-08-044335-4
4616:
4612:
4606:
4598:
4592:
4588:
4587:
4579:
4572:
4568:
4562:
4558:
4553:
4552:
4543:
4539:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4484:
4478:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4431:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4408:
4406:
4405:two-way radio
4403:settings. In
4402:
4401:amateur radio
4398:
4395:of music and
4394:
4391:
4390:high-fidelity
4387:
4384:
4379:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4355:or a lack of
4354:
4350:
4346:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4312:high fidelity
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4233:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4209:print-through
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4177:magnetic tape
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4133:Doppler shift
4130:
4126:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4077:FM modulation
4075:
4070:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4023:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3974:
3971:
3968:
3962:
3959:
3956:
3947:
3944:
3939:
3935:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3908:
3904:
3883:
3861:
3857:
3832:
3826:
3805:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3730:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3680:
3676:
3668:
3664:
3663:Carson's rule
3660:
3659:rule of thumb
3654:
3647:Carson's rule
3639:
3636:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3570:
3567:
3564:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
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3230:
3229:
3226:
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3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3098:
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3079:
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3027:
3025:
3023:
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3019:
3016:
3013:
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3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
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2992:
2990:
2988:
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2910:
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2904:
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2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
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2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2853:
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2839:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2649:
2644:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2624:two-way radio
2619:
2615:
2613:
2595:
2591:
2569:
2556:
2533:
2529:
2521:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2490:
2476:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2440:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2401:
2397:
2388:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2316:
2312:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2267:
2264:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2227:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2200:
2197:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2125:narrowband FM
2110:
2107:
2104:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2074:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2033:
2029:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1923:
1920:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1878:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1833:
1824:
1805:
1801:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1650:
1649:
1648:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1513:
1510:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1365:
1357:
1351:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1311:
1287:
1278:
1277:
1256:
1250:
1241:
1225:
1221:
1198:
1194:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1144:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1010:
1001:
997:
994:
990:
983:
975:
971:
961:
957:
952:
948:
943:
937:
932:
928:
924:
921:
917:
913:
910:
905:
901:
897:
895:
886:
882:
879:
873:
867:
862:
857:
853:
849:
846:
842:
838:
835:
830:
826:
822:
820:
812:
806:
795:
794:
793:
791:
784:
761:
756:
752:
748:
745:
739:
736:
731:
727:
723:
717:
709:
705:
696:
677:
669:
665:
656:
645:
642:
634:
631:November 2017
623:
620:
616:
613:
609:
606:
602:
599:
595:
592: –
591:
587:
586:Find sources:
580:
576:
570:
569:
564:This section
562:
558:
553:
552:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
522:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:two-way radio
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
472:
467:
465:
464:Radioteletype
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
439:
435:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
368:
361:
356:
345:
340:
338:
333:
331:
326:
325:
323:
322:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
247:
246:
242:
241:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
217:
216:
215:
212:
209:
208:
203:
200:
198:
195:
194:
193:
192:
189:
186:
185:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
116:
115:
114:
111:
108:
107:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
73:
72:
71:
68:
65:
64:
60:
56:
55:
52:
49:
46:
45:
40:
33:
19:
7484:
6998:
6968:broadcasting
6601:Multiplexing
6476:Transmission
6441:Nikola Tesla
6431:Henry Sutton
6386:Samuel Morse
6316:Robert Hooke
6281:Amos Dolbear
6216:John Bardeen
6135:
6115:Telautograph
6019:Mobile phone
5974:Edholm's law
5957:social media
5890:Broadcasting
5822:Hanover bars
5613:Pre-emphasis
5537:Transmission
5517:
5502:Zweikanalton
5406:Color killer
5331:Clear-Vision
5124:
5105:
5086:
5067:– via
5059:
5045:
5041:
5035:
5008:
5004:
4994:
4984:– via
4976:
4946:
4942:
4935:
4913:
4906:
4893:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4840:
4815:
4807:
4798:
4790:
4785:
4766:
4760:
4751:
4745:
4729:
4724:
4712:. Retrieved
4705:the original
4692:
4679:
4663:
4632:
4625:
4610:
4605:
4585:
4578:
4570:
4550:
4542:
4454:
4448:
4432:
4409:
4380:
4376:multiplexing
4369:
4363:. Frequency
4342:
4308:interference
4293:
4283:
4250:synthesizers
4246:FM synthesis
4239:
4225:
4150:
4136:
4129:echolocation
4122:
4114:Applications
4094:
4080:
4063:Demodulation
4034:
4013:
4004:
3794:
3662:
3656:
2674:
2662:
2622:is used for
2620:
2616:
2519:
2491:
2386:
2303:
2186:
2124:
2096:
2089:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2020:
1905:
1881:
1792:
1646:
1515:
1506:
1485:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1308:
1274:
1242:
1135:
786:
779:
652:
637:
628:
618:
611:
604:
597:
585:
573:Please help
568:verification
565:
526:
518:
474:broadcasting
468:
458:, telephone
444:Digital data
442:
431:
407:carrier wave
398:
394:
393:
380:electric arc
316:Multiplexing
256:Demodulation
80:
7416:Cable radio
7359:Technical (
7119:DVB-T2 Lite
6975:Terrestrial
6801:NPL network
6513:Radio waves
6451:Alfred Vail
6361:Hedy Lamarr
6346:Dawon Kahng
6306:Elisha Gray
6266:Yogen Dalal
6191:Nasir Ahmed
6125:Teleprinter
5989:Heliographs
5791:VIT signals
5786:Vectorscope
5725:Earth bulge
5707:Propagation
5670:& bands
5668:Frequencies
5451:Raster scan
5391:Chrominance
5381:Black level
5376:front porch
5155:, by C Foh.
4459:hearing aid
4357:selectivity
4257:sound cards
4183:to several
4169:chrominance
2650:of a 146.52
2520:wideband FM
2387:fundamental
697:carrier is
403:information
261:Line coding
7298:DirectBand
7284:Subcarrier
6986:modulation
6847:Antarctica
6806:Toasternet
6728:Television
6211:Paul Baran
6143:Television
6127:(teletype)
6120:Telegraphy
6098:transistor
6076:Phryctoria
6046:Photophone
6024:Smartphone
6014:Mass media
5720:Distortion
5653:Transposer
5588:Dummy load
5544:Amplifiers
5511:Modulation
5401:Colorburst
5372:Back porch
4846:US 1342885
4714:17 October
4535:References
4523:Modulation
4393:broadcasts
4205:FM capture
4189:equalizers
4155:by analog
4067:See also:
4031:Modulation
2682:Modulation
2659:magnitude.
1892:sinusoidal
1509:sinusoidal
695:sinusoidal
601:newspapers
456:fax modems
454:, such as
51:modulation
7361:AM stereo
7220:Sirius XM
7213:providers
7132:Satellite
6831:Americas
6820:Locations
6791:Internet2
6552:Bandwidth
6256:Vint Cerf
6153:streaming
6131:Telephone
6071:Semaphore
5962:streaming
5827:Sparklies
5812:Dot crawl
5805:Artifacts
5745:Path loss
5740:Null fill
5715:Beam tilt
5456:Safe area
5069:EBSCOhost
5065:106441304
4986:EBSCOhost
4982:107832936
4963:1050-0545
4897:Ф. Лбов.
4507:FM stereo
4335:receivers
4185:megahertz
4165:luminance
4143:in 1968.
4100:detection
3954:Δ
3884:β
3803:Δ
3771:β
3728:Δ
3667:bandwidth
2565:Δ
2538:Δ
2503:≫
2474:Δ
2471:−
2438:Δ
2271:Δ
2234:Δ
2207:Δ
2108:≪
2070:Δ
1962:Δ
1930:Δ
1888:sine wave
1838:Δ
1754:π
1743:
1723:Δ
1697:π
1686:
1618:π
1592:π
1581:
1569:τ
1560:τ
1533:∫
1421:Δ
1395:π
1384:
1292:Δ
1257:τ
1149:Δ
1112:τ
1103:τ
1076:∫
1070:Δ
1062:π
1040:π
1029:
998:τ
984:τ
966:Δ
929:∫
925:π
914:
883:τ
874:τ
854:∫
850:π
839:
749:π
740:
541:amplitude
521:multipath
496:systems,
478:telemetry
460:caller ID
427:computing
7518:Category
7460:Cultural
7390:Magnavox
7363:formats)
7313:SCA/SCMO
7308:RDS/RBDS
7111:HD Radio
7101:DRM/DRM+
7096:DAB/DAB+
6899:Category
6786:Internet
6776:CYCLADES
6693:Ethernet
6643:Concepts
6567:terminal
6518:wireless
6341:Bob Kahn
6184:Pioneers
6009:Internet
5900:Cable TV
5817:Ghosting
5578:Diplexer
5446:Overscan
5411:Color TV
5304:System F
5300:System E
5296:819-line
5290:System N
5286:System L
5282:System K
5278:System I
5274:System H
5270:System G
5266:System D
5262:System C
5258:System B
5254:625-line
5248:System M
5244:525-line
5239:455-line
5234:441-line
5228:System A
5224:405-line
5219:375-line
5214:343-line
5209:180-line
5027:15341224
4971:25313543
4885:43628076
4701:48672999
4481:See also
4339:detector
4319:FM radio
4213:pre-echo
3430:8.65373
3231:5.52008
2999:2.40483
2692:Carrier
2669:sideband
1884:harmonic
1823:sinusoid
778:, where
693:and the
524:signal.
514:FM radio
486:newborns
471:FM radio
243:See also
48:Passband
7286:signals
7254:AMR-WB+
7106:FMeXtra
6919:Commons
6909:Outline
6862:Oceania
6781:FidoNet
6766:ARPANET
6579:circuit
6148:digital
5877:History
5769:Testing
5351:PALplus
5201:Systems
4201:limiter
2062:), and
1307:is the
1273:is the
615:scholar
7380:Harris
7375:C-QUAM
7264:HE-AAC
7241:Codecs
7225:Canada
7191:DVB-SH
7165:S band
7160:L band
7146:C band
7070:L band
6961:Analog
6857:Europe
6827:Africa
6811:Usenet
6771:BITNET
6708:Mobile
6584:packet
6093:MOSFET
6088:device
5885:Beacon
5326:NTSC-J
5131:
5112:
5093:
5063:
5025:
4980:
4969:
4961:
4883:
4851:
4828:
4773:
4736:
4699:
4674:p. 136
4670:
4643:
4617:
4593:
4563:
4512:FM-UWB
4397:speech
4372:stereo
4333:). FM
4229:Bessel
3795:where
3613:−0.17
3610:−0.24
3607:−0.07
3598:−0.08
3595:−0.22
3556:−0.01
3553:−0.23
3550:−0.22
3538:−0.25
3500:−0.06
3497:−0.27
3494:−0.18
3485:−0.09
3445:−0.23
3442:−0.24
3394:−0.10
3391:−0.29
3388:−0.11
3341:−0.17
3338:−0.30
3289:−0.24
3286:−0.28
3240:−0.13
3237:−0.34
3189:−0.33
3186:−0.18
3142:−0.07
3139:−0.40
3093:−0.26
3047:−0.05
2684:index
2656:
2652:
2304:where
2289:
2021:where
1136:where
617:
610:
603:
596:
588:
547:Theory
452:modems
434:analog
425:, and
384:static
169:SC-FDE
7370:Belar
7196:S-DMB
7186:DAB-S
7091:CAM-D
7004:COFDM
6983:Radio
6840:South
6835:North
6796:JANET
6733:Telex
6723:Radio
6562:Nodes
6557:Links
6478:media
6056:Radio
6041:Pager
5969:Drums
5935:video
5930:image
5920:audio
5492:NICAM
5480:Sound
5365:Video
5356:SECAM
5346:PAL-S
5341:PAL-M
5058:EBSCO
4975:EBSCO
4881:S2CID
4708:(PDF)
4697:S2CID
4689:(PDF)
4637:(PDF)
4497:Chirp
4365:drift
4349:tuner
4315:radio
4304:noise
4298:than
4263:Radio
4236:Sound
4217:V2000
4181:hertz
3640:0.01
3637:0.03
3634:0.07
3631:0.12
3628:0.20
3625:0.27
3622:0.30
3619:0.23
3616:0.05
3604:0.18
3601:0.20
3592:0.05
3589:12.0
3580:0.01
3577:0.03
3574:0.06
3571:0.12
3568:0.21
3565:0.29
3562:0.32
3559:0.22
3547:0.06
3544:0.25
3541:0.04
3535:10.0
3524:0.01
3521:0.03
3518:0.06
3515:0.12
3512:0.21
3509:0.31
3506:0.33
3503:0.20
3491:0.14
3488:0.25
3469:0.02
3466:0.05
3463:0.10
3460:0.18
3457:0.28
3454:0.34
3451:0.26
3448:0.03
3439:0.06
3436:0.27
3433:0.00
3415:0.03
3412:0.06
3409:0.13
3406:0.22
3403:0.32
3400:0.34
3397:0.19
3385:0.23
3382:0.17
3362:0.02
3359:0.06
3356:0.13
3353:0.23
3350:0.34
3347:0.35
3344:0.16
3335:0.00
3332:0.30
3310:0.02
3307:0.06
3304:0.13
3301:0.25
3298:0.36
3295:0.36
3292:0.11
3283:0.15
3261:0.01
3258:0.03
3255:0.09
3252:0.19
3249:0.32
3246:0.40
3243:0.25
3234:0.00
3210:0.02
3207:0.05
3204:0.13
3201:0.26
3198:0.39
3195:0.36
3192:0.05
3160:0.02
3157:0.05
3154:0.13
3151:0.28
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