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1286:, and has likened it to the rolling and unrolling of thread to represent manâs sense of mortality and the continual gain of new memory; a spectrum of a thousand shades with a current of feeling running through them, collecting and retaining them, to represent how all the moments are heterogeneous; and a piece of elastic contracted to a point and then drawn out indefinitely, producing a line which will progressively grow longer and longer, to represent pure, indivisible mobility. However, these images are insufficient and can only show the idea indirectly. The first is too homogeneous, the second is juxtaposed and complete whereas time is in a constant state of becoming, and the third forgets the heterogeneous nature of the idea. In fact, Bergson maintains that the case is the same for any other image of the idea one can produce.
1702:(1905â1980) defined his existentialism as drawing all the conclusions from a consistent line of atheism. His major thesis is that existence precedes essence. With an immaterial object, such as a knife, an artisan devises an essence, such as that of slicing bread, and then produces an object whose purpose it is to fulfil its essence. However, without God, there is no artisan who developed the essence of man in a teleological sense. So first man is born free, thrown into the world where sole responsibility for his actions rests on his shoulders, then through his actions he defines the essence of not only himself, but of what he believes man ought to be. The denial of this responsibility through excuses is what Sartre termed
2040:. He saw difference as prior to identity and reason as not all-encompassing, but a little haven built in the duration of difference-in-itself. He likened it to Christianity, where if you accept original sin and immaculate conception, then it all makes sense. Deleuze also developed a constructivist view of philosophy as the job of developing concepts, just like it is the poetâs job to produce poems and the painterâs job to paint paintings. For these reasons, Deleuze developed an idiosyncratic way of reading philosophers which he once referred to as buggery. He would use them as stepping stones for creating new concepts which appear to belong to the philosopher heâs reading, but are utterly different. An example is that of
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862:. For Descartes, a substance is that which can be conceived independent of everything else and exist independent of anything else. Since Descartes conceived of the mind independent of everything else when doubting everything uncertain, and because if he wanted to God could produce a world in which only the mind existed, he came to define the mind as a different substance from that of body. For Descartes, the mind is defined as an unextended substance and the body as an extended substance. This raised the fundamental question of how it is possible that mind and body interact with one another.
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analysis and believes it can never represent the absolute. He likens it to constructing a model of a city out of a collection of photographs taken from every angle and a poem being translated and having commentary piled upon commentary: the model of the city can never replicate the feeling of being in the city itself and the translation and commentaries can never give the simple dimensional value of walking in the city itself. Indeed, symbols always distort the part of an object they represent through generalization to include it and every other objectsâ part they represent.
1301:, the sympathy by which one is transported into an object to grasp what is unique and ineffable within it. Intuition is a complete philosophical method that involves placing oneself within the Duration, and expanding it into a continuous heterogeneity, differentiating the extremities within it to create a dualism, before showing them to in fact be one. An example of this is Duration itself, which is neither a multiplicity or a unity. But depending on which point of view one recreates it from, one will either reconstruct it as a unity or a multiplicity. Hence
2007:. Deconstruction takes a text, examines binary oppositions within it from several different interpreting standpoints, and then attempts to show them to be dependent upon one another, unstable, ambiguous and historically and culturally defined. Through showing the fluidity of the dichotomies, deconstruction shows the fluidity of the text. Derrida maintained that no meaning is stable, not even the dichotomies classical philosophers took for granted. Through an internal logic, the text deconstructs itself and hence allows highly original interpretations.
1985:(1926â1984) maintained a similar scepticism about absolutes, such as right and wrong, sane and insane, and human nature. His method was not to deny such notions, but to historicize them, examining what in the supposedly necessary may be contingent, and demonstrating the relationships between knowledge and politics, power and knowledge. His main fields of investigation were psychiatry, medicine and disciplinary institutions. Foucault was anti-Hegelian and anti-teleological in his historical excavations. Through his examinations of psychiatry in
1740:. Beauvoir believed that through surrounding women in a false aura of mystery, man had turned her into "the other". Furthermore, she proclaimed women were stereotyped by this aura and that it was used by man as an excuse for not understanding them and dominating them. "The other" is always the underclass. But Beauvoir maintains that Sartreâs thesis (that is, existence precedes essence) applies to women as much as it does to men and that through their choices and actions, women can transcend this aura and reject being the underclass.
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884:(1638â1715). Malebranche maintained that created substances of a different kind cannot interact with one another. In fact, he believed substances of the same kind could not interact either because no necessary causation could be perceived. He proposes then that it is God, an uncreated substance, who brings it about that each time one perceives a 'cause', one also perceives an 'effect'. Hence the doctrine is named
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1184:(1857â1913) was a Swiss linguist who taught for many years in Paris. He was concerned with distinguishing linguistics from philology by moving from the study of the history of individual words and comparisons of languages to the study of the essential underlying structures of language. His small output of work, most of which was published posthumously, became the foundations of
1854:, Barthes explored articles, advertisements, movies, etc. to demonstrate the deep-seated bourgeois propaganda found within. He described these myths as second-order signs. A certain form of green bottles signify red wine. The bourgeois then assign a second signifier to this signifier, that of relaxing, healthy, strong wine, be it to sell products or uphold the status quo.
1941:. This rise was especially noticeable in France. However, the term is fairly hard to define. In fact, some people maintain that it is nothing but a slur applied to a group of disparate philosophers wrongly grouped together. However, it can also be seen as a critique of traditional western thought, particularly dichotomies and the belief in progress, influenced heavily by
2052:(born 1937) developed a feminist interpretation of post-structuralism most influenced by Derrida. She argued that patriarchal cultures build male domination into their language and literary canon, and that a feminist revolution must account for this. She urged female writers to adopt deconstructionist methods and forward their own vision of life as a woman.
959:, Montesquieu outlined the view that man and societies are influenced by climate. He believed that hotter climates create hot-tempered people and colder climates aloof people, whereas the mild climate of France is ideal for political systems. This theory may possibly have been influenced by similar sentiment expressed in
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something of modern speculation, is the more remarkable because his scholastic successors accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly venturing to bring the principles and rules of conduct under pure philosophical discussion, even after the great ethical inquiries of
Aristotle became fully known to them.
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1060:, which was a threat to the aristocracy because it asserted that the state should take care of the people and not itself, religious freedom, freedom of thought and the value of science and industry. In the end, the bookseller began removing all articles he deemed controversial in fear of punishment. The
1662:. He was awarded the Kyoto prize in arts and philosophy for having "revolutionized the methods of hermeneutic phenomenology, expanding the study of textual interpretation to include the broad yet concrete domains of mythology, biblical exegesis, psychoanalysis, theory of metaphor, and narrative theory.
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It can already be seen clearly that language is highly dualistic for
Saussure. Indeed, he maintained that man thought essentially in dichotomies. For Saussure, the way language can be studied is dualistic too. It can be studied synchronically, i.e. as a complete system within a frozen moment of time,
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that art and science are corruptors of human morality. Furthermore, he caused controversy with his theory that man is good by nature but corrupted by society, which is a direct contradiction of the
Christian doctrine of original sin. Some of his theories continue to be controversial, such as his idea
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The general importance of
Abelard lies in his having fixed more decisively than anyone before him the scholastic manner of philosophizing, with the object of giving a formally rational expression to received ecclesiastical doctrine. However his own particular interpretations may have been condemned,
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and defines it as being qualitative, not quantitative, unextended, not extended, a multiplicity yet a unity, mobile and continuously interpenetrating itself. However, it should be warned that
Bergson believes Duration cannot be represented by concepts either. Bergson calls the creation of concepts
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story of an Empire that creates a map which was so accurate that it laid over and covered the entire city it mapped. The map grew when the Empire grew, and decayed when the empire decayed. When the empire was destroyed, the only object left was the map. For
Baudrillard, people live in the map and
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Descartes then claimed that because he discovered the Cogito through perceiving it clearly and distinctly, anything he can perceive clearly and distinctly must be true. Then he argues that he can conceive of an infinite being, but finite beings cannot produce infinite ideas and hence an infinite
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Outside of his dialectic, it was in ethics that
Abelard showed greatest activity of philosophical thought. He laid particular stress upon the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral character, at least the moral value, of human action. His thought in this direction, anticipating
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For
Saussure, the essential unit of any language is the word, or sign. Like language, he divides the word into two inseparable parts: the signifier, which is the sound image, and the signified, which is the concept associated with the signifier. Saussure stressed the arbitrariness of this
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can be defined as a way of philosophizing which involves descriptive explanations of phenomena as it is given to consciousness and how it is given to consciousness, which attempts to avoid imposed explanations. In France, phenomenology was seen as a radical
Cartesianism which rejected
1991:, he showed that the development of psychiatry was not an obvious improvement on previous treatments of the insane, and that furthermore, the apparent scientific neutrality of psychiatric treatments hides the fact that they are a form of controlling defiance of bourgeois society.
830:
After invoking the possibility of an omnipotent deceiver to reject the external world, the information given to him from his senses, mathematics and logic, Descartes discovered at least one thing could be known apodictically. If he himself was doubting, then he had to exist. Thus
1646:. In contrast to the clear distinction between the mind and the external world, where the latter is but an extension of the former, the subject-body is an existential account of the pre-reflective subject, the subject's perception and the world as intricately intertwined.
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was a prominent school of thought in the first half of the 20th century. Traditionally, existentialism is concerned with the human condition, exploring such topics as purpose, freedom and the experience of the other. It can trace its roots back to philosophers such as
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association, maintaining that any signifier can refer to any signified. How a sign obtains its meaning is by what it is not within the langue, not what it is. For example, the word âdogâ means dog simply because it does not mean cat, bird or cornflakes.
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and French institutions, his defence of civil liberties and his support of social reform. The civil liberties for which he fought were those of the right to a free trial and freedom of religion. He is best remembered for his aphorisms and his satire of
1973:. Lyotard considered the metanarrative an essential feature of modernity. Hence the postmodern condition is the replacement of metanarratives with a multiplicity of micro-narratives, or to call them the appellation Lyotard gave them,
891:
Malebranche was well-known and celebrated in his own time, but has since become somewhat of an obscure figure in the history of western philosophy. His philosophy had a profound effect on it, however, through its influence upon
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principles and many of its philosophers became critics of church and state and promoters of rationality and progress. These philosophers would come to have a deep influence on the politics and ideologies of France and
America.
2036:(1925â1995) developed a philosophy of difference which valued the simulacrum higher than the idea and its copy, which is an inversion of Platoâs method, which held the idea and its copy in high esteem and neglected the
847:, to invoke the existence of an omni-benevolent God as the indubitable foundation that makes all sciences possible. Many people admired Descartes intentions, but were unsatisfied with this solution. Some accused him of
1977:. Lyotard maintained that these language games lack any all-embracing structure but were brought about by technological developments in such fields as communication and mass media making metanarratives indefensible.
1728:, where he is doomed forever to push a rock up a hill only for it to roll down again, Camusâ answer is "No. It requires revolt. The struggle itself is enough to fill a manâs heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
1247:(1859â1941) was somewhat of a celebrity. His philosophy appealed both to academics and the general public from its first inception in 1889 to Bergsonâs death in the early 20th century. Although a major influence on
1816:. Structuralism played a major role in intellectual thought after World War Two, where it rejected existential concepts of freedom for the idea of man as determined by structures in the thought of such thinkers as
1769:. Her notable ideas include decreation (renouncing the gift of free will as a form of acceptance of everything that is independent of one's particular desires; making "something created pass into the uncreated"),
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became available. Descartes desired to find indubitable ground on which all the sciences could be placed and progressively built. Thus he rejected anything which appeared uncertain and decided to only accept
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1207:, the individual acts of speech within the given community. This was likened by Saussure to chess and a game of chess, for before anyone can play, they have to know the rules and structure of the game.
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stances made him the father of the anti-conformist French spirit. His work consists of little trials for his thoughts, filled with autobiographical and casual anecdotes. His intention with his
851:, proclaiming his ontological argument uses his definition of truth as a premise, while his proof of his definition of truth uses his ontological argument as a premise. Hence the problems of
703:, "limbus infantium". They would therefore feel no pain but no supernatural happiness either (only natural) because, it was held, they would not be able to see the deity that created them.
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primary in philosophy and once proclaimed that it precedes metaphysics and should be considered the first philosophy. He developed a moral philosophy based around notions of the
1866:âs thought as well as errors in the subsequent interpretation of Freud through the theories of Saussure, Strauss and Barthes. Lacan was also influenced by German philosophers
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hence reality crumbles because of misuse. Eventually, the difference between reality and illusion becomes indistinguishable for the consciousness. Baudrillard called this
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they were conceived in essentially the same spirit as the general scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in the 13th century with approval from the heads of the Church.
1724:, he states what he considers to be the fundamental question of philosophy: is suicide the correct response to an absurd world? Likening a Godless life to the story of
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950:
1223:, as a reaction toward the highly dualistic and deterministic characteristics, focussed on the diachronic aspects of culture in an attempt to invoke a grey area.
804:, the dominant form of thought in preceding centuries, while simultaneously raising some of the most fundamental problems for future generations of philosophers.
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is primarily concerned with the underlying structures which form, limit and affect society, language and the human mind. It finds its roots in the thought of
1777:), obligations as the basis of rights, attention as compassion, patriotism of compassion, abolition of political parties, the unjust character of affliction (
699:'s Doctrine of Original Sin. The Vatican accepted the view that unbaptized babies did not, as at first believed, go straight to Hell but to a special area of
1900:. Althusser offered an influential new reading of Marx's work, describing an "epistemological break" between the young, Hegelian Marx and the late Marx of
912:
681:'s authority was the basis for the prevailing Realism. As regards his so-called Conceptualism and his attitude to the question of Universals, see
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to better understand transcendental consciousness. It played a major role in existentialism and many postmodern philosophers' thought, such as
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René Descartes was concerned with the uncertainty in the sciences and the radical scepticism which spread across Europe when publications of
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2028:. An example of this is reality television, which is dependent on the watcher embracing it to create the illusion that it mirrors reality.
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1824:. However, by the end of the century it became perceived as important not for itself, but for the schools of thought it produced, such as
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1271:, interest in his work greatly decreased after WW2. However, in the late 20th century, through the works of self-proclaimed Bergsonian
1196:, the school of philosophy concerned with the underlying structures which form, limit and affect society, language and the human mind.
71:
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caused great controversy. Diderot was harassed repeatedly by the police, and was even arrested. The ecclesiastical party disliked the
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1862:(1901â1981) was a psychoanalyst who sought to explain the mind in terms of structures both in order to correct perceived errors in
2506:
2015:(1929â2007) was concerned with the concealment of the fact that there are no truths in a given field. He termed this concealment
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1635:(1908â1961) was concerned with the foundations of perception. His theory of the subject-body was produced as an alternative to
1404:, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. In France, philosophy of science, also known as
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1969:, which explains the communist as the inevitable historical synthesis of the proletariat and capitalist of modern capitalist
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900:, whose problem of causation was influenced by Malebrancheâs occasionalism. Itâs possible that Malebranche also influenced
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1840:(1908â2009) applied Saussureâs structuralism to anthropology, specifically in the topic of intermarriage between tribes.
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1022:, which has been both accused of fascism and praised for its socialist ideals. Rousseauâs thought highly influenced the
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2481:â the online home of the Bulletin de la SociĂ©tĂ© AmĂ©ricaine de Philosophie de Langue Française (archived 23 July 2011)
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677:, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker, first came to be available in the schools. Before his time
1965:. A metanarrative is a kind of grand arching story that encompassesâand claims to predictâeverything. An example is
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1605:(1906â1995) was one of the first to introduce phenomenology to France, through his translation of Edmund Husserlâs
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1906:. With his focus on the economic level and theory, Althusser came into conflict with social historians, such as
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or it can be studied diachronically, which is the examination of its historical development. It can be said that
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1706:. Jean-Paul Sartre was a spokesman for a generation, but his influence waned with the advent of structuralism.
1316:"in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brilliant skill with which they have been presented".
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1896:, reworked Marxism using insights from structuralism, against the so-called "humanist" trend in Sartrean and
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which became firmly established in the half-century after his death. It was at this time that the completed
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1848:(1915â1980) was a literary critic and semiologist who applied Saussureâs thought to literary theory. In
1353:. The phenomenology, presented in a Cartesian format and influenced by German thought, particularly the
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1654:(1913â2005) was one of the first to introduce phenomenology to France. He was best known for combining
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1542:(1903â1944) was specialized in philosophy of science concerned with the axiomatic method, formalism,
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Comte was of considerable influence in 19th century thought, impacting the work of thinkers such as
1034:. He was so highly praised by the French revolutionists, that in 1794 his remains were moved to the
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1987:
1123:, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general '
933:(1689â1755) was a social commentator and political philosopher. His theories deeply influenced the
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was to leave something by which family could remember him. He was the first person to use the word
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All of Henri Bergsonâs works were concerned with his theory of real time as it is experienced by
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855:, truth and the existence of the external world came to dominate 17th century western thought.
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spread throughout the west and gained fame, only to die out somewhat with the advent of
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being must have put the idea into his mind. He uses this argument, commonly known as an
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which introduced ethics into phenomenology, which had been missing since the demise of
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French philosophy in the 18th century was deeply political. It was heavily imbued with
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describes him as "the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century".
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1714:(1913â1960) rejected being labelled an existentialist, preferring to be called an
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1365:. Phenomenology was consistently noticeable throughout the 20th century, whereas
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1282:. He came by the idea while trying to improve on the evolutionary philosophy of
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1962:
1950:
1926:
1907:
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was the life of mathematics; he gives an interesting point of view in his book
1366:
1358:
1346:
1272:
1052:. A systematic collection of all the information of the arts and sciences, the
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432:
4613:
4388:
2438:
2204:
This section of the article references the Roy Harris translation of the book.
1650:
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Conversations on Science, Culture, and Time: Michel Serres Interviewed by
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organizations in the 19th century. He also created and defined the term "
1089:
938:
737:
641:
399:
1918:
1597:. Phenomenology is still an important area of research in France today.
1173:
1035:
669:
He helped to establish the ascendancy of the philosophical authority of
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2283:
Society and Its Metaphors: Language, Social Theory and Social Structure
2037:
1813:
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1393:
1177:
Ferdinand de Saussure founded linguistics, semiotics and structuralism.
1097:
993:
897:
749:
711:
645:
564:
407:
38:
2268:
Voyage aux marges du savoir : ethno-sociologie de la connaissance
1235:
Henri Bergson would play a major part in shaping 20th century thought.
1231:
1064:
that Diderot had worked on for twenty years was ruined beyond repair.
5114:
5109:
4969:
4896:
4831:
4702:
4636:
4448:
4438:
4433:
4408:
4204:
3764:
3726:
2744:
2464:
Gilles Deleuze (1925â1995) â The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
2016:
1765:
who greatly influenced 20th century philosophy including influencing
1758:
1715:
1189:
1158:
1093:
1008:
946:
852:
800:
and overcame the Aristotelian dogmatism inherited in philosophy from
670:
4339:
977:(1694â1778) came to embody the Enlightenment with his criticisms of
46:
4944:
4851:
4816:
4774:
4762:
4550:
4344:
4244:
4187:
3991:
3945:
3829:
1737:
1725:
1203:, which is the system of signs and rules owned by a community, and
1151:
996:
973:
793:
649:
442:
2114:"The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptised"
1243:
was a relatively obscure thinker in his time, it may be said that
1026:, his critique of private property has been seen as a forebear to
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4545:
4540:
4482:
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4309:
4197:
4192:
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2526:
2192:
Lecture 25: The Age of Ideologies (3): The World of Auguste Comte
2041:
1966:
1561:
1397:
1373:, which came to be seen as merely a necessary means of access to
1027:
988:
966:
893:
775:
René Descartes is considered as the founder of modern philosophy.
715:
Montaigne became the father of the anti-conformist French spirit.
674:
2484:
1077:
1030:
ideology, and his picture was the only one to grace the home of
4836:
4757:
4487:
4146:
4136:
3834:
3736:
2947:
2515:
1782:
1612:
1593:, who actually began his career with a deep, critical study of
1306:
389:
1937:
The second half of the 20th century saw the rise of so-called
4652:
4314:
3600:
3533:
2338:
2336:
1473:
1396:
concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of
1275:
came a revitalization of interest in Henri Bergsonâs oeuvre.
725:
700:
678:
575:
as a whole for centuries, from the medieval scholasticism of
394:
3220:
2630:
2333:
1081:
Auguste Comte was the founder of sociology and positivism.
1046:(1713â1784) was a key collaborator in the creation of the
4497:
1690:, but bloomed with the thought of French phenomenologist
1464:(1854â1912) had philosophical views opposite to those of
951:
separation of powers under the United States Constitution
792:
changed the primary object of philosophical thought from
1309:
are in fact two representations of the same phenomenon.
759:("what do I know?"), served as one of the catalysts for
2137:
This section of the article references RenĂ© Descartesâ
1961:(1924â1998) defined postmodernism as scepticism toward
1007:(1712â1778) distinguished himself from the progressive
999:
who becomes disillusioned after a series of hardships.
835:âI think, therefore I amâbecame the first principle of
1913:
1892:(1918â1990) and his colleagues, prominently including
2326:
Poincaré, le hasard et l'étude des systÚmes complexes
1219:
focussed on the synchronic aspects of culture, while
937:. His belief that the state powers be separated into
736:
and his writings came to be highly influential upon
695:
accepted Abelard's Doctrine of Limbo, which amended
2112:International Theological Commission, the Vatican.
2181:Oxford English Dictionary: altruism. 2nd ed. 1989.
2232:The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics
1743:
724:(1533â1592) may have been Catholic, but his anti-
5631:
2479:The Journal of French and Francophone Philosophy
2226:
2224:
2222:
1804:. But soon structuralism began to be applied to
1472:, who believed that mathematics was a branch of
571:, has been extremely diverse and has influenced
1781:), and that compassion must act in the area of
2322:
2264:
2237:
1400:. The central questions of this study concern
1199:Saussure divided language into two parts: the
1011:of the Enlightenment with his proclamation in
992:, which tells the tale of a young believer in
969:, a writer frequently studied by Montesquieu.
858:Another famous problem arises from Descartesâ
3549:
2500:
2219:
1476:. Poincaré strongly disagreed, claiming that
1333:saw the rise of many schools of thought. The
541:
2876:
2855:
2715:
1925:defined postmodernism as incredulity toward
1528:
1521:
652:. The story of his affair with and love for
637:Peter Abelard (1079 â April 21, 1142) was a
2313:, University of Michigan Press, 1995, p. 8.
3556:
3542:
2507:
2493:
2296:The Historical Turn in Analytic Philosophy
1558:(1920â2001) introduced the concept of the
1092:. He was the founder of the discipline of
916:Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment.
548:
534:
2398:"Structural Linguistics and Anthropology"
1412:, was a prominent school of thought with
1297:The Duration can only be grasped through
1142:Comte attempted to introduce a cohesive "
930:Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu
1917:
1384:
1381:came to dominate the late 20th century.
1230:
1172:
1168:
1076:
911:
770:
710:
625:
1510:(1884â1962) introduced the concepts of
782:began in France with the philosophy of
14:
5632:
2044:, whom Deleuze read as an empiricist.
1088:(1798â1857) was a philosopher born in
865:
5295:
4037:
3575:
3537:
2488:
1331:French philosophy in the 20th century
755:, summed up in his personal motto of
2439:Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
2395:
2285:, Bloomsbury Academic, 2003, p. 117.
2214:Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
2389:
1914:Poststructuralism and postmodernism
1326:Twentieth-century French philosophy
1100:, and may be regarded as the first
24:
2083:
1314:Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927
1014:Discourse on the Arts and Sciences
610:
25:
5661:
2514:
2472:
1665:
1104:in the modern sense of the term.
807:
515:Social and political philosophers
27:Philosophy in the French language
5613:
5612:
5599:
2402:National University of Singapore
2245:"Nobel Prize in Literature 1927"
2091:Chambers Biographical Dictionary
1792:As previously mentioned, French
1787:
1572:
1226:
1072:
659:Chambers Biographical Dictionary
615:
59:
45:
2457:
2444:
2432:
2419:
2376:
2362:
2349:
2316:
2301:
2288:
2275:
2258:
2155:Michel Bourdeau â Auguste Comte
2143:Meditations on First Philosophy
1736:(1908â1986) was an existential
1319:
1127:'. Comte's stages were (1) the
1067:
907:
789:Meditations on First Philosophy
766:
706:
3563:
2846:Government of National Defense
2207:
2198:
2184:
2175:
2159:
2148:
2131:
2105:
1744:Moral and Political Philosophy
1406:French historical epistemology
1312:Henri Bergson was awarded the
949:branches formed the basis for
13:
1:
5296:
2755:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
2750:War of the Spanish Succession
2344:Introduction to Phenomenology
2077:
2019:. An example he gives is the
965:, an ethnographic writing by
5085:Ordinary language philosophy
3576:
2357:Existentialism is a Humanism
7:
5135:Contemporary utilitarianism
5050:Internalism and externalism
2062:List of French philosophers
2055:
1494:(1861â1916) introduced the
1107:Strongly influenced by the
10:
5666:
4399:Svatantrika and Prasangika
4038:
3236:French subdivisions by GDP
2983:2022 presidential election
2968:2017 presidential election
2329:, LâHarmattan, p. 124
2298:, Springer, 2016: ch. 2.1.
2271:, LâHarmattan, p. 168
2170:"Positivism and Sociology"
1718:. In the opening pages of
1323:
869:
811:
721:Michel Eyquem de Montaigne
656:has become legendary. The
619:
579:, through the founding of
5593:
5545:
5445:
5407:
5354:
5321:
5312:
5308:
5291:
5241:
5153:
4991:
4982:
4915:
4698:
4689:
4667:
4622:
4564:
4516:
4470:
4461:
4424:
4295:
4160:
4107:
4098:
4048:
4044:
4033:
3972:
3944:
3901:
3853:
3810:
3763:
3735:
3687:
3659:
3621:Philosophy of mathematics
3611:Philosophy of information
3586:
3582:
3571:
3497:
3387:
3297:
3288:
3184:
3175:
3077:
3068:
3006:
2997:
2918:
2799:
2768:
2740:Second Hundred Years' War
2691:
2644:
2611:
2590:
2582:Liberalism and radicalism
2534:
2525:
2370:Les Nouvelles littéraires
1800:, who was concerned with
1753:(1909â1943) was a French
1402:what qualifies as science
262:Middle Eastern philosophy
3011:Administrative divisions
2452:Simulacra and Simulation
2427:The Postmodern Condition
2195:The History Guide (2000)
1988:Madness and Civilization
1523:obstacle épistémologique
1512:epistemological obstacle
1289:Bergson calls this idea
753:philosophical skepticism
5090:Postanalytic philosophy
5031:Experimental philosophy
3231:Franc (former currency)
2836:Coup of 2 December 1851
2809:Long nineteenth century
2425:Jean-François Lyotard,
2323:Gargani Julien (2012),
2265:Gargani Julien (2011),
1881:Phenomenology of Spirit
1878:'s lectures on Hegel's
1567:philosophy of knowledge
1565:and was specialized in
1530:rupture épistémologique
5223:Social constructionism
4235:Hellenistic philosophy
3651:Theoretical philosophy
3626:Philosophy of religion
3616:Philosophy of language
3251:Science and technology
2908:Provisional Government
2877:
2856:
2716:
2230:Henri Bergson (1946),
1999:(1930â2004) developed
1934:
1529:
1522:
1483:Science and Hypothesis
1253:Alfred North Whitehead
1236:
1178:
1102:philosopher of science
1082:
956:The Spirit of the Laws
917:
776:
716:
634:
485:Aesthetic philosophers
5606:Philosophy portal
5125:Scientific skepticism
5105:Reformed epistemology
3631:Philosophy of science
1958:Jean-François Lyotard
1923:Jean-François Lyotard
1921:
1798:Ferdinand de Saussure
1632:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
1611:. LĂ©vinas considered
1608:Cartesian Meditations
1517:epistemological break
1454:Jean-Michel Berthelot
1390:Philosophy of science
1385:Philosophy of science
1335:philosophy of science
1265:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
1241:Ferdinand de Saussure
1234:
1182:Ferdinand de Saussure
1176:
1169:Ferdinand de Saussure
1080:
1004:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
915:
774:
714:
629:
589:philosophy of science
563:, here taken to mean
66:Philosophy portal
5026:Critical rationalism
4733:Edo neo-Confucianism
4577:Acintya bheda abheda
4556:Renaissance humanism
4267:School of the Sextii
3641:Practical philosophy
3636:Political philosophy
3056:World Heritage Sites
2973:Coronavirus pandemic
2384:The Myth of Sisyphus
2373:, November 15, 1945.
1721:The Myth of Sisyphus
1144:religion of humanity
1113:Henri de Saint-Simon
1096:and the doctrine of
880:came from Cartesian
876:One solution to the
845:ontological argument
827:knowledge as truth.
510:Philosophers of mind
4597:Nimbarka Sampradaya
4508:Korean Confucianism
4255:Academic Skepticism
3194:Automotive industry
2978:2021 labor protests
2735:Peace of Westphalia
2603:History of Normandy
2598:History of Brittany
2234:, pages 159 to 200.
2139:Discourse on Method
2072:Speculative realism
1837:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1818:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1680:Friedrich Nietzsche
1500:confirmation holism
1498:, an early form of
1410:French epistemology
1303:substance pluralism
1125:law of three stages
882:Nicolas Malebranche
872:Nicolas Malebranche
866:Nicolas Malebranche
520:Women in philosophy
250:Indigenous American
33:Part of a series on
5218:Post-structuralism
5120:Scientific realism
5075:Quinean naturalism
5055:Logical positivism
5011:Analytical Marxism
4230:Peripatetic school
4142:Chinese naturalism
3669:Aesthetic response
3596:Applied philosophy
3261:Telecommunications
2963:2015 Paris attacks
2826:Revolution of 1848
2654:Visigothic Kingdom
2450:Jean Baudrillard,
2396:Phillips, John W.
2355:Jean-Paul Sartre,
2247:. Nobel Foundation
1939:postmodern thought
1935:
1931:Bracha L. Ettinger
1763:political activist
1733:Simone de Beauvoir
1548:mathematical logic
1442:Georges Canguilhem
1379:postmodern thought
1375:post-structuralism
1237:
1221:poststructuralists
1179:
1083:
918:
777:
717:
697:Augustine of Hippo
635:
587:, to 20th century
573:Western philosophy
213:Eastern philosophy
18:French philosopher
5650:French literature
5645:Culture of France
5640:French philosophy
5627:
5626:
5589:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5581:
5580:
5287:
5286:
5283:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5006:Analytic feminism
4978:
4977:
4940:Kierkegaardianism
4902:Transcendentalism
4862:Neo-scholasticism
4708:Classical Realism
4685:
4684:
4457:
4456:
4272:Neopythagoreanism
4029:
4028:
4025:
4024:
3646:Social philosophy
3531:
3530:
3493:
3492:
3284:
3283:
3171:
3170:
3163:Political parties
3099:Foreign relations
3064:
3063:
2993:
2992:
2776:French Revolution
2730:Thirty Years' War
2711:Absolute monarchy
2676:Kingdom of France
2572:Foreign relations
2552:Political history
2003:as a response to
1826:poststructuralism
1688:Lebensphilosophie
1676:SĂžren Kierkegaard
1658:description with
1644:substance dualism
1583:substance dualism
1267:and the novelist
1117:French Revolution
1109:Utopian socialist
1024:French Revolution
935:American Founders
878:mindâbody problem
860:substance dualism
786:(1596â1650). His
780:Modern philosophy
693:Pope Innocent III
581:modern philosophy
561:French philosophy
558:
557:
366:
365:
16:(Redirected from
5657:
5616:
5615:
5604:
5603:
5602:
5319:
5318:
5310:
5309:
5293:
5292:
5183:Frankfurt School
5130:Transactionalism
5080:Normative ethics
5060:Legal positivism
5036:Falsificationism
5021:Consequentialism
5016:Communitarianism
4989:
4988:
4857:New Confucianism
4696:
4695:
4503:Neo-Confucianism
4468:
4467:
4277:Second Sophistic
4262:Middle Platonism
4105:
4104:
4046:
4045:
4035:
4034:
3878:Epiphenomenalism
3745:Consequentialism
3679:Institutionalism
3584:
3583:
3573:
3572:
3558:
3551:
3544:
3535:
3534:
3295:
3294:
3211:Economic history
3182:
3181:
3075:
3074:
3004:
3003:
2882:
2861:
2760:Seven Years' War
2725:Wars of Religion
2721:
2706:House of Bourbon
2701:Early modern era
2681:Fundamental laws
2557:Military history
2532:
2531:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2486:
2485:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2404:. Archived from
2393:
2387:
2380:
2374:
2366:
2360:
2353:
2347:
2340:
2331:
2330:
2320:
2314:
2305:
2299:
2292:
2286:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2241:
2235:
2228:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2196:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2163:
2157:
2152:
2146:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2116:. Archived from
2109:
2103:
2087:
2012:Jean Baudrillard
1929:. Photograph by
1898:Western Marxisms
1876:Alexandre KojĂšve
1872:Martin Heidegger
1699:Jean-Paul Sartre
1692:Jean-Paul Sartre
1684:Martin Heidegger
1656:phenomenological
1602:Emmanuel LĂ©vinas
1532:
1525:
1507:Gaston Bachelard
1466:Bertrand Russell
1430:Gaston Bachelard
1426:LĂ©on Brunschvicg
1307:substance monism
1261:Emmanuel LĂ©vinas
1257:Jean-Paul Sartre
1163:John Stuart Mill
1148:Secular Humanist
1121:social evolution
820:Sextus Empiricus
550:
543:
536:
255:Aztec philosophy
134:Ancient Egyptian
116:
115:
68:
64:
63:
62:
49:
30:
29:
21:
5665:
5664:
5660:
5659:
5658:
5656:
5655:
5654:
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5629:
5628:
5623:
5600:
5598:
5577:
5541:
5441:
5403:
5350:
5304:
5303:
5275:
5264:Russian cosmism
5237:
5233:Western Marxism
5198:New Historicism
5163:Critical theory
5149:
5145:Wittgensteinian
5041:Foundationalism
4974:
4911:
4892:Social contract
4748:Foundationalism
4681:
4663:
4647:Illuminationism
4632:Aristotelianism
4618:
4607:Vishishtadvaita
4560:
4512:
4453:
4420:
4291:
4220:Megarian school
4215:Eretrian school
4156:
4117:Agriculturalism
4094:
4040:
4021:
3968:
3940:
3897:
3849:
3806:
3790:Incompatibilism
3759:
3731:
3683:
3655:
3578:
3567:
3562:
3532:
3527:
3526:
3507:
3489:
3470:Public holidays
3383:
3342:Life expectancy
3280:
3167:
3060:
2989:
2958:Great Recession
2931:Fourth Republic
2926:1900 to present
2914:
2831:Second Republic
2795:
2764:
2687:
2640:
2607:
2586:
2521:
2513:
2475:
2470:
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2367:
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2350:
2341:
2334:
2321:
2317:
2306:
2302:
2294:E. Reck (ed.),
2293:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2263:
2259:
2250:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2229:
2220:
2212:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2166:Anthony Giddens
2164:
2160:
2153:
2149:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2110:
2106:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2058:
1996:Jacques Derrida
1982:Michel Foucault
1916:
1894:Ătienne Balibar
1889:Louis Althusser
1810:social sciences
1790:
1746:
1668:
1637:René Descartes'
1591:Jacques Derrida
1575:
1555:Jules Vuillemin
1446:Jules Vuillemin
1434:Alexandre Koyré
1392:is a branch of
1387:
1328:
1322:
1284:Herbert Spencer
1229:
1171:
1075:
1070:
910:
902:George Berkeley
874:
868:
833:Cogito Ergo Sum
816:
810:
769:
761:René Descartes'
709:
624:
618:
613:
611:Medieval period
569:French language
554:
525:
524:
490:Epistemologists
480:
479:
468:
467:
404:
380:
379:
368:
367:
113:
112:
101:
60:
58:
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5663:
5653:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5621:
5609:
5594:
5591:
5590:
5587:
5586:
5583:
5582:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5549:
5547:
5543:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5473:
5472:
5462:
5457:
5451:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5413:
5411:
5409:Middle Eastern
5405:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5366:
5360:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5327:
5325:
5316:
5306:
5305:
5302:
5301:
5297:
5289:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5245:
5243:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5173:Existentialism
5170:
5168:Deconstruction
5165:
5159:
5157:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
5001:Applied ethics
4997:
4995:
4986:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4972:
4967:
4965:Nietzscheanism
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4925:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4907:Utilitarianism
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4805:Transcendental
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4743:Existentialism
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4699:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4679:
4673:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4628:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4568:
4566:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4531:Augustinianism
4528:
4522:
4520:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4474:
4472:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4451:
4446:
4444:Zoroastrianism
4441:
4436:
4430:
4428:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4349:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4301:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4289:
4287:Church Fathers
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4169:
4167:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4113:
4111:
4102:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4060:
4054:
4052:
4042:
4041:
4031:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3978:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3950:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3859:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3816:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3802:Libertarianism
3799:
3798:
3797:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3775:
3769:
3767:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3741:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3665:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3606:Metaphilosophy
3603:
3598:
3592:
3590:
3580:
3579:
3569:
3568:
3561:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3538:
3529:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3426:Cultural icons
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3393:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3298:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3246:Stock exchange
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3196:
3191:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3128:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3046:National parks
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3021:Climate change
3018:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2943:Fifth Republic
2940:
2939:
2938:
2928:
2922:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2851:Third Republic
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2805:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2786:First Republic
2783:
2781:Napoleonic era
2778:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2697:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2656:
2650:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2626:Greek colonies
2623:
2617:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2538:
2536:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2512:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2474:
2473:External links
2471:
2469:
2468:
2456:
2443:
2431:
2418:
2388:
2382:Albert Camus,
2375:
2361:
2348:
2342:Dermot Moran,
2332:
2315:
2300:
2287:
2274:
2257:
2236:
2218:
2206:
2197:
2183:
2174:
2158:
2147:
2130:
2104:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2067:Non-philosophy
2064:
2057:
2054:
2033:Gilles Deleuze
2001:deconstruction
1975:language games
1971:class division
1963:metanarratives
1951:existentialism
1927:metanarratives
1915:
1912:
1908:E. P. Thompson
1868:G. W. F. Hegel
1845:Roland Barthes
1830:deconstruction
1789:
1786:
1745:
1742:
1671:Existentialism
1667:
1666:Existentialism
1664:
1595:Edmund Husserl
1587:Gilles Deleuze
1574:
1571:
1560:philosophy of
1539:Jean CavaillĂšs
1461:Henri Poincaré
1438:Jean CavaillĂšs
1418:Ămile Meyerson
1414:Henri Poincaré
1386:
1383:
1367:existentialism
1324:Main article:
1321:
1318:
1273:Gilles Deleuze
1228:
1225:
1217:structuralists
1170:
1167:
1135:, and (3) the
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
909:
906:
870:Main article:
867:
864:
814:René Descartes
812:Main article:
809:
808:René Descartes
806:
784:René Descartes
768:
765:
708:
705:
620:Main article:
617:
614:
612:
609:
593:existentialism
585:René Descartes
556:
555:
553:
552:
545:
538:
530:
527:
526:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
505:Metaphysicians
502:
497:
492:
487:
481:
475:
474:
473:
470:
469:
466:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
433:Metaphilosophy
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
403:
402:
397:
392:
387:
381:
375:
374:
373:
370:
369:
364:
363:
362:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
318:
317:
311:
310:
309:
308:
307:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
271:
270:
269:
259:
258:
257:
247:
246:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
210:
209:
208:
203:
198:
185:
184:
178:
177:
176:
175:
174:
173:
168:
158:
153:
148:
143:
142:
141:
136:
123:
122:
114:
108:
107:
106:
103:
102:
100:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
54:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5662:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5635:
5620:
5619:
5610:
5608:
5607:
5596:
5595:
5592:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5546:Miscellaneous
5544:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5444:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5357:
5353:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5272:
5271:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5242:Miscellaneous
5240:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5228:Structuralism
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5213:Postmodernism
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5203:Phenomenology
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5156:
5152:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5140:Vienna Circle
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5070:Moral realism
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4872:Phenomenology
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4812:Individualism
4810:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4678:
4677:Judeo-Islamic
4675:
4674:
4672:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4653:ÊżIlm al-KalÄm
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4602:Shuddhadvaita
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4536:Scholasticism
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4423:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4350:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4300:
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3987:Conceptualism
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3883:Functionalism
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3868:Eliminativism
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3082:Constitutions
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2719:
2718:Ancien RĂ©gime
2714:
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2422:
2408:on 2019-08-10
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2167:
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2144:
2140:
2134:
2120:on 2008-12-22
2119:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2100:0-550-18022-2
2097:
2093:
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2082:
2073:
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2068:
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2049:HĂ©lĂšne Cixous
2045:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2005:structuralism
2002:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
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1954:
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1947:phenomenology
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1943:structuralism
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1932:
1928:
1924:
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1911:
1909:
1905:
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1895:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:
1859:Jacques Lacan
1855:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1822:Jacques Lacan
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
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1794:Structuralism
1788:Structuralism
1785:
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1578:Phenomenology
1573:Phenomenology
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1503:
1501:
1497:
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1492:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1470:Gottlob Frege
1467:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1450:Michel Serres
1447:
1443:
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1435:
1431:
1427:
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1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
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1371:structuralism
1368:
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1355:phenomenology
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1327:
1317:
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1310:
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1300:
1295:
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1285:
1281:
1280:consciousness
1276:
1274:
1270:
1269:Marcel Proust
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:William James
1246:
1245:Henri Bergson
1242:
1233:
1227:Henri Bergson
1224:
1222:
1218:
1212:
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1202:
1197:
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1194:structuralism
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1103:
1099:
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1087:
1086:Auguste Comte
1079:
1073:Auguste Comte
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1043:Denis Diderot
1039:
1037:
1033:
1032:Immanuel Kant
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1000:
998:
995:
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985:
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948:
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936:
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926:
923:
922:Enlightenment
914:
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903:
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889:
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886:occasionalism
883:
879:
873:
863:
861:
856:
854:
850:
846:
840:
838:
834:
828:
826:
821:
815:
805:
803:
802:Scholasticism
799:
795:
791:
790:
785:
781:
773:
764:
762:
758:
754:
751:
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743:
739:
735:
731:
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723:
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702:
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690:
686:
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683:Scholasticism
680:
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672:
667:
663:
661:
660:
655:
651:
647:
643:
640:
633:
630:Abelard with
628:
623:
622:Peter Abelard
616:Peter Abelard
608:
606:
605:postmodernism
602:
601:structuralism
598:
597:phenomenology
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590:
586:
582:
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577:Peter Abelard
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448:Phenomenology
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172:
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159:
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154:
152:
149:
147:
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139:Ancient Greek
137:
135:
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131:
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127:
126:
125:
124:
121:
118:
117:
111:
105:
104:
98:
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56:
55:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
5611:
5597:
5501:
5268:
5259:Postcritique
5249:Kyoto School
5208:Posthumanism
5188:Hermeneutics
5043: /
4984:Contemporary
4960:Newtonianism
4923:Cartesianism
4882:Reductionism
4718:Conservatism
4713:Collectivism
4651:
4379:SarvÄstivadÄ
4357:Anekantavada
4282:Neoplatonism
4250:Epicureanism
4183:Pythagoreans
4122:Confucianism
4088:Contemporary
4078:Early modern
3982:Anti-realism
3936:Universalism
3893:Subjectivism
3689:Epistemology
3464:
3412:Coat of arms
3402:Architecture
3374:Social class
3332:Homelessness
3317:Demographics
3271:Trade unions
3204:Central bank
3146:criminal law
3109:Human rights
3092:presidential
2936:Algerian War
2919:Contemporary
2893:Vichy France
2888:World War II
2858:Belle Ăpoque
2791:First Empire
2693:Early Modern
2664:West Francia
2459:
2451:
2446:
2434:
2426:
2421:
2410:. Retrieved
2406:the original
2401:
2391:
2383:
2378:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2351:
2343:
2325:
2318:
2310:Bruno Latour
2307:
2303:
2295:
2290:
2282:
2281:José Lopez,
2277:
2267:
2260:
2249:. Retrieved
2239:
2231:
2209:
2200:
2191:
2186:
2177:
2161:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2122:. Retrieved
2118:the original
2107:
2089:
2085:
2047:
2046:
2031:
2030:
2026:hyperreality
2010:
2009:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1956:
1955:
1936:
1901:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1857:
1856:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1835:
1834:
1806:anthropology
1791:
1778:
1775:déracinement
1774:
1771:uprootedness
1767:Pope Paul VI
1749:
1747:
1731:
1730:
1719:
1711:Albert Camus
1709:
1708:
1697:
1696:
1669:
1660:hermeneutics
1649:
1648:
1630:
1629:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1576:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1537:
1536:
1527:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1496:Duhem thesis
1491:Pierre Duhem
1489:
1488:
1481:
1459:
1458:
1422:Pierre Duhem
1409:
1405:
1388:
1329:
1320:20th century
1311:
1296:
1288:
1277:
1238:
1213:
1209:
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1200:
1198:
1180:
1156:
1141:
1136:
1133:metaphysical
1132:
1128:
1106:
1084:
1068:19th century
1062:Encyclopédia
1061:
1058:Encyclopédia
1057:
1054:Encyclopédia
1053:
1049:Encyclopédia
1047:
1041:
1040:
1020:general will
1012:
1002:
1001:
987:
979:Church dogma
972:
971:
960:
954:
928:
927:
919:
908:18th century
890:
875:
857:
841:
837:Cartesianism
829:
817:
798:epistemology
787:
778:
767:17th century
757:Que sais-je?
756:
733:
719:
718:
707:16th century
691:
687:
668:
664:
657:
636:
560:
559:
477:Philosophers
385:Epistemology
288:
206:South Africa
161:Contemporary
110:Philosophies
5254:Objectivism
5193:Neo-Marxism
5155:Continental
5065:Meta-ethics
5045:Coherentism
4950:Hegelianism
4887:Rationalism
4847:Natural law
4827:Materialism
4753:Historicism
4723:Determinism
4614:Navya-NyÄya
4389:SautrÄntika
4384:Pudgalavada
4320:Vaisheshika
4173:Presocratic
4073:Renaissance
4012:Physicalism
3997:Materialism
3903:Normativity
3888:Objectivism
3873:Emergentism
3863:Behaviorism
3812:Metaphysics
3778:Determinism
3717:Rationalism
3522:WikiProject
3337:Immigration
3327:Health care
3189:Agriculture
3141:enforcement
2898:Free France
2867:World War I
2814:Restoration
2801:Late Modern
2671:Middle Ages
2646:Middle Ages
2631:Celtic Gaul
1903:Das Kapital
1851:Mythologies
1802:linguistics
1755:philosopher
1750:Simone Weil
1651:Paul RicĆur
1625:Max Scheler
1186:linguistics
1129:theological
1090:Montpellier
1018:called the
939:legislative
849:circularity
738:Shakespeare
642:philosopher
400:Metaphysics
315:By religion
171:Continental
151:Renaissance
5634:Categories
5553:Amerindian
5460:Australian
5399:Vietnamese
5379:Indonesian
4928:Kantianism
4877:Positivism
4867:Pragmatism
4842:Naturalism
4822:Liberalism
4800:Subjective
4738:Empiricism
4642:Avicennism
4587:Bhedabheda
4471:East Asian
4394:Madhyamaka
4374:Abhidharma
4240:Pyrrhonism
4007:Nominalism
4002:Naturalism
3931:Skepticism
3921:Relativism
3911:Absolutism
3840:Naturalism
3750:Deontology
3722:Skepticism
3707:Naturalism
3697:Empiricism
3661:Aesthetics
3565:Philosophy
3465:Philosophy
3450:Literature
3362:secularism
3158:Parliament
2953:2005 riots
2903:Liberation
2769:Revolution
2636:Roman Gaul
2621:Prehistory
2577:Journalism
2412:2023-01-11
2251:2008-10-17
2124:2008-12-07
2078:References
2038:simulacrum
1814:psychology
1544:set theory
1394:philosophy
1131:, (2) the
1098:positivism
1038:in Paris.
994:Leibnizian
825:apodeictic
750:Pyrrhonian
646:theologian
639:scholastic
565:philosophy
408:Aesthetics
97:Categories
39:Philosophy
5432:Pakistani
5394:Taiwanese
5341:Ethiopian
5314:By region
5300:By region
5115:Scientism
5110:Systemics
4970:Spinozism
4897:Socialism
4832:Modernism
4795:Objective
4703:Anarchism
4637:Averroism
4526:Christian
4478:Neotaoism
4449:Zurvanism
4439:Mithraism
4434:Mazdakism
4205:Cyrenaics
4132:Logicians
3765:Free will
3727:Solipsism
3674:Formalism
3322:Education
3276:Transport
3126:Judiciary
3087:Elections
3041:Mountains
2999:Geography
2745:Louis XIV
2535:Overviews
2017:simulacra
1716:absurdist
1704:bad faith
1478:intuition
1363:Heidegger
1351:Vuillemin
1347:CavaillĂšs
1343:Bachelard
1299:intuition
1190:semiotics
1159:Karl Marx
1094:sociology
1009:scientism
986:known as
943:executive
853:solipsism
746:Nietzsche
671:Aristotle
500:Logicians
495:Ethicists
453:Political
413:Education
334:Christian
329:Confucian
228:Indonesia
182:By region
120:By period
5618:Category
5573:Yugoslav
5563:Romanian
5470:Scottish
5455:American
5384:Japanese
5364:Buddhist
5346:Africana
5336:Egyptian
5178:Feminist
5100:Rawlsian
5095:Quietism
4993:Analytic
4945:Krausism
4852:Nihilism
4817:Kokugaku
4780:Absolute
4775:Idealism
4763:Humanism
4551:Occamism
4518:European
4463:Medieval
4409:Yogacara
4369:Buddhist
4362:SyÄdvÄda
4245:Stoicism
4210:Cynicism
4198:Sophists
4193:Atomists
4188:Eleatics
4127:Legalism
4068:Medieval
3992:Idealism
3946:Ontology
3926:Nihilism
3830:Idealism
3588:Branches
3577:Branches
3512:Category
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3302:Abortion
3256:Taxation
3153:Military
3114:Intersex
3104:Politics
3070:Politics
2872:Interwar
2567:Economic
2562:Language
2547:Timeline
2102:, page 3
2094:, 2011,
2056:See also
1874:through
1738:feminist
1726:Sisyphus
1619:and the
1377:, while
1339:Poincaré
1291:Duration
1152:altruism
1137:positive
1036:Panthéon
997:optimism
974:Voltaire
962:Germania
947:judicial
794:ontology
763:oeuvre.
742:Rousseau
726:dogmatic
650:logician
458:Religion
443:Ontology
423:Language
377:Branches
324:Buddhist
279:American
201:Ethiopia
166:Analytic
146:Medieval
87:Glossary
72:Contents
5568:Russian
5537:Spanish
5532:Slovene
5522:Maltese
5517:Italian
5497:Finland
5465:British
5447:Western
5437:Turkish
5422:Islamic
5417:Iranian
5369:Chinese
5356:Eastern
5323:African
5270:more...
4955:Marxism
4785:British
4728:Dualism
4624:Islamic
4582:Advaita
4572:Vedanta
4546:Scotism
4541:Thomism
4483:Tiantai
4426:Persian
4414:Tibetan
4404:ĆĆ«nyatÄ
4345:CÄrvÄka
4335:ÄjÄ«vika
4330:MÄ«mÄáčsÄ
4310:Samkhya
4225:Academy
4178:Ionians
4152:Yangism
4109:Chinese
4100:Ancient
4063:Western
4058:Ancient
4017:Realism
3974:Reality
3964:Process
3845:Realism
3825:Dualism
3820:Atomism
3702:Fideism
3503:Outline
3485:Theatre
3480:Symbols
3440:Gardens
3430:Fashion
3422:Cuisine
3389:Culture
3379:Welfare
3352:Poverty
3290:Society
3266:Tourism
3226:Exports
3199:Banking
3177:Economy
3136:history
3031:Islands
3026:Borders
2659:Francia
2613:Ancient
2591:Regions
2542:History
2527:History
2042:Spinoza
1967:Marxism
1933:, 1995.
1783:metaxy.
1779:malheur
1562:algebra
1398:science
1359:Husserl
1028:Marxist
989:Candide
984:Leibniz
967:Tacitus
894:Spinoza
734:essays,
675:Organon
654:HĂ©loĂŻse
632:HĂ©loĂŻse
567:in the
463:Science
418:History
344:Islamic
304:Russian
299:Italian
284:British
274:Western
267:Iranian
243:Vietnam
218:Chinese
191:African
129:Ancient
92:History
77:Outline
5527:Polish
5507:German
5502:French
5487:Danish
5477:Canada
5427:Jewish
5389:Korean
5374:Indian
4916:People
4837:Monism
4790:German
4758:Holism
4691:Modern
4669:Jewish
4592:Dvaita
4565:Indian
4488:Huayan
4340:Ajñana
4297:Indian
4162:Greco-
4147:Taoism
4137:Mohism
4083:Modern
4050:By era
4039:By era
3954:Action
3835:Monism
3755:Virtue
3737:Ethics
3517:Portal
3417:Cinema
3397:Anthem
3369:Racism
3347:People
3241:Mining
3216:Energy
3051:Rivers
3016:Cities
2948:May 68
2519:topics
2516:France
2098:
2021:Borges
1759:mystic
1640:Cogito
1613:ethics
1452:, and
1239:While
1205:parole
1201:langue
945:, and
748:. His
730:essays
603:, and
390:Ethics
359:Taoist
354:Jewish
294:German
289:French
223:Indian
156:Modern
5558:Aztec
5512:Greek
5492:Dutch
5482:Czech
5331:Bantu
4768:Anti-
4315:Nyaya
4305:Hindu
4165:Roman
3959:Event
3601:Logic
3475:Sport
3460:Music
3455:Media
3312:Crime
3036:Lakes
1864:Freud
1617:other
1474:logic
1337:with
953:. In
701:limbo
679:Plato
395:Logic
339:Hindu
238:Korea
233:Japan
196:Egypt
82:Lists
4659:Sufi
4493:Chan
4352:Jain
4325:Yoga
3855:Mind
3795:Hard
3783:Hard
3435:Flag
3221:Euro
3119:LGBT
2141:and
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