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schools, advertising in local newspapers, and holding public meetings at churches, beneficial societies, and the bank's branches. Its advertisements often depicted the bank as having the backing and guarantee of the federal government, but as a private corporation it had no guarantee. For example, an article in the Semi-Weekly
Louisianan stated: "there is no possibility of loss, for the reason that the government of the United States is responsible for every dollar deposited." The bank promised its depositors 6% interest, but often paid a lower rate.
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196:’s brother, deposited a significant share of the cash of the Freedman’s Bank at the First National Bank in Washington, D.C., which was Jay Cooke’s office. This amount at its highest was $ 500,000, on which the Cooke brothers paid a 5 percent interest, even while the Freedman’s Bank was promising 6 percent to its own depositors. In violation of its charter, the Freedman's Bank invested in the bonds of the Union Pacific and Central Railroads, made as early as 1869.
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perpetrated many high-handed and arbitrary acts without a bond, and with impunity from either censure or punishment by his superior officers. This was not only an unlawful act, but one impertinently offensive, and made subsequent to the amendatory act of 1874, and subject to the penalties provided therein. Why Mr. Stickney has not been dealt with we are not advised, but he is certainly subject to criminal action for his conduct in this if not in other cases.
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themselves and associates of the bank. For instance, loans totaling $ 224,000 were made to Robert I. Fleming, the contractor for the bank's building in
Washington, D.C. Even as the failure of the bank was imminent and depositor withdrawals were refused, a secret loan of $ 33,366 was made to Juan Boyle by the actuary George L. Stickney on June 30, 1874. Senator
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Another apparently corrupt investment was in loans totalling $ 50,000 to the Seneca
Sandstone Company, owner of the Seneca Quarry, secured by "the company's worthless bonds". The loan was approved by Henry D. Cooke, who sat on the board of the quarry company. Bank officials approved personal loans to
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From 1865 to 1868, the expansion of the
Freedman's Bank was largely driven by the money collected from Black soldiers. In the bank's first year, in 1865, two of the branches established were created through the transfer of existing local military savings institutions. Many other branch locations were
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The surviving documentation and papers of the bank archives illuminate the names, whereabouts and other relevant information about the veterans of the 7th
Regiment United States Colored Troops and their transactions with the bank. The data is considered historically important in the study of African
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On many occasions, steep discounts were enforced on the claims of depositors. For example, in 1881 an account holder at the New
Orleans branch settled his $ 352 deposit for just $ 28.16. On the first payout announcement, only 49% of eligible depositors requested a payment, and bank statistics showed
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There is also evidence that the bank's management misled depositors about a supposed government guarantee, interest payments, and the use of the deposit funds. During its initial years, the bank marketed itself widely to attract deposits, distributing bank pamphlets at churches and
Freedmen's Bureau
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A series of increasingly speculative investments caused the bank to accumulate bad debt, while the decision to build a new building in
Washington, D.C., added to its outlays. On May 2, 1870, the bank was authorized by Congress to make loans backed by real estate, up to half the deposit funds. These
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The bank trustees had little incentive to govern effectively. All fifty original trustees were White and were not required to give "any security for the faithful discharge of their trust." Many trustees had little to no involvement with the bank, some even denying they had agreed to join the board.
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The bank's founding charter lacked any penal clauses to hold trustees personally liable for the bank's solvency. It prohibited lending until the amendment of 1870. While two-thirds of the bank's deposits were required to be invested in U.S. government securities, the use of the remaining funds was
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However, the rapid development of the bank was largely driven by false claims and was coupled with mismanagement and fraud. The bank failed in 1874, weighed down by speculative loans issued by the bank's white officials throughout its existence. Historians believe that the bank's failure not only
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Many depositors never received their deposits back. To repay them, the commissioners decided to rely on personal passbooks only, instead of the central bank books. Depositors needed to mail their passbooks to
Washington to submit their claim. Many depositors, who had lost faith in the bank, were
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This loan was made after the bank had formally closed, was made without authority of law by the actuary Mr. Stickney, was made without advising with either the trustees or finance committee, was made by a man required to give a bond by the charter, but who not only refused to execute a bond, but
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on March 3, 1865, to collect deposits from the newly emancipated communities. The bank opened 37 branches across 17 states and
Washington DC within 7 years and collected funds from over 67,000 depositors. At the height of its success, the Freedman's Savings Bank held assets worth more than $ 3.7
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The repayments came late, leaving cash-poor depositors stranded. Not until November 1875 did the bank start payouts. The commissioners, even in the face of many special requests from depositors for small immediate payments, instructed cashiers to withhold all money, even for cases of extreme
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As its name imports, the institution was designed to perform for a particular class of our people the simple but important functions of a savings bank; its declared purpose being "to receive on deposit such sums of money as may from time to time be offered therefor, by or on behalf of persons
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remarked: "Some, looking for a scapegoat, were anxious that colored officials be in charge when the bank failed as they were sure it would; others thought that a Negro administration would restore the confidence of the depositors and enable the institution to survive until better times."
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Just after the collapse, in July 1874, three commissioners were appointed to wind down the bank. They found that the value of assets was lower than registered in the bank books; liquid assets, cash, and government securities amounted to less than 2% of the bank's total liabilities.
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Following the panic, in an attempt to restore confidence in the bank among the African-American community, there was a significant change in the leadership of the bank. Trustees of the bank deposed the founder and president John W. Alvord in March 1874, and elected in favor of
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that these were largely claims from the wealthier depositors. Small account holders collected little to no funds. The delayed payments as well as the limited share of depositors receiving them suggest that, on average, depositors received far less than 62% of their deposits.
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Many former slaves were liberated by the Union Army and were paid to join the army. Troops earned a little cash from their enrollment and participation, and the Freedman's Bank became the first banking entity to include them. Most accounts held between $ 5 and $ 50.
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chosen specifically based on the local Black soldier population. Bank officials made efforts to build the bank legitimacy and deposits raising part of the Black soldiers’ wages. For example, many cashiers at branches also worked as military disbursing officers.
348:"S. Rept. 46-440 - In the Senate of the United States. April 2, 1880. Ordered to be printed. Mr. Bruce, from the Select Committee on the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, submitted the following report. (To accompany Bills S. 711 and S. 1581.) ."
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The bank closed on July 2, 1874, despite the reform attempt. Some scholars claim that the failure of the Freedman's Bank and the loss of their savings led to a distrust of all banking institutions for several generations among the Black community.
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necessity. In response, some depositors who had lost faith in the bank and were in dire need, sought to sell their claims against the bank at a discount. Some even sold their passbooks to shopkeepers in exchange for groceries and other supplies.
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Report of the commissioners of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company: letter from the commissioners of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, transmitting, in compliance with the resolution of December 11, 1874, their
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The founder of the Freedman's Savings Bank, John W. Alvord, was inspired by the success of existing military savings banks. These military banks were created during the Civil War to collect the wages of Black soldiers.
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reluctant to do so. Others faced legal challenges in proving their identities or their relationship to depositors who had died. Some who did receive checks did not cash them, not understanding their use.
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unrestricted; Osthaus wrote that this provision was "somewhat disquieting to those familiar with the history of savings banks, for they knew that available funds frequently became unavailable".
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heretofore held in slavery in the United States or their descendants, and investing the same in the stocks, bonds, treasury notes, or other securities of the United States."
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American history. The bank's records of 480,000 names, estimated to be the largest single repository of lineage-linked African American records, has been indexed by
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struck, several railroad projects failed, which undermined the finances of the Freedman's Savings Bank. This led to a series of runs in different branches.
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From the Freedman's Savings Bank's creation, there were several deficiencies in its governance and management that contributed to its ultimate collapse.
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established the first one in Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1864. Other examples include a bank in Norfolk, Virginia, established by
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96:. The newly freed Blacks had few economic resources or capital and even less exposure to private enterprise. Many soon turned to
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The site where the bank's headquarters once stood was later occupied by the Treasury Annex. The Annex was renamed the
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Freedman's Bank Archive on FamilySearch (may require login; create free account to search and view records)
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682:. United States House. Congress (43rd, 2nd session : 1874–1875); Government Printing Office. 1874.
277:. The searchable database is available to amateur and professional genealogists as well as researchers.
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and a charter for the Freedman's Saving and Trust Company, which was signed into law by President
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516:"The Freedman's Savings Bank: Good Intentions Were Not Enough; A Noble Experiment Goes Awry"
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At the end of the American Civil War, the poor economic conditions of the formerly enslaved
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80:"The Story of the Freedman’s Bank" video by the United States Department of the Treasury
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The Freedmen's Savings Bank : a chapter in the economic history of the negro race
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and forced labor in the South. To help alleviate their socio-economic conditions, the
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387:"Finance, Advertising and Fraud: The Rise and Fall of the Freedman's Savings Bank"
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The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution
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million in 1872 dollars, which translates to approximately $ 80 million in 2021.
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loans were to be secured by mortgages that were double the value of the loan.
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Freaks of fortune : the emerging world of capitalism and risk in America
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Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud: A History of the Freedman's Savings Bank
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492:"Freedman's Savings and Trust Company ... [Charter and by-laws]"
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The bank's management closely linked its affairs to the investment bank
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Freaks of Fortune: The Emerging World of Capitalism and Risk in America
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312:"United States, Freedman's Bank Records, 1865-1874 — FamilySearch.org"
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Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866
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Savings and Trust: The Rise and Betrayal of the Freedman's Bank
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The color of money : black banks and the racial wealth gap
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United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction
580:"To the Depositors of the Freedmen's Savings & Trust Co"
375:
African American/Black History Month Freedman's Savings Bank
129:
Select Committee on the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company
3768:
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877
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Technological and industrial history of the United States
463:
The Color of Money: Black Banks and the Racial Wealth Gap
544:
Fleming, Walter L. (Walter Lynwood) (15 November 2018).
164:
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African American founding fathers of the United States
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The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan
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United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction
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The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women
16:
Private savings bank chartered by the U.S. Congress
2762:Choctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866
52:, but also their trust in financial institutions.
2553:District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act
149:in late 1864, and a bank in Louisiana created by
4016:
275:the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
2897:Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson
642:
39:, was a private savings bank chartered by the
2871:First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson
861:
770:
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4025:African-American history of Washington, D.C.
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234:as president. Of this change in leadership,
4055:Black-owned companies of the United States
868:
854:
784:
777:
763:
4030:American companies disestablished in 1874
3429:South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876
731:. Norton Shorts. New York: W. W. Norton.
520:Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
460:
3952:History of the United States (1865–1917)
66:
18:
445:
4035:American companies established in 1865
4017:
3611:Bibliography of the Reconstruction era
2657:Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
875:
3896:Women's suffrage in the United States
2585:Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction
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3003:Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo
2691:Confederates surrender at Appomattox
2503:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
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341:
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165:Fraud and other financial misconduct
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2990:American Woman Suffrage Association
2985:National Woman Suffrage Association
2912:Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson
1211:Women during the Reconstruction era
694:
33:Freedman's Saving and Trust Company
13:
4060:Defunct banks of the United States
3901:Labor history of the United States
2937:South Carolina readmitted to Union
2934:North Carolina readmitted to Union
2917:Impeachment managers investigation
2856:Constitutional conventions of 1867
2532:National Women's Rights Convention
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14:
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3142:United States expedition to Korea
2849:Reconstruction military districts
396:
353:. U.S. Government Printing Office
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328:
120:on March 3, 1865 (13 Stat. 510).
2696:Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
990:African-American representatives
475:
131:, himself a former slave, wrote
62:
3698:Black Reconstruction in America
3571:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
3481:1876 State of the Union Address
3408:1875 State of the Union Address
3335:1874 State of the Union Address
3259:1873 State of the Union Address
3198:1872 State of the Union Address
3147:1871 State of the Union Address
3086:1870 State of the Union Address
3035:1869 State of the Union Address
3030:First transcontinental railroad
2969:1868 State of the Union Address
2876:1867 State of the Union Address
2711:1865 State of the Union Address
2636:1864 State of the Union Address
2610:1863 State of the Union Address
2519:Woman in the Nineteenth Century
671:
636:
596:
572:
23:The Freedman's Savings Bank on
2771:Petition for Universal Freedom
2752:Southern Homestead Act of 1866
835:Solvent Savings Bank and Trust
727:Hill Edwards, Justene (2024).
484:
469:
454:
379:
304:
48:destroyed the savings of many
1:
3818:A Visit from the Old Mistress
3517:Great Railroad Strike of 1877
3383:Specie Payment Resumption Act
3008:Board of Indian Commissioners
2940:Louisiana readmitted to Union
2902:Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
2766:Tennessee readmitted to Union
2600:Women's Loyal National League
1303:Straight-Out Democratic Party
1074:Confederate States of America
297:
4045:Banks disestablished in 1874
3444:Battle of the Little Bighorn
2928:Arkansas readmitted to Union
2834:Knights of the White Camelia
2796:Slave Kidnapping Act of 1866
2742:New Orleans Massacre of 1866
2716:Founding of the Ku Klux Klan
2674:Special Field Orders No. 15
2497:Slavery in the United States
649:. Harvard University Press.
7:
3962:Race (human categorization)
3352:United States v. Cruikshank
2943:Alabama readmitted to Union
2931:Florida readmitted to Union
280:
267:
208:described the loan thusly:
10:
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3163:General Mining Act of 1872
3132:New York custom house ring
3122:Meridian race riot of 1871
3066:Naturalization Act of 1870
825:Mechanics and Farmers Bank
751:Forthcoming, October 2024.
461:Baradaran, Mehrsa (2017).
217:
4050:Banks established in 1865
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3755:Been in the Storm So Long
3675:William Archibald Dunning
3635:The American Commonwealth
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3471:Safe burglary conspiracy
3358:Civil Rights Act of 1875
3137:Civil service commission
2737:Memphis massacre of 1866
2732:Civil Rights Act of 1866
2548:Confiscation Act of 1862
2543:Confiscation Act of 1861
1298:Liberal Republican Party
980:Conservative Republicans
701:Freedman's Bank archives
287:Freedman's Bank Building
57:Freedman's Bank Building
3967:Reconstruction Treaties
3786:A Nation Under Our Feet
3734:From Slavery to Freedom
3564:Williams v. Mississippi
3548:United States v. Harris
3439:Great Sioux War of 1876
3378:Yazoo City Riot of 1875
3280:Battle of Liberty Place
3168:Crédit Mobilier scandal
3117:Alcorn State University
3056:Enforcement Act of 1870
2922:Articles of impeachment
2829:Indian Peace Commission
2747:Swing Around the Circle
2684:Freedmen's Bureau bills
2526:Seneca Falls Convention
1255:Radical Democracy Party
1206:Freedman's Savings Bank
810:Freedman's Savings Bank
643:Levy, Jonathan (2014).
151:General Nathaniel Banks
147:General Benjamin Butler
88:were aggravated by the
37:Freedman's Savings Bank
3942:Forty acres and a mule
3665:Walter Lynwood Fleming
3450:United States v. Reese
3107:Second Enforcement Act
1337:Prohibition Convention
1069:Southern United States
785:African American banks
446:Osthaus, Carl (1976).
236:Walter Lynwood Fleming
215:
138:
81:
28:
3916:Civil rights movement
3852:The Birth of a Nation
3461:Centennial Exposition
3315:Black Hills Gold Rush
3230:Slaughter-House Cases
3102:Ku Klux Klan hearings
2580:General Order No. 143
1199:James Mitchell Ashley
795:Broadway Federal Bank
210:
186:Jay Cooke and Company
133:
79:
22:
3497:Electoral Commission
3373:Clifton Riot of 1875
3127:Treaty of Washington
2819:Tenure of Office Act
2777:National Labor Union
2492:American Indian Wars
1342:Electoral Commission
1332:Greenback Convention
1095:Free people of color
1035:Federal bureaucracy
975:Moderate Republicans
316:www.familysearch.org
143:General Rufus Saxton
112:, passing an act of
90:economic devastation
3846:D. W. Griffith
3831:The Leopard's Spots
3721:The American Crisis
3655:Columbia University
3622:The Prostrate State
3616:James Shepherd Pike
3533:Posse Comitatus Act
3456:Trader post scandal
3244:Coinage Act of 1873
3018:Black Friday (1869)
2866:Peonage Act of 1867
2844:Reconstruction Acts
2824:Command of Army Act
2559:Militia Act of 1862
970:Radical Republicans
918:Rutherford B. Hayes
603:Baradaran, Mehrsa,
496:Library of Congress
27:in Washington, D.C.
25:Pennsylvania Avenue
4065:Reconstruction Era
3865:Gone with the Wind
3728:John Hope Franklin
3584:Disenfranchisement
3556:Plessy v. Ferguson
3540:Civil Rights Cases
3502:Compromise of 1877
3393:Wheeler Compromise
3310:Vicksburg massacre
3295:Timber Culture Act
3285:Coushatta massacre
3224:Timber Culture Act
3178:Star Route scandal
3061:Justice Department
2958:Georgia v. Stanton
2947:Opelousas massacre
2538:American Civil War
1347:Compromise of 1877
1049:Justice Department
1013:Federal judiciary
892:Federal government
877:Reconstruction era
805:City National Bank
247:Depositors’ losses
232:Frederick Douglass
82:
29:
4040:American freedmen
4012:
4011:
3995:
3994:
3921:American frontier
3775:Kenneth M. Stampp
3592:
3591:
3434:Ellenton massacre
3275:Brooks–Baxter War
3024:Ex parte McCardle
2790:Ex parte Milligan
2679:Freedmen's Bureau
2595:National Bank Act
2473:
2472:
1308:Victoria Woodhull
1219:
1218:
1090:African Americans
1061:State governments
1044:Freedmen's Bureau
843:
842:
656:978-0-674-73635-1
557:978-1-4696-4909-2
292:Freedmen's Bureau
110:Freedmen's Bureau
77:
50:African Americans
4072:
3878:Race and Reunion
3825:Thomas Dixon Jr.
3715:William R. Brock
3705:C. Vann Woodward
3692:W. E. B. Du Bois
3682:Charles A. Beard
3642:Claude G. Bowers
3601:
3600:
3424:Hamburg massacre
3403:Pratt & Boyd
3368:Mississippi Plan
3325:Anti-Moiety Acts
3320:Sanborn incident
3112:Ku Klux Klan Act
2783:Ex parte Garland
2590:Ten percent plan
2482:
2481:
1228:
1227:
1179:Thaddeus Stevens
1164:Republican Party
1157:Samuel J. Tilden
1147:Bourbon Democrat
1142:Democratic Party
913:Ulysses S. Grant
888:
887:
870:
863:
856:
847:
846:
779:
772:
765:
756:
755:
750:
714:
709:
703:
698:
692:
691:
675:
669:
668:
640:
634:
633:
632:
631:
600:
594:
593:
591:
590:
576:
570:
569:
541:
532:
531:
529:
527:
512:
506:
505:
503:
502:
488:
482:
481:
476:Levy, Jonathan.
473:
467:
466:
458:
452:
451:
443:
394:
393:
391:
383:
377:
372:
363:
362:
360:
358:
343:
326:
325:
323:
322:
308:
108:established the
78:
4080:
4079:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4070:
4069:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4008:
3991:
3982:White supremacy
3925:
3884:
3872:David W. Blight
3800:
3710:Joel Williamson
3687:Howard K. Beale
3588:
3577:Giles v. Harris
3521:
3512:Desert Land Act
3485:
3412:
3339:
3263:
3249:Long Depression
3219:Colfax massacre
3202:
3183:Salary Grab Act
3151:
3090:
3071:Kirk–Holden war
3039:
2973:
2880:
2807:
2720:
2701:Shaw University
2640:
2626:Wade–Davis Bill
2614:
2563:
2469:
2423:
1445:
1399:
1353:
1233:
1215:
1152:Horatio Seymour
1078:
1062:
1055:
903:Abraham Lincoln
893:
879:
874:
844:
839:
820:Industrial Bank
786:
783:
739:
723:
721:Further reading
718:
717:
710:
706:
699:
695:
677:
676:
672:
657:
641:
637:
629:
627:
617:
601:
597:
588:
586:
578:
577:
573:
558:
542:
535:
525:
523:
522:. 14 March 2019
514:
513:
509:
500:
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489:
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459:
455:
444:
397:
389:
385:
384:
380:
373:
366:
356:
354:
344:
329:
320:
318:
310:
309:
305:
300:
283:
270:
249:
220:
167:
118:Abraham Lincoln
94:Southern states
67:
65:
35:, known as the
17:
12:
11:
5:
4078:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4006:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3933:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3874:
3869:
3861:
3856:
3848:
3843:
3835:
3827:
3822:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3790:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3751:
3746:
3738:
3730:
3725:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3670:Dunning School
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3648:The Tragic Era
3644:
3639:
3631:
3626:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3604:Historiography
3598:
3594:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3573:
3568:
3560:
3552:
3544:
3536:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3476:1876 elections
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3330:1874 elections
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3193:1872 elections
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3081:1870 elections
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3051:15th Amendment
3047:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2992:
2987:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2964:1868 elections
2961:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2899:
2894:
2892:14th Amendment
2888:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2803:1866 elections
2799:
2798:
2793:
2786:
2779:
2774:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2654:
2652:13th Amendment
2648:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2631:1864 elections
2628:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2515:
2507:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2428:U.S. elections
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2341:
2333:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1698:
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1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
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1643:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1587:
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1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
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1544:
1539:
1534:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1354:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1184:Lyman Trumbull
1181:
1176:
1174:Charles Sumner
1171:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
923:
922:
921:
920:
915:
910:
908:Andrew Johnson
905:
896:
894:
891:
885:
881:
880:
873:
872:
865:
858:
850:
841:
840:
838:
837:
832:
830:OneUnited Bank
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
791:
788:
787:
782:
781:
774:
767:
759:
753:
752:
737:
722:
719:
716:
715:
704:
693:
670:
655:
635:
615:
595:
571:
556:
533:
507:
483:
468:
453:
395:
378:
364:
327:
302:
301:
299:
296:
295:
294:
289:
282:
279:
269:
266:
248:
245:
219:
216:
190:Henry D. Cooke
166:
163:
106:U. S. Congress
64:
61:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4077:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3998:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3947:Habeas corpus
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3880:
3879:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3813:
3812:Winslow Homer
3810:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3742:After Slavery
3739:
3736:
3735:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3595:
3585:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3507:Nez Perce War
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3398:Delano affair
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3290:Red River War
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3254:Comstock laws
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3214:Panic of 1873
3212:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3145:
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225:
224:Panic of 1873
214:
209:
207:
206:Blanche Bruce
201:
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187:
182:
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162:
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144:
137:
132:
130:
126:
125:Blanche Bruce
121:
119:
115:
114:incorporation
111:
107:
103:
99:
98:sharecropping
95:
91:
87:
63:Establishment
60:
58:
53:
51:
45:
42:
41:U.S. Congress
38:
34:
26:
21:
3987:Whitecapping
3957:Paramilitary
3930:Other topics
3911:Jim Crow era
3876:
3863:
3850:
3837:
3829:
3816:
3792:
3784:
3766:
3753:
3749:Leon Litwack
3740:
3732:
3719:
3696:
3660:John Burgess
3646:
3633:
3620:
3575:
3562:
3554:
3546:
3538:
3448:
3388:Whiskey Ring
3350:
3300:White League
3236:
3228:
3076:Shoffner Act
3022:
2995:
2956:
2839:Pulaski riot
2788:
2781:
2769:
2517:
2509:
2501:
2345:
2337:
1232:Presidential
1205:
1194:John Bingham
1132:White League
1117:Ku Klux Klan
884:Participants
809:
728:
707:
696:
678:
673:
645:
638:
628:, retrieved
605:
598:
587:. Retrieved
584:WHHA (en-US)
583:
574:
546:
524:. Retrieved
519:
510:
499:. Retrieved
495:
486:
477:
471:
462:
456:
447:
381:
355:. Retrieved
350:
319:. Retrieved
315:
306:
271:
262:
258:
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250:
241:
228:
221:
211:
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198:
183:
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175:
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155:
139:
134:
122:
104:-controlled
83:
54:
46:
36:
32:
30:
3780:Steven Hahn
3629:James Bryce
3188:Amnesty Act
2669:Black Codes
1358:U.S. Senate
1105:Politicians
1027:Waite Court
1022:Chase Court
1017:Taney Court
899:Presidents
351:GovInfo.gov
4019:Categories
3906:Gilded Age
3762:Eric Foner
3466:Cattellism
3363:Red Shirts
2478:Key events
1404:U.S. House
1137:Red Shirts
747:1418888770
665:1099771512
630:2021-04-11
625:1042992936
589:2021-04-11
566:1066247700
501:2021-04-11
321:2021-04-08
298:References
102:Republican
3526:Aftermath
3237:Virginius
3173:Modoc War
1224:Elections
1169:Stalwarts
1127:Redeemers
926:Congress
815:Greenwood
526:5 October
222:When the
194:Jay Cooke
59:in 2016.
4004:Category
3972:Suffrage
2907:Timeline
1122:Scalawag
1100:Freedman
688:48049785
281:See also
268:Archives
123:Senator
86:freedmen
3597:Aspects
2996:Alabama
2662:Address
2485:Prelude
1441:1876–77
1436:1874–75
1431:1872–73
1426:1870–71
1421:1868–69
1416:1866–67
1411:1864–65
1395:1876–77
1390:1874–75
1385:1872–73
1380:1870–71
1375:1868–69
1370:1866–67
1365:1864–65
357:19 June
346:Bruce.
218:Failure
127:of the
92:of the
3889:Legacy
3881:(2001)
3868:(1939)
3855:(1915)
3842:(1905)
3834:(1902)
3821:(1876)
3805:Memory
3797:(2019)
3789:(2003)
3771:(1988)
3758:(1979)
3745:(1965)
3737:(1947)
3724:(1963)
3701:(1935)
3651:(1929)
3638:(1888)
3625:(1874)
3580:(1903)
3567:(1898)
3559:(1896)
3551:(1883)
3543:(1883)
3535:(1878)
3239:Affair
2998:Claims
2555:(1862)
2534:(1850)
2528:(1848)
2522:(1839)
2514:(1838)
2506:(1792)
1083:Others
800:Carver
745:
735:
686:
680:report
663:
653:
623:
613:
564:
554:
2322:1876
2260:1875
2188:1874
2131:1873
2044:1872
1977:1871
1910:1870
1843:1869
1761:1868
1709:1867
1647:1866
1590:1865
1528:1864
1456:1863
390:(PDF)
3490:1877
3417:1876
3344:1875
3268:1874
3207:1873
3156:1872
3095:1871
3044:1870
2978:1869
2885:1868
2812:1867
2725:1866
2645:1865
2619:1864
2568:1863
2465:1876
2460:1874
2455:1872
2450:1870
2445:1868
2440:1866
2435:1864
2346:Nov.
2338:Apr.
1317:1876
1283:1872
1264:1868
1240:1864
743:OCLC
733:ISBN
684:OCLC
661:OCLC
651:ISBN
621:OCLC
611:ISBN
562:OCLC
552:ISBN
528:2019
359:2023
31:The
2344:CT
2336:CT
1327:RNC
1322:DNC
1293:RNC
1288:DNC
1274:RNC
1269:DNC
1245:DNC
4021::
2417:WV
2412:VT
2407:SC
2402:RI
2397:NC
2392:MO
2387:MI
2382:ME
2377:MA
2372:LA
2367:KS
2362:IN
2357:IL
2352:FL
2331:CO
2326:AL
2314:WI
2309:OH
2304:OH
2299:MN
2294:ME
2289:MD
2284:MA
2279:KY
2274:IA
2269:CT
2264:CA
2252:VT
2247:SC
2242:OR
2237:NV
2232:NJ
2227:MO
2222:MI
2217:ME
2212:MA
2207:KS
2202:DE
2197:CT
2192:AL
2180:WI
2175:VA
2170:TX
2165:OH
2160:MS
2155:MN
2150:ME
2145:MA
2140:IA
2135:CT
2123:WV
2118:VT
2113:SC
2108:RI
2103:PA
2098:NC
2093:MO
2088:MI
2083:ME
2078:MA
2073:LA
2068:IN
2063:IL
2058:FL
2053:CT
2048:AL
2036:WI
2031:RI
2026:OH
2021:NJ
2016:MN
2011:ME
2006:MD
2001:MA
1996:KY
1991:IA
1986:CT
1981:CA
1969:WV
1964:VT
1959:SC
1954:RI
1949:OR
1944:MO
1939:MI
1934:ME
1929:MA
1924:DE
1919:CT
1914:AL
1902:WI
1897:VT
1892:VA
1887:RI
1882:PA
1877:OH
1872:MS
1867:MN
1862:ME
1857:MA
1852:IA
1847:CT
1835:WV
1830:VT
1825:SC
1820:NJ
1815:NC
1810:MO
1805:MI
1800:ME
1795:MA
1790:LA
1785:IN
1780:IL
1775:FL
1770:CT
1765:AL
1753:WI
1748:VT
1743:OH
1738:MN
1733:ME
1728:MD
1723:MA
1718:CT
1713:CA
1701:WV
1696:VT
1691:TX
1686:PA
1681:OR
1676:NC
1671:MI
1666:ME
1661:MA
1656:DE
1651:CT
1639:WI
1634:VT
1629:SC
1624:OH
1619:NJ
1614:MN
1609:MA
1604:LA
1599:FL
1594:CT
1582:WV
1577:VT
1572:NH
1567:MO
1562:MI
1557:MA
1552:MD
1547:LA
1542:IN
1537:IL
1532:CT
1520:WV
1515:WI
1510:VT
1505:VA
1500:PA
1495:OH
1490:NH
1485:MN
1480:MA
1475:KY
1470:CT
1465:CA
1460:AL
965:45
960:44
955:43
950:42
945:41
940:40
935:39
930:38
741:.
659:.
619:,
609:,
582:.
560:.
550:.
536:^
518:.
494:.
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