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4028:âwhere the cells do not connect with each other. Cutting the dough releases the gas in the bubbles that are cut, but the gas in the rest of the dough cannot escape. When dough is allowed to rise too far, it becomes an open-cell foam, in which the gas pockets are connected; cutting the dough surface at that point would cause a large volume of gas to escape, and the dough to collapse. Recent research has indicated that the pore structure in bread is 99% interconnected into one large vacuole, thus the closed-cell foam of the moist dough is transformed into an open cell solid foam in the bread.
4700:
394:
1981:
4322:
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1967:
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5260:, the term refers to "a light frothy mass of fine bubbles formed in or on the surface of a liquid or from a liquid", giving the examples of those produced by "salivating or sweating", ones stably produced to fight fires, ones that are the product of gas bubbles introduced during manufacturing, and then the further broad examples of sea foam, and then anything resembling the foregoing. Finally, the general definition includes actions to produce all of the above. See
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roll-off during measurement of actual frequency of acoustic cycles results in miscalculation due to actual hydraulic cycles in the possible ranges of 1â1000 MHz or higher. Instrumentation systems are most revealing when cycle bandwidths exceed the actual measured cycles by a factor of 10 to 100. Associated instrumentation costs also increase by factors of 10 to 100.
3981:
1007:
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The general use of the term, which includes both noun and verb forms, is both narrower and broader than the one from material science described here. In general use, it is narrower, in that it most often refers to liquid foams; it is broader in that it includes all manners of such, and the actions to
3687:
Assuming that the speed of sound is based on the liquid's fluid properties leads to errors in calculating fatigue cycles and failure of mechanical hydraulic components. Using acoustical transducers and related instrumentation that set low limits (0â50,000 Hz with roll-off) causes errors. The low
3065:
cellular solids, as the foam is compressed, first it behaves elastically as the cell walls bend, then as the cell walls buckle there is yielding and breakdown of the material until finally the cell walls crush together and the material ruptures. This is seen in a stress-strain curve as a steep linear
4329:
Closed-cell foams do not have interconnected pores. The closed-cell foams normally have higher compressive strength due to their structures. However, closed-cell foams are also, in general more dense, require more material, and as a consequence are more expensive to produce. The closed cells can be
2020:
Also, surface stretching makes the surface tension of the indented spot greater than the surrounding area. Consequentiallyâsince diffusion time for the surfactants is largeâthe
Marangoni effect has time to take place. The difference in surface tension creates a gradient, which instigates fluid flow
998:
One of the ways foam is created is through dispersion, where a large amount of gas is mixed with a liquid. A more specific method of dispersion involves injecting a gas through a hole in a solid into a liquid. If this process is completed very slowly, then one bubble can be emitted from the orifice
462:âdiffer somewhat between liquid and solid foams in that the former are dynamic (e.g., in their being "continuously deformed"), as a result of gas diffusing between cells, liquid draining from the foam into a bulk liquid, etc. Theories regarding liquid foams have as direct analogs theories regarding
3683:
The acoustical property of the speed of sound through a foam is of interest when analyzing failures of hydraulic components. The analysis involves calculating total hydraulic cycles to fatigue failure. The speed of sound in a foam is determined by the mechanical properties of the gas creating the
1889:
is large while the other radius of curvature is small. As the stem of the bubble grows in length, it becomes more unstable as one of the radius grows and the other shrinks. At a certain point, the vertical length of the stem exceeds the circumference of the stem and due to the buoyancy forces the
4364:
The random or "stochastic" geometry of these foams makes them good for energy absorption, as well. In the late 20th century to early 21st century, new manufacturing techniques have allowed for geometry that results in excellent strength and stiffness per weight. These new materials are typically
4313:
Open-cell-structured foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network that is relatively soft. Open-cell foams fill with whatever gas surrounds them. If filled with air, a relatively good insulator results, but, if the open cells fill with water, insulation
3608:
of the cellular structure and the absorption of fluids can also have an impact on the mechanical properties of a foam. If there is anisotropy present, then the materials response to stress will be directionally dependent, and thus the stress-strain curve, modulus, and energy absorption will vary
3438:
where the only difference is the exponent in the density dependence. However, in real materials, a closed-cell foam has more material at the cell edges which makes it more closely follow the equation for open-cell foams. The ratio of the density of the honeycomb structure compared with the solid
3041:
Solid foams, both open-cell and closed-cell, are considered as a sub-class of cellular structures. They often have lower nodal connectivity as compared to other cellular structures like honeycombs and truss lattices, and thus, their failure mechanism is dominated by bending of members. Low nodal
3865:
Being a multi-scale system involving many phenomena, and a versatile medium, foam can be studied using many different techniques. The organisation between bubbles has been studied numerically using sequential attempts of evolution of the minimum surface energy either at random (Pott's model) or
3447:
Another important property which can be deduced from the stress strain curve is the energy that the foam is able to absorb. The area under the curve (specified to be before rapid densification at the peak stress), represents the energy in the foam in units of energy per unit volume. The maximum
3991:
One optical technique involves the use of multiple light scattering coupled with vertical scanning along the height of the sample vessel. When light is sent through the sample, it is backscattered by the bubbles. Therefore, local changes in scattering and light transmission can detected and
4330:
filled with a specialized gas to provide improved insulation. The closed-cell structure foams have higher dimensional stability, low moisture absorption coefficients, and higher strength compared to open-cell-structured foams. All types of foam are widely used as core material in
2220:
1876:
500:. In closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets, each completely surrounded by the solid material. In open-cell foam, gas pockets connect to each other. A bath sponge is an example of an open-cell foam: water easily flows through the entire structure, displacing the air. A
2016:
For the
Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solutionâso the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.
4337:
The earliest known engineering use of cellular solids is with wood, which in its dry form is a closed-cell foam composed of lignin, cellulose, and air. From the early 20th century, various types of specially manufactured solid foams came into use. The low
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Schematic stress-strain curve of an elastomeric foam, demonstrating the three regions which are linear elastic, cell-wall buckling, and cell-wall fracture, where the area under the curve specified represents the energy per unit volume the foam can
2942:
3591:
4465:; i.e., it has the ability to be reshaped repeatedly when heated above a certain temperature and cooled. Shape memory foams have many possible applications, such as dynamic structural support, flexible foam core, and expandable foam fill.
1212:
is the radius of the orifice. As more air is pushed into the bubble, the buoyancy force grows quicker than the surface tension force. Thus, detachment occurs when the buoyancy force is large enough to overcome the surface tension force.
2955:. Meaning that from the top of the bubble to the bottom of the bubble the radius of curvature increases. Therefore, without neglecting gravity the bubbles cannot be spherical. In addition, as z increases, this causes the difference in R
3609:
depending on the direction of applied force. Also, open-cell structures which have connected pores can allow water or other liquids to flow through the structure, which can also affect the rigidity and energy absorption capabilities.
1572:
are the radii of curvature also treated as positive. Here the hydrostatic pressure in the liquid has to take in account z, the distance from the top to the stem of the bubble. The new hydrostatic pressure at the stem of the bubble is
1002:
One of the theories for determining the separation time is shown below; however, while this theory produces theoretical data that matches the experimental data, detachment due to capillarity is accepted as a better explanation.
2012:
The
Marangoni effect depends on the liquid that is foaming being impure. Generally, surfactants in the solution decrease the surface tension. The surfactants also clump together on the surface and form a layer as shown below.
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4488:. In the open-mold process, two reactive components are mixed and poured into an open mold. The mold is then closed and the mixture is allowed to expand and cure. Examples of items produced using this process include
2715:
is the density for a gas and liquid respectively. The difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top of the bubble is 0, while the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the bubble across the interface is
3066:
elastic regime, a linear regime with a shallow slope after yielding (plateau stress), and an exponentially increasing regime. The stiffness of the material can be calculated from the linear elastic regime where the
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This equation is derived from assuming an idealized foam with engineering approximations from experimental results. Most energy absorption occurs at the plateau stress region after the steep linear elastic regime.
2424:
1411:
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However, since the density and viscosity of a liquid is much greater than the gas, the density and viscosity of the gas can be neglected, which yields the new equation for velocity of bubbles rising as:
2328:
1282:
6032:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2012). "Thermal
Treatment and Degradation of Crosslinked Ethylene Vinyl Acetate-Polyethylene-Azodicarbonamide-ZnO Foams. Complete Kinetic Modelling and Analysis".
4637:) they may cause especially in food and pharmaceutical industries, where the product quality is of great importance. Mechanical methods to prevent foam formation are more common than chemical ones.
4445:
A special class of closed-cell foams, known as syntactic foam, contains hollow particles embedded in a matrix material. The spheres can be made from several materials, including glass, ceramic, and
4287:
Solid foams are a class of lightweight cellular engineering materials. These foams are typically classified into two types based on their pore structure: open-cell-structured foams (also known as
4050:
or foaming is a means of mass killing farm animals by spraying foam over a large area to obstruct breathing and ultimately cause suffocation. It is usually used to attempt to stop disease spread.
6059:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2008). "Differential
Scanning Calorimetry Analysis of the Thermal Treatment of Ternary Mixtures of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate, Polyethylene and Azodicarbonamide".
2433:
and capillary pressure, which affect the assumption that the bubbles are spherical. For laplace pressure of a curved gas liquid interface, the two principal radii of curvature at a point are R
1085:
6096:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Olaya, M.M.; Marcilla, A. (2006). "DSC Study of the
Transitions Involved in the Thermal Treatment of Foamable Mixtures of PE and EVA Copolymer with Azodicarbonamide".
5751:
The open structure of an over-risen dough is easy to observe: instead of consisting of discrete gas bubbles, the dough consists of a gas space filled with threads of the flour-water paste.
277:
lead fails to summarise, instead presenting novel content (dispersed media, quantum foam, and allusions to foam as polydisperse, colloidal, and as suds, beer head, bath sponges, etc., all
439:
material. The foam "may contain more or less liquid according to circumstances", although in the case of gas-liquid foams, the gas occupies most of the volume. The word derives from the
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is the surface tension. The bubble shown below is a gas (phase 1) in a liquid (phase 2) and point A designates the top of the bubble while point B designates the bottom of the bubble.
2035:
Witold
Rybczynski and Jacques Hadamard developed an equation to calculate the velocity of bubbles that rise in foam with the assumption that the bubbles are spherical with a radius
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990:
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Kooistra, Gregory W.; Deshpande, Vikram S.; Wadley, Haydn N.G. (August 2004). "Compressive behavior of age hardenable tetrahedral lattice truss structures made from aluminium".
1604:
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The strength of foams can be impacted by the density, the material used, and the arrangement of the cellular structure (open vs closed and pore isotropy). To characterize the
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the formal and key matter of defining what this form of material is, with distinction between liquid and solid foams, is not accomplished by the current unsourced essay.
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from areas of lower surface tension to areas of higher surface tension. The second picture shows the film at equilibrium after the
Marangoni effect has taken place.
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structure has a large impact on the modulus of the material. Overall, foam strength increases with density of the cell and stiffness of the matrix material.
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connectivity and the resulting failure mechanism ultimately lead to their lower mechanical strength and stiffness compared to honeycombs and truss lattices.
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properties would be reduced. Recent studies have put the focus on studying the properties of open-cell foams as an insulator material. Wheat gluten/TEOS
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have been produced, showing similar insulator properties as for those foams obtained from oil-based resources. Foam rubber is a type of open-cell foam.
2748:
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Since, the density of the gas is less than the density of the liquid the left hand side of the equation is always positive. Therefore, the inverse of R
2451:
3695:
results in actual hydraulic cycles that can exceed 1000 MHz even if the moving mechanical components do not cycle at the higher cycle frequency.
5114:
5995:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2008). "Kinetic Study of the
Decompositions Involved in the Thermal Degradation of Commercial Azodicarbonamide".
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4291:) and closed-cell foams. At high enough cell resolutions, any type can be treated as continuous or "continuum" materials and are referred to as
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Most moving hydro-mechanical components cycle at 0â50 Hz, but entrained gas bubbles resulting in a foamy condition of the associated
1416:
Examining this phenomenon from a capillarity viewpoint for a bubble that is being formed very slowly, it can be assumed that the pressure
1333:
2970:
causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which
Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to
2215:{\displaystyle u={\frac {2gr^{2}}{9\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\left({\frac {3\eta _{1}+3\eta _{2}}{3\eta _{1}+2\eta _{2}}}\right)\!}
1871:{\displaystyle (\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})gz=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{3}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{4}}}\right)\!}
4667:
861:
An even lower scale is the liquidâair interface at the surface of the film. Most of the time this interface is stabilized by a layer of
4629:
oils, are added to prevent these problems. Chemical methods of foam control are not always desired with respect to the problems (i.e.,
4614:. Foam is a problem because it alters the liquid flow and blocks oxygen transfer from air (thereby preventing microbial respiration in
3761: with: a much more thorough presentation of the variety of techniques used to characterise liquid and solid foams. You can help by
6252:
5203:
5658:"A rate-sensitive constitutive model for anisotropic cellular materials - Application to a transversely isotropic polyurethane foam"
819:
and have a variety of bubble sizes. At larger sizes, the study of idealized foams is closely linked to the mathematical problems of
4749:
6249:
A treatise termed a classic by Weaire & Hutzler (1999), on solid foams, and the reason they limit their focus to liquid foams.
5962:
Wu, Qiong; Andersson, Richard L.; Holgate, Tim; Johansson, Eva; Gedde, Ulf W.; Olsson, Richard T.; Hedenqvist, Mikael S. (2014).
2259:
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are used to measure their strength and ability to absorb energy since this is an important factor in foam based technologies.
289:
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Hannelore Dittmar-Ilgen: Metalle lernen schwimmen. In: Dies.: Wie der Kork-KrĂŒmel ans Weinglas kommt. Hirzel, Stuttgart 2006,
4306:
Open-cell foams can be used to filter air. For example, a foam embedded with catalyst has been shown to catalytically convert
3866:
deterministic way (surface evolver). The evolution with time (i.e., the dynamics) can be simulated using these models, or the
6314:
6303:
6144:
5309:
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5270:
2982:, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (
2441:. With a curved interface, the pressure in one phase is greater than the pressure in another phase. The capillary pressure P
6665:
4742:
4031:
The unique property of gas-liquid foams having very high specific surface area is exploited in the chemical processes of
6331:
4699:
2832:
At equilibrium, the difference in capillary pressure must be balanced by the difference in hydrostatic pressure. Hence,
6267:
5218:
519:)âseparated by liquid regions that may form films, thinner and thinner when the liquid phase drains out of the system
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is that they have a very high strength-to-weight ratio, making them ideal materials for many applications, including
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Observations of the small-scale structure can be made using various light scattering and image capturing techniques.
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causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and
224:
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causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under
761:
523:. When the principal scale is small, i.e., for a very fine foam, this dispersed medium can be considered a type of
161:
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and flotation devices and their lightness and compressibility make them ideal as packing materials and stuffings.
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5917:"Catalytic Surgical Smoke Filtration Unit Reduces Formaldehyde Levels in a Simulated Operating Room Environment"
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Wang, Shuo; Austin, Peter; Chakrabati-Bell, Sumana (2011). "It's a maze: The pore structure of bread crumbs".
6298:
Thomas Hipke, GĂŒnther Lange, RenĂ© Poss: Taschenbuch fĂŒr AluminiumschĂ€ume. Aluminium-Verlag, DĂŒsseldorf 2007,
5964:"Highly porous flame-retardant and sustainable biofoams based on wheat gluten and in situ polymerized silica"
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3429:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {E^{*}}{E_{s}}}\right)_{f}=C_{f}\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{3}}
3182:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {E^{*}}{E_{s}}}\right)_{f}=C_{f}\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{2}}
1463:. The change in pressure across the interface from gas to liquid is equal to the capillary pressure; hence,
740:
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Queheillalt, Douglas T.; Wadley, Haydn N.G. (January 2005). "Cellular metal lattices with hollow trusses".
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1719:{\displaystyle p-p_{0}-(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})gz=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{3}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{4}}}\right)\!}
1148:
961:
6365:
4961:
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4618:
832:
854:. Ideally, the lamellae connect in triads and radiate 120° outward from the connection points, known as
5697:"The effect of moisture absorption on thephysical properties of polyurethane shapememory polymer foams"
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4361:, where it plays a role in the formation of air bubbles by breaking down into gas at high temperature.
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is the density of the solid. The elastic modulus for closed cell foams can be described similarly by:
747:
147:
6469:
6256:; Cohen-Addad, S; Elias, F; Graner, F; Höhler, R; Pitois, O; Rouyer, F & Saint-Jalmes, A (2013).
5207:; Cohen-Addad, S; Elias, F; Graner, F; Höhler, R; Pitois, O; Rouyer, F & Saint-Jalmes, A (2013).
2937:{\displaystyle gz(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})=2\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{A}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{B}}}\right)\!}
447:, in reference to the "frothy head forming in the glass once the beer has been freshly poured" (cf.
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M. Liu et al. Multiscale modeling of effective elastic properties of fluid-filled porous materials
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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3586:{\displaystyle {\frac {W_{max}}{E_{s}}}=0.05\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{2}\left}
3050:
2333:
However, through experiments it has been shown that a more accurate model for bubbles rising is:
1998:
1914:
1729:
Finally, the difference in the top and bottom pressure equal the change in hydrostatic pressure:
897:
729:
220:
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107:
17:
3016: with: as thorough a treatment as is included in the solid foam subsection. You can help by
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At the stem of the bubble, the shape of the bubble is nearly cylindrical; consequently, either R
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44:
4321:
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4480:, is a type of foam with a high-density skin and a low-density core. It can be formed in an
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to benign substances when formaldehyde polluted air passes through the open cell structure.
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as well as in the gas. At the bottom of the bubble at point B, the hydrostatic pressure is:
5708:
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as its matrix, enabling the foam to take on the characteristics of shape memory resins and
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systems where a gas is disbursed in a second, non-gaseous material, specifically, in which
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This article is about the substance formed from trapped gas bubbles. For other uses, see
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in the manufacture of various substances. For example, foam is a serious problem in the
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inside is constant everywhere. The hydrostatic pressure in the liquid is designated by
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How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
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39:"Foaming" and "Foamy" redirect here. For a method of mass killing farm animals, see
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1546:{\displaystyle p-p_{0}=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right)\!}
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4590:
Foam, in this case meaning "bubbly liquid", is also produced as an often-unwanted
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3941:
2822:{\displaystyle P_{c}=2\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{A}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{B}}}\right)\!}
2564:
At the top of the bubble at point A, the pressure in the liquid is assumed to be p
2556:
1598:. The hydrostatic pressure balances the capillary pressure, which is shown below:
1138:
is the density of the liquid. The force working against the buoyancy force is the
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is reported in one primary philosophical source to be the best possible (optimal)
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6216:. Cambridge Solid State Science. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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2522:{\displaystyle P_{c}=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right)\!}
1980:
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5855:"'They're cooking them alive': calls to ban 'cruel' killing methods on US farms"
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are the radii of curvature and are set as positive. At the stem of the bubble, R
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too, which means the bubble deviates more from its shape the larger it grows.
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is substituted in to the equation above, separation occurs at the moment when
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Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work,
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is large, with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. A
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4634:
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4510:(RIM), injects the mixed components into a closed mold under high pressures.
4350:
4025:
2734:). Assuming that the radii of curvature at point A are equal and denoted by R
1966:
1006:
824:
482:
412:
6489:
5301:
2742:, then the difference in capillary pressure between point A and point B is:
6541:
6464:
6447:
5839:
5738:
4842:
4599:
4307:
952:
534:
516:
501:
5831:
5788:
3448:
energy stored by the foam prior to rupture is described by the equation:
6659:
6617:
6536:
6432:
6427:
6346:
5124:
5031:
4931:
4879:
4658:
3984:
Measurement by multiple light scattering, coupled with vertical scanning.
2967:
862:
3749:
3004:
850:
foams, which can be considered a network of interconnected films called
6606:
6601:
6519:
6422:
6118:
6081:
6017:
5980:
5963:
5634:
5119:
5099:
5094:
4950:
4833:
4811:
4720:
4706:
4654:
4591:
4197: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2983:
2233:
is the density for a gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm and áż
1928: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
947:, and the formation of foam faster than its breakdown. To create foam,
940:
911: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
866:
847:
816:
6109:
6072:
6045:
6008:
2419:{\displaystyle u={\frac {2gr^{2}}{9\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\!}
335:
is written like draft academic essay/treatment, from sources unstated,
6708:
6611:
6357:
5610:
5036:
5019:
4957:
4888:
4867:
4497:
4493:
4089:
3728:
3062:
2738:
and that the radii of curvature at point B are equal and denoted by R
836:
570:
486:
75:
4529:
4384:
4172:
4139:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
4024:
causing bread to rise via tiny bubbles of gas that become the bread
3883:
3786:
3622:
1903:
1406:{\displaystyle R^{3}={\frac {3r\gamma }{2g(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})}}\!}
886:
692:
227:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
96:
6437:
6402:
5814:
Benson, E.R.; Alphin, R.L.; Dawson, M.D.; Malone, G.W. (May 2009).
5596:
5109:
5104:
5054:
5011:
5006:
4945:
4723:
4676:
4626:
4611:
4519:
4501:
4489:
4454:
4315:
4010:
3605:
2245:
of the gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm·s and g is the
1287:
In addition, if the bubble is treated as a sphere with a radius of
1015:
463:
5368:
803:
6563:
6558:
6546:
6524:
6509:
6417:
5599:
International Journal of Solids and Structures (2019) 162, 36-44
4818:
4603:
4446:
4339:
4009:, such as those that are used in extinguishing fires, especially
524:
455:
846:
At lower scale than the bubble is the thickness of the film for
454:
Theories regarding foam formation, structure, and propertiesâin
5816:"Use of water-based foam to depopulate ducks and other species"
2002:
533:
can also refer to something that is analogous to foam, such as
471:
432:
5695:
Yu, Y. J.; Hearon, K.; Wilson, T. S.; Maitland, D. J. (2011).
5354:
Morgan, F. (2008). "Existence of Least-perimeter Partitions".
4457:
and space applications. One particular syntactic foam employs
6596:
6206:
A modern treatise almost exclusively focused on liquid foams.
5915:
Carroll, Gregory T.; Kirschman, David L. (January 23, 2023).
5341:
Anionic Surfactants â Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Action
4021:
4017:
436:
401:
3870:(Durian), which considers the motion of individual bubbles.
2027:
a foam solidifies it, making it indefinitely stable at STP.
647:
is written like student essay summarising an unstated source
6474:
6407:
5961:
5477:
Wilson, A.J, "Principles of Foam Formation and Stability."
3980:
2323:{\displaystyle u={\frac {gr^{2}}{3\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2})\!}
405:
6209:
6166:
6095:
5151:
1277:{\displaystyle Vg(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})>2r\pi \gamma \!}
601:
needs attention from an expert in physics or chemistry
5760:
504:
is an example of a product composed of closed-cell foam.
478:
428:
6136:
Polyurethane and related foams: chemistry and technology
5813:
4020:
has traditionally been understood as a closed-cell foamâ
2966:
Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First,
5525:
3070:
for open celled foams can be defined by the equation:
6330:
Andrew M. Kraynik, Douglas A. Reinelt, Frank van Swol
5694:
5339:
Lucassen, J. (1981). Lucassen-Reijnders, E. H. (ed.).
6058:
6031:
5994:
3456:
3334:
3305:
3278:
3251:
3224:
3197:
3087:
2841:
2751:
2644:
2577:
2539:
2454:
2342:
2262:
2064:
2041:
1738:
1607:
1472:
1442:
1422:
1336:
1313:
1293:
1222:
1198:
1151:
1116:
1096:
1027:
964:
511:. In general, gas is present, so it divides into gas
5290:
Compendium of Chemical Terminology (The "Gold Book")
489:
are examples of foams; soap foams are also known as
5147:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5139:
4602:processes. Many biological substances, for example
2225:
with velocity in units of centimeters per second. Ï
2009:, which acts as a restoring force to the lamellae.
121:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5199:
5197:
4504:. The closed-mold process, more commonly known as
3585:
3428:
3318:
3291:
3264:
3237:
3210:
3181:
2936:
2821:
2696:
2629:
2545:
2521:
2418:
2322:
2214:
2047:
1870:
1718:
1545:
1455:
1428:
1405:
1319:
1299:
1276:
1204:
1180:
1122:
1102:
1079:
984:
843:describe how soap-films form structures in foams.
710:
5490:
5115:Reversibly assembled cellular composite materials
2933:
2818:
2693:
2626:
2518:
2415:
2319:
2211:
1867:
1715:
1542:
1402:
1273:
1177:
1076:
981:
6726:
5914:
5405:New York, Springer-Verlag, 1973. ch 2. sec 24â25
5397:
5395:
5324:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
5136:
2986:) or collective (even of the "avalanche" type).
800:A foam is, in many cases, a multi-scale system.
6295:Note, this source also focuses on liquid foams.
6034:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
5454:Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications
5314:. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012.
5246:Note, this source also focuses on liquid foams.
5194:
5191:Note, this source focuses only on liquid foams.
4349:An example of the use of azodicarbonamide as a
4342:of these foams makes them excellent as thermal
3299:is the density of the honeycomb structure, and
1080:{\displaystyle F_{b}=Vg(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\!}
807:Order and disorder of bubbles in a surface foam
5662:International Journal of Solids and Structures
5611:"The Mechanical Properties of Cellular Solids"
4764:
6373:
5894:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
5789:"New weapon in war on bird flu: tiny bubbles"
5392:
4750:
4730:
6289:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6262:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
6243:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6200:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6173:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
5656:Li, Pei; Guo, Y. B.; Shim, V. P. W. (2020).
5401:Bikerman, J.J. "Formation and Structure" in
5240:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5213:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
5185:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5158:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
719:introducing citations to additional sources
5852:
4558:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4413:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4365:referred to as engineered cellular solids.
4098:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3815:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3737:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3651:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3272:is a constant having a value close to one,
3245:is the modulus of the honeycomb structure,
2697:{\displaystyle P_{B},2=p_{0}+g\rho _{2}z\!}
2630:{\displaystyle P_{B},1=p_{0}+g\rho _{1}z\!}
579:Learn how and when to remove these messages
84:Learn how and when to remove these messages
6380:
6366:
4976:Giant bubbles, coloured bubbles, freezing
4757:
4743:
4295:, with predictable mechanical properties.
1890:bubble separates and the process repeats.
515:of different sizes (i.e., the material is
6213:Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties
6117:
6080:
6016:
5979:
5892:Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties
5885:
5883:
5728:
5655:
5576:. Waveland Press, Inc. pp. 686â713.
5450:
5367:
4578:Learn how and when to remove this message
4433:Learn how and when to remove this message
4275:Learn how and when to remove this message
4257:Learn how and when to remove this message
4155:Learn how and when to remove this message
3968:Learn how and when to remove this message
3853:Learn how and when to remove this message
3835:Learn how and when to remove this message
3684:foam: oxygen, nitrogen, or combinations.
3671:Learn how and when to remove this message
3599:
1993:The stabilization of a foam is caused by
1944:Learn how and when to remove this message
1130:is the acceleration due to gravity, and Ï
1018:force acts to raise the bubble, which is
999:at a time as shown in the picture below.
980:
927:Learn how and when to remove this message
788:Learn how and when to remove this message
675:Learn how and when to remove this message
381:Learn how and when to remove this message
363:Learn how and when to remove this message
308:Learn how and when to remove this message
243:Learn how and when to remove this message
181:Learn how and when to remove this message
6336:
5571:
5479:Foams: Physics, Chemistry, and Structure
5338:
4320:
4297:
3979:
3442:
3072:
2989:
2555:
1005:
802:
709:Relevant discussion may be found on the
411:
400:
392:
6153:from the original on February 17, 2017.
5481:. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1989, ch 1
3218:is the modulus of the solid component,
14:
6727:
6387:
6132:
5889:
5880:
5353:
5273:from the original on December 9, 2014.
3904:Please improve this section by adding
615:may be able to help recruit an expert.
6361:
6332:Structure of random monodisperse foam
5853:Bolotnikova, Marina (March 8, 2022).
5608:
5567:
5565:
5283:
4738:
4468:
1181:{\displaystyle F_{s}=2r\pi \gamma \!}
985:{\displaystyle W=\gamma \Delta A\,\!}
4556:adding citations to reliable sources
4523:
4411:adding citations to reliable sources
4378:
4195:adding citations to reliable sources
4166:
4104:
4063:
3877:
3813:adding citations to reliable sources
3780:
3743:
3702:
3649:adding citations to reliable sources
3616:
2998:
1926:adding citations to reliable sources
1897:
1192:where Îł is the surface tension, and
909:adding citations to reliable sources
880:
686:
631:
585:
544:
319:
254:
192:
119:adding citations to reliable sources
90:
49:
6666:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
6210:Gibson, LJ & Ashby, MF (1997).
6167:Weaire, D & Hutzler, S (1999).
5451:Stevenson, Paul (January 3, 2012).
5152:Weaire, D & Hutzler, S (1999).
3873:
3698:
3056:
1997:between the molecules in the foam,
839:of a perfectly ordered foam, while
24:
6160:
6098:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
6061:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
5997:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
5562:
5256:produce them, hence, according to
2030:
974:
496:Solid foams can be closed-cell or
25:
6751:
6324:
5294:Blackwell Scientific Publications
4791:Experiments and characterization
4368:
4079:This section has multiple issues.
4000:
3718:This section has multiple issues.
3612:
873:), or more complex associations.
560:This section has multiple issues.
431:cells are enclosed by a distinct
65:This article has multiple issues.
6488:
5968:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
5921:ACS Chemical Health & Safety
5574:Mechanical Behavior of Materials
4713:
4698:
4683:
4666:
4647:
4528:
4383:
4171:
4109:
4068:
4053:
3882:
3785:
3748:
3707:
3621:
3003:
1979:
1965:
1956:
1902:
995:where Îł is the surface tension.
885:
702:relies largely or entirely on a
691:
636:
590:
549:
324:
259:
197:
95:
54:
6126:
6089:
6052:
6025:
5988:
5955:
5908:
5846:
5807:
5781:
5754:
5745:
5688:
5649:
5602:
5590:
5519:
5484:
5471:
4353:is found in the manufacture of
4182:needs additional citations for
4087:or discuss these issues on the
4042:
3995:
3726:or discuss these issues on the
2994:
2560:Bubble for hydrostatic pressure
1913:needs additional citations for
896:needs additional citations for
568:or discuss these issues on the
106:needs additional citations for
73:or discuss these issues on the
5701:Smart Materials and Structures
5674:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2020.08.007
5444:
5425:. January 2009. Archived from
5408:
5356:Philosophical Magazine Letters
5347:
5332:
5277:
5249:
3036:
2874:
2848:
2412:
2386:
2316:
2303:
2134:
2108:
1986:Marangoni effect of a film (2)
1765:
1739:
1653:
1627:
1396:
1370:
1255:
1229:
1073:
1047:
951:(W) is needed to increase the
943:(surfactants) that reduce the
13:
1:
6259:Foams: Structure and Dynamics
6139:. CRC Press. pp. 79â81.
5721:10.1088/0964-1726/20/8/085010
5548:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.05.039
5513:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.09.024
5210:Foams: Structure and Dynamics
5130:
4621:processes). For this reason,
4332:sandwich-structured composite
3906:secondary or tertiary sources
2445:is given by the equation of:
1110:is the volume of the bubble,
477:In most foams, the volume of
5572:Courtney, Thomas H. (2005).
4513:
4005:Liquid foams can be used in
1893:
876:
540:
7:
5073:
4135:the claims made and adding
1134:is the density of the gas Ï
603:. The specific problem is:
223:the claims made and adding
10:
6756:
6133:Ashida, Kaneyoshi (2006).
5615:Metallurgical Transactions
4765:Foam scales and properties
4731:Foam scales and properties
4640:
4517:
4507:reaction injection molding
4372:
4057:
2429:Deviations are due to the
1972:Marangoni effect of a film
1010:Rising bubble from orifice
38:
31:
6696:
6646:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
6589:
6497:
6486:
6395:
6337:Moriarty, Philip (2010).
5775:10.1016/j.jcs.2011.05.004
5763:Journal of Cereal Science
5457:. John Wiley & Sons.
5386:10.1080/09500830801992849
5343:. NY, USA: Marcel Dekker.
4770:
3319:{\displaystyle \rho _{s}}
3292:{\displaystyle \rho ^{*}}
2951:must be larger than the R
941:surface active components
865:structure, often made of
811:One scale is the bubble:
6351:University of Nottingham
5933:10.1021/acs.chas.2c00071
4606:, easily create foam on
4325:A closed-cell metal foam
1999:electrical double layers
474:is enclosed by another.
273:may need to be rewritten
5302:10.1351/goldbook.E02065
5080:Aluminium foam sandwich
4302:An open-cell metal foam
2546:{\displaystyle \gamma }
2247:acceleration of gravity
833:WeaireâPhelan structure
487:head on a glass of beer
443:and otherwise obsolete
275:. The reason given is:
5890:Gibson, Ashby (1999).
4691:Industrial CT scanning
4326:
4303:
4016:The dough of leavened
3985:
3893:relies excessively on
3600:Directional dependence
3587:
3430:
3320:
3293:
3266:
3239:
3212:
3183:
3079:
3049:of foams, compressive
2938:
2823:
2698:
2631:
2561:
2547:
2523:
2420:
2324:
2216:
2049:
1872:
1720:
1547:
1457:
1430:
1407:
1321:
1301:
1278:
1206:
1182:
1124:
1104:
1081:
1011:
986:
823:and three-dimensional
808:
655:by rewriting it in an
507:Foams are examples of
417:
409:
398:
343:by rewriting it in an
45:Foamy (disambiguation)
43:. For other uses, see
6480:WidmanstÀtten pattern
5832:10.3382/ps.2008-00268
5684:– via Elsevier.
5609:Ashby, M. F. (1983).
4920:double bubble theorem
4794:Transport properties
4324:
4301:
4058:Further information:
3983:
3588:
3443:Energy of deformation
3431:
3321:
3294:
3267:
3265:{\displaystyle C_{f}}
3240:
3238:{\displaystyle E^{*}}
3213:
3211:{\displaystyle E_{s}}
3184:
3076:
3047:mechanical properties
2990:Mechanical properties
2939:
2824:
2699:
2632:
2559:
2548:
2524:
2421:
2325:
2217:
2050:
2005:surfactants, and the
1873:
1721:
1548:
1458:
1456:{\displaystyle p_{0}}
1431:
1408:
1322:
1302:
1279:
1207:
1183:
1125:
1105:
1082:
1009:
987:
806:
613:WikiProject Chemistry
470:systems in which one
415:
404:
396:
34:Foam (disambiguation)
6170:The Physics of Foams
5432:on December 12, 2013
5155:The Physics of Foams
4971:double bubble theory
4552:improve this section
4459:shape memory polymer
4407:improve this section
4191:improve this article
3809:improve this section
3645:improve this section
3454:
3332:
3303:
3276:
3249:
3222:
3195:
3085:
3051:stress-strain curves
2839:
2749:
2642:
2575:
2537:
2452:
2340:
2260:
2062:
2039:
1995:van der Waals forces
1922:improve this article
1736:
1605:
1470:
1440:
1420:
1334:
1311:
1291:
1220:
1196:
1149:
1114:
1094:
1025:
962:
905:improve this article
815:foams are typically
715:improve this article
397:Top of a foamy drink
115:improve this article
6714:Mathematics and art
6704:Pattern recognition
6674:Aristid Lindenmayer
5974:(48). 20996â21009.
5713:2011SMaS...20h5010Y
5627:1983MTA....14.1755A
5540:2004AcMat..52.4229K
5505:2005AcMat..53..303Q
5378:2008PMagL..88..647M
4884:disjoining pressure
4623:anti-foaming agents
4486:closed-mold process
4463:composite materials
4449:. The advantage of
4007:fire retardant foam
2980:disjoining pressure
2243:dynamic viscosity
609:WikiProject Physics
6652:On Growth and Form
6552:Logarithmic spiral
6389:Patterns in nature
5981:10.1039/C4TA04787G
5635:10.1007/bf02645546
4474:Integral skin foam
4469:Integral skin foam
4327:
4304:
4120:possibly contains
4037:foam fractionation
3986:
3583:
3426:
3316:
3289:
3262:
3235:
3208:
3179:
3080:
2934:
2819:
2694:
2627:
2562:
2543:
2519:
2416:
2320:
2249:in units of cm/s.
2212:
2045:
1868:
1716:
1543:
1453:
1426:
1403:
1317:
1297:
1274:
1202:
1178:
1120:
1100:
1077:
1012:
982:
871:Pickering emulsion
809:
657:encyclopedic style
460:physical chemistry
418:
410:
399:
345:encyclopedic style
208:possibly contains
6722:
6721:
6679:BenoĂźt Mandelbrot
6579:Self-organization
6515:Natural selection
6505:Pattern formation
6315:978-3-7776-1440-3
6304:978-3-87017-285-5
6146:978-1-58716-159-9
6110:10.1002/app.23969
6073:10.1002/app.28802
6046:10.1021/ie3006935
6040:(28): 9515â9530.
6009:10.1002/app.26922
5534:(14): 4229â4237.
5362:(9â10): 647â650.
5311:978-0-9678550-9-7
5070:
5069:
5065:
5064:
4908:Thin film balance
4705:Polystyrene foam
4598:, especially for
4596:chemical industry
4588:
4587:
4580:
4482:open-mold process
4443:
4442:
4435:
4289:reticulated foams
4285:
4284:
4277:
4267:
4266:
4259:
4241:
4165:
4164:
4157:
4122:original research
4102:
4048:Foam depopulation
3978:
3977:
3970:
3952:
3863:
3862:
3855:
3845:
3844:
3837:
3779:
3778:
3741:
3681:
3680:
3673:
3572:
3520:
3485:
3414:
3362:
3167:
3115:
3034:
3033:
2926:
2906:
2811:
2791:
2511:
2491:
2384:
2301:
2205:
2106:
2048:{\displaystyle r}
1954:
1953:
1946:
1860:
1840:
1820:
1800:
1708:
1688:
1535:
1515:
1429:{\displaystyle p}
1400:
1320:{\displaystyle V}
1300:{\displaystyle R}
1205:{\displaystyle r}
1123:{\displaystyle g}
1103:{\displaystyle V}
937:
936:
929:
798:
797:
790:
780:
779:
765:
685:
684:
677:
630:
629:
583:
391:
390:
383:
373:
372:
365:
318:
317:
310:
290:lead layout guide
253:
252:
245:
210:original research
191:
190:
183:
165:
88:
41:Foam depopulation
16:(Redirected from
6747:
6530:Sexual selection
6492:
6382:
6375:
6368:
6359:
6358:
6354:
6294:
6288:
6280:
6278:
6276:
6248:
6242:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6205:
6199:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6155:
6154:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6104:(3): 2015â2025.
6093:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6067:(5): 3217â3224.
6056:
6050:
6049:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6020:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5983:
5959:
5953:
5952:
5912:
5906:
5905:
5887:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5811:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5785:
5779:
5778:
5758:
5752:
5749:
5743:
5742:
5732:
5692:
5686:
5685:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5621:(9): 1755â1769.
5606:
5600:
5594:
5588:
5587:
5569:
5560:
5559:
5523:
5517:
5516:
5488:
5482:
5475:
5469:
5468:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5437:
5431:
5420:
5412:
5406:
5399:
5390:
5389:
5371:
5351:
5345:
5344:
5336:
5330:
5329:
5323:
5315:
5281:
5275:
5274:
5253:
5247:
5245:
5239:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5201:
5192:
5190:
5184:
5176:
5174:
5172:
5149:
5046:light scattering
5041:light scattering
5030:, bubble model,
5017:light scattering
4899:surface rheology
4851:surface rheology
4830:Surface rheology
4773:
4772:
4759:
4752:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4717:
4702:
4687:
4677:penetration seal
4670:
4651:
4583:
4576:
4572:
4569:
4563:
4532:
4524:
4476:, also known as
4438:
4431:
4427:
4424:
4418:
4387:
4379:
4280:
4273:
4262:
4255:
4251:
4248:
4242:
4240:
4199:
4175:
4167:
4160:
4153:
4149:
4146:
4140:
4137:inline citations
4113:
4112:
4105:
4094:
4072:
4071:
4064:
3973:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3953:
3951:
3910:
3886:
3878:
3874:Light scattering
3858:
3851:
3840:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3820:
3789:
3781:
3774:
3771:
3752:
3744:
3733:
3711:
3710:
3703:
3699:Characterization
3676:
3669:
3665:
3662:
3656:
3625:
3617:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3577:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3551:
3531:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3509:
3508:
3499:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3474:
3473:
3458:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3403:
3402:
3393:
3386:
3385:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3341:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3315:
3314:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3156:
3155:
3146:
3139:
3138:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3104:
3103:
3094:
3057:Elastomeric foam
3029:
3026:
3007:
2999:
2976:Laplace pressure
2972:osmotic pressure
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2912:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2892:
2873:
2872:
2860:
2859:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2797:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2777:
2761:
2760:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2673:
2672:
2654:
2653:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2606:
2605:
2587:
2586:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2497:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2477:
2464:
2463:
2431:Marangoni effect
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2398:
2397:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2350:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2270:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2187:
2186:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2156:
2155:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2119:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2072:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2007:Marangoni effect
1983:
1969:
1949:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1929:
1906:
1898:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1786:
1764:
1763:
1751:
1750:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1694:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1674:
1652:
1651:
1639:
1638:
1623:
1622:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1382:
1381:
1362:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1254:
1253:
1241:
1240:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1161:
1160:
1142:force, which is
1129:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1059:
1058:
1037:
1036:
991:
989:
988:
983:
932:
925:
921:
918:
912:
889:
881:
821:minimal surfaces
793:
786:
775:
772:
766:
764:
723:
695:
687:
680:
673:
669:
666:
660:
640:
639:
632:
625:
622:
616:
594:
593:
586:
575:
553:
552:
545:
386:
379:
368:
361:
357:
354:
348:
328:
327:
320:
313:
306:
302:
299:
293:
286:improve the lead
263:
262:
255:
248:
241:
237:
234:
228:
225:inline citations
201:
200:
193:
186:
179:
175:
172:
166:
164:
123:
99:
91:
80:
58:
57:
50:
21:
6755:
6754:
6750:
6749:
6748:
6746:
6745:
6744:
6725:
6724:
6723:
6718:
6692:
6585:
6493:
6484:
6391:
6386:
6327:
6321:
6282:
6281:
6274:
6272:
6270:
6236:
6235:
6228:
6226:
6224:
6193:
6192:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6163:
6161:Further reading
6158:
6147:
6131:
6127:
6094:
6090:
6057:
6053:
6030:
6026:
5993:
5989:
5960:
5956:
5913:
5909:
5902:
5888:
5881:
5871:
5869:
5851:
5847:
5820:Poultry Science
5812:
5808:
5798:
5796:
5795:. June 10, 2007
5787:
5786:
5782:
5759:
5755:
5750:
5746:
5693:
5689:
5654:
5650:
5607:
5603:
5595:
5591:
5584:
5570:
5563:
5528:Acta Materialia
5524:
5520:
5493:Acta Materialia
5489:
5485:
5476:
5472:
5465:
5449:
5445:
5435:
5433:
5429:
5418:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5400:
5393:
5352:
5348:
5337:
5333:
5317:
5316:
5312:
5282:
5278:
5267:Merriam-Webster
5261:
5258:Merriam-Webster
5254:
5250:
5233:
5232:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5202:
5195:
5178:
5177:
5170:
5168:
5166:
5150:
5137:
5133:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5028:Surface Evolver
4989:Liquid fraction
4876:Surface tension
4839:Langmuir trough
4766:
4763:
4733:
4726:
4718:
4709:
4703:
4694:
4693:of a foam ball
4688:
4679:
4671:
4662:
4652:
4643:
4633:, reduction of
4584:
4573:
4567:
4564:
4549:
4533:
4522:
4516:
4471:
4451:syntactic foams
4439:
4428:
4422:
4419:
4404:
4388:
4377:
4371:
4293:cellular solids
4281:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4252:
4246:
4243:
4200:
4198:
4188:
4176:
4161:
4150:
4144:
4141:
4126:
4114:
4110:
4073:
4069:
4062:
4056:
4045:
4033:froth flotation
4003:
3998:
3974:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3911:
3909:
3903:
3899:primary sources
3887:
3876:
3859:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3806:
3790:
3775:
3769:
3766:
3759:needs expansion
3753:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3693:hydraulic fluid
3677:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3642:
3626:
3615:
3602:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3479:
3475:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3445:
3420:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3368:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3283:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3256:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3229:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3202:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3173:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3134:
3130:
3121:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3059:
3039:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3014:needs expansion
3008:
2997:
2992:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2886:
2868:
2864:
2855:
2851:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2756:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2714:
2710:
2684:
2680:
2668:
2664:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2617:
2613:
2601:
2597:
2582:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2459:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2406:
2402:
2393:
2389:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2349:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2310:
2306:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2269:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2198:
2194:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2163:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2124:
2115:
2111:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2071:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2031:Destabilization
1991:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1959:
1950:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1919:
1907:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1647:
1643:
1634:
1630:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1390:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1352:
1350:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1307:and the volume
1292:
1289:
1288:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1232:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1140:surface tension
1137:
1133:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1067:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
963:
960:
959:
945:surface tension
933:
922:
916:
913:
902:
890:
879:
856:Plateau borders
794:
783:
782:
781:
776:
770:
767:
724:
722:
708:
696:
681:
670:
664:
661:
653:help improve it
650:
641:
637:
626:
620:
617:
607:
595:
591:
554:
550:
543:
509:dispersed media
441:medieval German
416:Cleaning sponge
387:
376:
375:
374:
369:
358:
352:
349:
341:help improve it
338:
329:
325:
314:
303:
297:
294:
283:
264:
260:
249:
238:
232:
229:
214:
202:
198:
187:
176:
170:
167:
124:
122:
112:
100:
59:
55:
48:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6753:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6720:
6719:
6717:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6700:
6698:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6690:
6689:
6688:
6676:
6671:
6670:
6669:
6657:
6656:
6655:
6643:
6641:Wilson Bentley
6638:
6636:Joseph Plateau
6633:
6628:
6623:
6622:
6621:
6609:
6604:
6599:
6593:
6591:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6583:
6582:
6581:
6576:
6574:Plateau's laws
6571:
6569:Fluid dynamics
6566:
6556:
6555:
6554:
6549:
6544:
6534:
6533:
6532:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6507:
6501:
6499:
6495:
6494:
6487:
6485:
6483:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6399:
6397:
6393:
6392:
6385:
6384:
6377:
6370:
6362:
6356:
6355:
6339:"Foam Physics"
6334:
6326:
6325:External links
6323:
6319:
6318:
6307:
6296:
6269:978-0199662890
6268:
6250:
6222:
6207:
6179:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6156:
6145:
6125:
6088:
6051:
6024:
6003:(1): 339â346.
5987:
5954:
5907:
5900:
5879:
5845:
5826:(5): 904â910.
5806:
5780:
5769:(2): 203â210.
5753:
5744:
5687:
5648:
5601:
5589:
5582:
5561:
5518:
5499:(2): 303â313.
5483:
5470:
5463:
5443:
5407:
5391:
5346:
5331:
5310:
5284:IUPAC (1997).
5276:
5248:
5220:978-0199662890
5219:
5193:
5164:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5090:Chaotic bubble
5087:
5085:Ballistic foam
5082:
5075:
5072:
5068:
5067:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5048:
5043:
5034:
5014:
5009:
5001:, avalanches,
4996:
4986:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4964:
4955:
4953:
4948:
4942:
4940:Plateau's laws
4936:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4910:
4904:Interferometry
4901:
4892:
4886:
4873:
4870:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4836:
4827:
4825:
4816:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4761:
4754:
4747:
4739:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4719:
4712:
4710:
4704:
4697:
4695:
4689:
4682:
4680:
4672:
4665:
4663:
4653:
4646:
4642:
4639:
4586:
4585:
4536:
4534:
4527:
4518:Main article:
4515:
4512:
4478:self-skin foam
4470:
4467:
4441:
4440:
4391:
4389:
4382:
4375:Syntactic foam
4373:Main article:
4370:
4369:Syntactic foam
4367:
4283:
4282:
4265:
4264:
4179:
4177:
4170:
4163:
4162:
4117:
4115:
4108:
4103:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4067:
4060:Polymeric foam
4055:
4052:
4044:
4041:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3976:
3975:
3890:
3888:
3881:
3875:
3872:
3861:
3860:
3843:
3842:
3793:
3791:
3784:
3777:
3776:
3756:
3754:
3747:
3742:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3679:
3678:
3629:
3627:
3620:
3614:
3613:Speed of sound
3611:
3601:
3598:
3581:
3576:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3555:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3524:
3517:
3513:
3507:
3503:
3497:
3492:
3489:
3482:
3478:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3462:
3444:
3441:
3423:
3418:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3313:
3309:
3286:
3282:
3259:
3255:
3232:
3228:
3205:
3201:
3176:
3171:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3058:
3055:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3011:
3009:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2830:
2829:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2712:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2637:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2565:
2542:
2531:
2530:
2516:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2426:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2331:
2330:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2067:
2044:
2032:
2029:
1985:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1910:
1908:
1901:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1727:
1726:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1591:
1584:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1450:
1446:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1316:
1296:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1201:
1190:
1189:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1135:
1131:
1119:
1099:
1088:
1087:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1035:
1031:
993:
992:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
935:
934:
893:
891:
884:
878:
875:
841:Plateau's laws
827:, also called
796:
795:
778:
777:
713:. Please help
699:
697:
690:
683:
682:
644:
642:
635:
628:
627:
598:
596:
589:
584:
558:
557:
555:
548:
542:
539:
423:are two-phase
389:
388:
371:
370:
332:
330:
323:
316:
315:
268:The article's
267:
265:
258:
251:
250:
205:
203:
196:
189:
188:
103:
101:
94:
89:
63:
62:
60:
53:
29:Form of matter
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6752:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6732:
6730:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6695:
6687:
6686:
6682:
6681:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6668:
6667:
6663:
6662:
6661:
6658:
6654:
6653:
6649:
6648:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6631:Ernst Haeckel
6629:
6627:
6626:Adolf Zeising
6624:
6620:
6619:
6615:
6614:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6594:
6592:
6588:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6561:
6560:
6557:
6553:
6550:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6539:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6512:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6502:
6500:
6496:
6491:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6470:Vortex street
6468:
6466:
6463:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6448:Quasicrystals
6446:
6444:
6441:
6440:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6400:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6383:
6378:
6376:
6371:
6369:
6364:
6363:
6360:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6343:Sixty Symbols
6340:
6335:
6333:
6329:
6328:
6322:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6292:
6286:
6271:
6265:
6261:
6260:
6255:
6251:
6246:
6240:
6225:
6219:
6215:
6214:
6208:
6203:
6197:
6182:
6176:
6172:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6152:
6148:
6142:
6138:
6137:
6129:
6120:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6092:
6083:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6055:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6028:
6019:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5991:
5982:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5958:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5911:
5903:
5901:9781316025420
5897:
5893:
5886:
5884:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5849:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5810:
5794:
5790:
5784:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5757:
5748:
5740:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5691:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5652:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5605:
5598:
5593:
5585:
5583:1-57766-425-6
5579:
5575:
5568:
5566:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5522:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5487:
5480:
5474:
5466:
5464:9781119961093
5460:
5456:
5455:
5447:
5428:
5424:
5417:
5411:
5404:
5398:
5396:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5350:
5342:
5335:
5327:
5321:
5313:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5259:
5252:
5243:
5237:
5222:
5216:
5212:
5211:
5206:
5200:
5198:
5188:
5182:
5167:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5135:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5024:conductimetry
5021:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4994:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4967:Interferences
4965:
4963:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4943:
4941:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4915:Interferences
4913:
4911:
4909:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4874:
4872:Frankel's law
4871:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4805:
4803:Applications
4802:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4769:
4760:
4755:
4753:
4748:
4746:
4741:
4740:
4737:
4725:
4722:
4716:
4711:
4708:
4701:
4696:
4692:
4686:
4681:
4678:
4675:
4674:Silicone foam
4669:
4664:
4661:(memory) foam
4660:
4656:
4650:
4645:
4644:
4638:
4636:
4635:mass transfer
4632:
4631:contamination
4628:
4624:
4620:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4582:
4579:
4571:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4537:This section
4535:
4531:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4437:
4434:
4426:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4401:
4397:
4392:This section
4390:
4386:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4366:
4362:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4351:blowing agent
4347:
4345:
4341:
4335:
4333:
4323:
4319:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4300:
4296:
4294:
4290:
4279:
4276:
4261:
4258:
4250:
4247:December 2020
4239:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4208: â
4207:
4203:
4202:Find sources:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4180:This section
4178:
4174:
4169:
4168:
4159:
4156:
4148:
4145:December 2020
4138:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4123:
4118:This section
4116:
4107:
4106:
4101:
4099:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4066:
4065:
4061:
4051:
4049:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4014:
4012:
4008:
3993:
3989:
3982:
3972:
3969:
3961:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3919: â
3918:
3914:
3913:Find sources:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3896:
3891:This section
3889:
3885:
3880:
3879:
3871:
3869:
3857:
3854:
3839:
3836:
3828:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3794:This section
3792:
3788:
3783:
3782:
3773:
3764:
3760:
3757:This section
3755:
3751:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3738:
3731:
3730:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3705:
3704:
3696:
3694:
3689:
3685:
3675:
3672:
3664:
3661:December 2013
3654:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3630:This section
3628:
3624:
3619:
3618:
3610:
3607:
3597:
3593:
3579:
3574:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3522:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3490:
3487:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3449:
3440:
3436:
3421:
3416:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3327:
3311:
3307:
3284:
3280:
3257:
3253:
3230:
3226:
3203:
3199:
3189:
3174:
3169:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3075:
3071:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3028:
3019:
3015:
3012:This section
3010:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2929:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2842:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2730:
2727: â
2723:
2719:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2558:
2554:
2540:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2432:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2311:
2307:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2138:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2042:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1982:
1968:
1957:Stabilization
1948:
1945:
1937:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1911:This section
1909:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1891:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
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1752:
1747:
1743:
1732:
1731:
1730:
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1703:
1699:
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1690:
1683:
1679:
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1669:
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1583:
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1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1448:
1444:
1423:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1364:
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1347:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1314:
1294:
1270:
1267:
1264:
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1237:
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1017:
1008:
1004:
1000:
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958:
957:
956:
954:
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931:
928:
920:
910:
906:
900:
899:
894:This section
892:
888:
883:
882:
874:
872:
869:, particles (
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
849:
844:
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830:
826:
825:tessellations
822:
818:
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726:Find sources:
720:
716:
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706:
705:
704:single source
700:This section
698:
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676:
668:
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654:
648:
645:This section
643:
634:
633:
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614:
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599:This section
597:
588:
587:
582:
580:
573:
572:
567:
566:
561:
556:
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546:
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536:
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518:
514:
510:
505:
503:
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484:
480:
475:
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469:
465:
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450:
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434:
430:
426:
422:
414:
407:
403:
395:
385:
382:
367:
364:
356:
346:
342:
336:
333:This article
331:
322:
321:
312:
309:
301:
291:
288:and read the
287:
282:
280:
274:
271:
266:
257:
256:
247:
244:
236:
233:December 2020
226:
222:
218:
212:
211:
206:This article
204:
195:
194:
185:
182:
174:
171:February 2012
163:
160:
156:
153:
149:
146:
142:
139:
135:
132: â
131:
127:
126:Find sources:
120:
116:
110:
109:
104:This article
102:
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72:
71:
66:
61:
52:
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6664:
6650:
6616:
6542:Chaos theory
6465:Tessellation
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6212:
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6169:
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5859:The Guardian
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5427:the original
5422:
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5289:
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5266:
5251:
5224:. Retrieved
5209:
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5154:
5032:Potts' model
4981:
4926:Giant films
4843:ellipsometry
4619:fermentation
4589:
4574:
4565:
4550:Please help
4538:
4505:
4485:
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4477:
4473:
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4420:
4405:Please help
4393:
4363:
4359:EVA-PE foams
4348:
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4189:Please help
4184:verification
4181:
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4082:
4081:Please help
4078:
4046:
4043:Depopulation
4030:
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4001:Liquid foams
3996:Applications
3992:monitored.
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3868:bubble model
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1920:Please help
1915:verification
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903:Please help
898:verification
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559:
535:quantum foam
530:
529:
517:polydisperse
506:
502:sleeping mat
495:
490:
476:
466:, two-phase
453:
448:
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408:foam bubbles
377:
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350:
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284:Please help
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276:
272:
270:lead section
239:
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113:Please help
108:verification
105:
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67:Please help
64:
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6660:Alan Turing
6618:Liber Abaci
6537:Mathematics
6443:in crystals
6433:Soap bubble
6428:Phyllotaxis
6347:Brady Haran
6119:10045/24680
6082:10045/13312
6018:10045/24682
5872:January 21,
5799:January 21,
5436:December 9,
5125:Soft matter
4999:Coalescence
4812:Surfactants
4797:Irisations
4779:Generation
4600:biochemical
4423:August 2012
4355:vinyl (PVC)
4334:materials.
4054:Solid foams
3958:August 2024
3825:August 2024
3770:August 2024
3063:elastomeric
3037:Solid foams
3025:August 2024
2968:gravitation
2001:created by
1934:August 2024
917:August 2024
867:surfactants
863:amphiphilic
771:August 2024
665:August 2024
621:August 2024
483:bath sponge
353:August 2024
298:August 2024
6729:Categories
6607:Empedocles
6602:Pythagoras
6520:Camouflage
6458:in biology
6453:in flowers
6423:Parastichy
6275:August 30,
6229:August 30,
6223:0521499119
6186:August 30,
6180:0198510977
5416:"The Foam"
5292:. Oxford:
5286:"Emulsion"
5226:August 30,
5171:August 30,
5165:0198510977
5131:References
5120:Foam party
5100:Metal foam
5095:Foam glass
5003:coarsening
4993:metastable
4951:T1 process
4891:, bursting
4834:adsorption
4785:Stability
4782:Structure
4707:cushioning
4655:Micrograph
4592:by-product
4502:mattresses
4498:shoe soles
4494:baby seats
4344:insulators
4217:newspapers
4129:improve it
4084:improve it
3928:newspapers
3895:references
3723:improve it
2984:T1 process
848:metastable
829:honeycombs
817:disordered
741:newspapers
565:improve it
449:ausgefeimt
217:improve it
141:newspapers
70:improve it
6709:Emergence
6612:Fibonacci
6285:cite book
6254:Cantat, I
6239:cite book
6196:cite book
5949:255047115
5941:1871-5532
5867:0261-3077
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5059:Aquafoams
5037:acoustics
5020:acoustics
4958:acoustics
4895:Marangoni
4889:dewetting
4608:agitation
4568:June 2017
4539:does not
4514:Defoaming
4490:arm rests
4394:does not
4316:bio-foams
4133:verifying
4090:talk page
4011:oil fires
3796:does not
3729:talk page
3632:does not
3564:ρ
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877:Formation
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711:talk page
611: or
571:talk page
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498:open-cell
464:emulsions
281:in lead).
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76:talk page
6740:Colloids
6438:Symmetry
6396:Patterns
6349:for the
6317:, S. 74.
6151:Archived
5840:19359675
5793:NBC News
5739:21949469
5556:13958881
5423:IHC News
5271:Archived
5110:Sea foam
5105:Nanofoam
5074:See also
5055:topology
5012:rheology
5007:drainage
4962:electric
4946:drainage
4819:Micelles
4788:Dynamic
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4627:silicone
4612:aeration
4604:proteins
4520:Defoamer
4455:deep-sea
4447:polymers
3606:isotropy
1016:buoyancy
852:lamellae
813:material
485:and the
468:material
425:material
6697:Related
6564:Crystal
6559:Physics
6547:Fractal
6525:Mimicry
6510:Biology
6418:Meander
5730:3176498
5709:Bibcode
5623:Bibcode
5536:Bibcode
5501:Bibcode
5374:Bibcode
5051:Packing
5005:, foam
4938:shape,
4932:Bubbles
4641:Gallery
4625:, like
4616:aerobic
4560:removed
4545:sources
4415:removed
4400:sources
4340:density
4231:scholar
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3068:modulus
2707:where Ï
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1556:where R
755:scholar
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525:colloid
513:bubbles
456:physics
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4721:Foamed
4659:temper
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6735:Foams
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5639:S2CID
5552:S2CID
5430:(PDF)
5419:(PDF)
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5364:arXiv
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4868:Films
4484:or a
4238:JSTOR
4224:books
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3935:books
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2959:and R
2711:and Ï
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2229:and Ï
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1560:and R
762:JSTOR
748:books
521:films
437:solid
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162:JSTOR
148:books
6475:Wave
6413:Foam
6408:Dune
6311:ISBN
6300:ISBN
6291:link
6277:2024
6264:ISBN
6245:link
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6218:ISBN
6202:link
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6175:ISBN
6141:ISBN
5937:ISSN
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5438:2013
5326:link
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5053:and
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3488:=
3481:s
3477:E
3471:x
3468:a
3465:m
3461:W
3422:3
3417:)
3410:s
3390:(
3383:f
3379:C
3375:=
3370:f
3365:)
3358:s
3354:E
3344:E
3338:(
3312:s
3258:f
3254:C
3227:E
3204:s
3200:E
3175:2
3170:)
3163:s
3143:(
3136:f
3132:C
3128:=
3123:f
3118:)
3111:s
3107:E
3097:E
3091:(
3027:)
3023:(
2961:B
2957:A
2953:B
2949:A
2930:)
2922:B
2918:R
2914:1
2902:A
2898:R
2894:1
2888:(
2881:2
2878:=
2875:)
2870:1
2857:2
2849:(
2846:z
2843:g
2815:)
2807:B
2803:R
2799:1
2787:A
2783:R
2779:1
2773:(
2766:2
2763:=
2758:c
2754:P
2740:B
2736:A
2732:1
2729:Ï
2725:2
2722:Ï
2720:(
2713:2
2709:1
2691:z
2686:2
2678:g
2675:+
2670:0
2666:p
2662:=
2659:2
2656:,
2651:B
2647:P
2624:z
2619:1
2611:g
2608:+
2603:0
2599:p
2595:=
2592:1
2589:,
2584:B
2580:P
2566:0
2529:,
2515:)
2507:2
2503:R
2499:1
2494:+
2487:1
2483:R
2479:1
2473:(
2466:=
2461:c
2457:P
2443:c
2439:2
2435:1
2413:)
2408:1
2395:2
2387:(
2379:2
2371:9
2364:2
2360:r
2356:g
2353:2
2347:=
2344:u
2317:)
2312:2
2304:(
2296:2
2288:3
2281:2
2277:r
2273:g
2267:=
2264:u
2239:2
2235:1
2231:2
2227:1
2208:)
2200:2
2192:2
2189:+
2184:1
2176:3
2169:2
2161:3
2158:+
2153:1
2145:3
2139:(
2135:)
2130:1
2117:2
2109:(
2101:2
2093:9
2086:2
2082:r
2078:g
2075:2
2069:=
2066:u
2043:r
1947:)
1941:(
1936:)
1932:(
1918:.
1887:4
1883:3
1864:)
1856:4
1852:R
1848:1
1836:3
1832:R
1828:1
1816:2
1812:R
1808:1
1803:+
1796:1
1792:R
1788:1
1782:(
1775:=
1772:z
1769:g
1766:)
1761:1
1748:2
1740:(
1712:)
1704:4
1700:R
1696:1
1691:+
1684:3
1680:R
1676:1
1670:(
1663:=
1660:z
1657:g
1654:)
1649:1
1636:2
1628:(
1620:0
1616:p
1609:p
1596:z
1594:)
1592:2
1589:Ï
1585:1
1582:Ï
1580:(
1578:0
1575:p
1570:4
1566:3
1562:2
1558:1
1539:)
1531:2
1527:R
1523:1
1518:+
1511:1
1507:R
1503:1
1497:(
1490:=
1485:0
1481:p
1474:p
1449:0
1445:p
1424:p
1397:)
1392:1
1379:2
1371:(
1368:g
1365:2
1357:r
1354:3
1348:=
1343:3
1339:R
1315:V
1295:R
1265:r
1262:2
1256:)
1251:1
1238:2
1230:(
1227:g
1224:V
1200:r
1188:,
1169:r
1166:2
1163:=
1158:s
1154:F
1136:2
1132:1
1118:g
1098:V
1074:)
1069:1
1056:2
1048:(
1045:g
1042:V
1039:=
1034:b
1030:F
978:A
969:=
966:W
930:)
924:(
919:)
915:(
901:.
791:)
785:(
773:)
769:(
759:·
752:·
745:·
738:·
721:.
707:.
678:)
672:(
667:)
663:(
659:.
623:)
619:(
581:)
577:(
384:)
378:(
366:)
360:(
355:)
351:(
347:.
311:)
305:(
300:)
296:(
292:.
246:)
240:(
235:)
231:(
213:.
184:)
178:(
173:)
169:(
159:·
152:·
145:·
138:·
111:.
86:)
82:(
47:.
36:.
20:)
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