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the accessibility of the flame detector must be taken into account, because of maintenance and/or repairs. A rigid light-mast with a pivot point is for this reason recommendable. A "roof" on top of the flame detector (30 x 30 cm, 1 x 1-foot) prevents quick pollution in outdoor applications. Also the shadow effect must be considered. The shadow effect can be minimized by mounting a second flame detector in the opposite of the first detector. A second advantage of this approach is, that the second flame detector is a redundant one, in case the first one is not working or is blinded. In general, when mounting several flame detectors, one should let them "look" to each other not let them look to the walls. Following this procedure blind spots (caused by the shadow effect) can be avoided and a better redundancy can be achieved than if the flame detectors would "look" from the central position into the area to be protected. The range of flame detectors to the 30 x 30 cm, 1 x 1-foot
752:
background radiation sources. The cone of vision of the flame detector is three dimensional and is not necessarily perfectly round. The horizontal angle of vision and the vertical angle of vision often differ; this is mostly caused by the shape of the housing and by mirroring parts (meant for the self test). Different combustibles can even have a different angle of vision in the same flame detector. Very important is the sensitivity at angles of 45°. Here at least 50% of the maximum sensitivity at the central axis must be achieved. Some flame detectors here achieve 70% or more. In fact these flame detectors have a total horizontal angle of vision of more than 90°, but most of the manufacturers do not mention this. A high sensitivity on the edges of the angle of vision provides advantages for the projection of a flame detector.
470:, which in generally reduce the range and accuracy of the detector. Black-body radiation is constantly present in all environments, but is given off especially strongly by objects at high temperature. this makes high temperature environments, or areas where high temperature material is handled especially challenging for IR only detectors. Thus, one additional UV-C band sensor is sometimes included in flame detectors to add another layer of confirmation, as black-body radiation does not impact UV sensors unless the temperature is extremely high, such as the plasma glow from an Arc welding machine.
478:
exposure. IR detectors have often relied on
Infrared bulk energy growth to as their primary determining factor for fire detection, declaring an alarm when the sensors exceed a given range and ratio. This approach however is prone to trigger from non-fire noise. whether from blackbody radiation, high temperature environments, or simply changes in the ambient lighting. alternatively in another design approach, IR-only detectors may only alarm given perfect conditions and clear signal matches, which results in missing the fire when there is too much noise, such as looking into the sunset.
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395:; this is particularly valid for infrared flame detection in the 4.3 to 4.4 μm region. From approx. 3.5 μm and higher the absorption by water or ice is practically 100%. This makes infrared sensors for use in outdoor applications very unresponsive to fires. The biggest problem is our ignorance; some infrared detectors have an (automatic) detector window self test, but this self test only monitors the occurrence of water or ice on the detector window.
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usable for outdoor applications. Between 0.7 μm and approx. 3 μm there is relatively large absorption of sunlight. Hence, this frequency range is used for flame detection by a few flame detector manufacturers (in combination with other sensors like ultraviolet, visible light, or near infrared). The big economical advantage is that detector windows can be made of
399:
the enormous infrared heat radiation. The presence of water vapor, fog, or light rain will then also "protect" the monitor causing it to not see the fire. Visible light will, however be transmitted through the water vapour screen, as can easily been seen by the fact that a human can still see the flames through the water vapour screen.
659:. It looks like a static picture, but in reality the energy fluctuates, or flickers. This flickering is caused by the fact that the aspirated oxygen and the present combustible are burning and concurrently aspirate new oxygen and new combustible material. These little explosions cause the flickering of the flame.
266:
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If the distance between the flame and the flame detector is large compared to the dimension of the fire then the square law applies: If a flame detector can detect a fire with an area A on a certain distance, then a 4 times bigger flame area is necessary if the distance between the flame detector and
646:
peak in the picture is exaggerated, and is in reality less than 2% of the total energy of the fire. A multi-frequency-detector with sensors for UV, visible light, near IR and/or wideband IR thus have much more "sensor data" to calculate with and therefore are able to detect more types of fires and to
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are used extensively for monitoring flame presence in combustion heating systems and gas cookers. A common use in these installations is to cut off the supply of fuel if the flame fails, in order to prevent unburned fuel from accumulating. These sensors measure heat and therefore are commonly used to
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A visible light sensor (for example a camera: 0.4 to 0.7 μm) is able to present an image, which can be understood by a human being. Furthermore, complex image processing analysis can be executed by computers, which can recognize a flame or even smoke. Unfortunately, a camera can be blinded, like
473:
Multi-wavelength detectors vary in sensor configuration. 1 IR+UV, or UVIR being the most common and low cost. 2 IR + UV being a compromise between cost and False alarm immunity and 3 IR + UV, which combines past 3IR technology with the additional layer of identification from the UV sensor.
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in the combustion process. As a result, both detection range and immunity to false alarms can be significantly increased. IR3 detectors can detect a 0.1m (1 ft) gasoline pan fire at up to 65 m (215 ft) in less than 5 seconds. Triple IRs, like other IR detector types, are susceptible to
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in the air is taking care that the sunlight and other IR radiation is filtered. This makes the sensor in this frequency "solar blind"; however, sensitivity is reduced by sunlight. By observing the flicker frequency of a fire (1 to 20 Hz) the detector is made less sensitive to false alarms caused
691:
filters the solar radiation around 4.3 μm. An
Infrared detector which uses this frequency is therefore solar blind. Not all manufacturers of flame detectors use sharp filters for the 4.3 μm radiation and thus still pick up quite an amount of sunlight. These cheap flame detectors are hardly
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Multi-Wavelength or Multi-spectral detectors such as 3IR+UV and UVIR are an improvement over their IR-only detectors counterparts which have been known to either false alarm or lose sensitivity and range in the presence of strong background noise such as direct or reflected light sources or even sun
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peak; for example at 4.1 μm. Here it is necessary that there is a large difference in output between the applied sensors (for example sensor S1 and S2 in the picture). A disadvantage is that the radiation energy of a possible fire must be much bigger than the present background heat radiation.
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whereby an AC current flows more easily in one direction when a voltage is applied. This current can be used to verify flame presence and quality. Such detectors can be used in large industrial process gas heaters and are connected to the flame control system. They usually act as both flame quality
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A salt film is also harmful, because salt absorbs water. However, water vapour, fog or light rain also makes the sensor almost blind, without the user knowing. The cause is similar to what a fire fighter does if he approaches a hot fire: he protects himself by means of a water vapour screen against
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The range of a flame detector is highly determined by the mounting location. In fact, when making a projection, one should imagine in what the flame detector "sees". A rule of thumb is, that the mounting height of the flame detector is twice as high as the highest object in the field of view. Also
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Modern Flame detectors may also make use of high speed sensors, which allow the capture of the flickering movement of flame, and monitor the pattern and ratios of the spectral output for patterns unique to fire. Higher speed sensors allow for not only faster reaction times, but also more data per
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Most IR detectors are designed to ignore constant background IR radiation, which is present in all environments. Instead they are designed to detect suddenly changing or increasing sources of the radiation. When exposed to changing patterns of non-flame IR radiation, IR and UV/IR detectors become
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or −273.15 °C) emit energy and at room temperature (300 K) this heat is already a problem for the infrared flame detectors with the highest sensitivity. Sometimes a moving hand is sufficient to trigger an IR flame detector. At 700 K a hot object (black body) starts to emit visible
248:
line), and activating a fire suppression system. When used in applications such as industrial furnaces, their role is to provide confirmation that the furnace is working properly; it can be used to turn off the ignition system though in many cases they take no direct action beyond notifying the
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Triple-IR flame detectors compare three specific wavelength bands within the IR spectral region and their ratio to each other. In this case one sensor looks at the 4.4 micrometer range while the other sensors look at reference wavelengths both above and below 4.4. This allows the detector to
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of the sensor material plays a part; it limits the cone of vision of the flame detector. A wide cone of vision does not automatically mean that the flame detector is better. For some applications the flame detector needs to be aligned precisely to take care that it does not detect potential
410:
MWIR infrared (IR) cameras can be used to detect heat and with particular algorithms can detect hot-spots within a scene as well as flames for both detection and prevention of fire and risks of fire. These cameras can be used in complete darkness and operate both inside and outside.
281:(UV) detectors work by detecting the UV radiation emitted at the instant of ignition. While capable of detecting fires and explosions within 3–4 milliseconds, a time delay of 2–3 seconds is often included to minimize false alarms which can be triggered by other UV sources such as
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Infrared flame detectors suffer from
Infrared heat radiation which is not emitted by the possible fire. One could say that the fire can be masked by other heat sources. All objects which have a temperature higher than the absolute minimum temperature (0
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experiences as the visible yellow red flames and heat. In fact, during a fire, relatively sparsely UV energy and visible light energy is emitted, as compared to the emission of
Infrared radiation. A non-hydrocarbon fire, for example, one from
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Problems with boilers failing to stay lit can often be due to dirty flame sensors or to a poor burner surface with which to complete the electrical circuit. A poor flame or one that is lifting off the burner may also interrupt the continuity.
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This law is equally valid for all optical flame detectors, including video based ones. The maximum sensitivity can be estimated by dividing the maximum flame area A by the square of the distance between the fire and the flame detector:
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a human, by heavy smoke and by fog. It is also possible to mix visible light information (monitor) with UV or infrared information, in order to better discriminate against false alarms or to improve the detection range. The corona
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It must be emphasized, however, that the square root in reality is not valid anymore at very high distances. At long distances other parameters are playing a significant part; like the occurrence of water vapour and of cold
1237:
Karner, Don; Francfort, James (December 2003). "Arizona Public
Service—Alternative Fuel (Hydrogen) Pilot Plant Design Report" (Document). U.S. Department of Energy FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program.
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in the area. Water on the detector's lens will greatly reduce the accuracy of the detector, as will exposure to direct sunlight. A special frequency range is 4.3 to 4.4 μm. This is a resonance frequency of
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array sensors monitoring flames in the near IR band are arguably the most reliable technologies available for detection of fires. Light emission from a fire forms an image of the flame at a particular instant.
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Infrared (IR) or wideband infrared (1.1 μm and higher) flame detectors monitor the infrared spectral band for specific patterns given off by hot gases. These are sensed using a specialized fire-fighting
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The cone of vision of a flame detector is determined by the shape and size of the window and the housing and the location of the sensor in the housing. For infrared sensors also the
321:(IR) array flame detectors (0.7 to 1.1 μm), also known as visual flame detectors, employ flame recognition technology to confirm fire by analyzing near IR radiation using a
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fire is stated within the manufacturers data sheets and manuals, this range can be affected by the previously stated de-sensitizing effects of sunlight, water, fog, steam and
1978:
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In other words, the flame detector becomes less sensitive. Every multi infrared flame detector is negatively influenced by this effect, regardless how expensive it is.
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Multi-infrared detectors make use of algorithms to suppress the effects of background radiation (blackbody radiation), again sensitivity is reduced by this radiation.
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combinations also enable the detection of non-hydrocarbons like hydrogen fires without the risk of false alarms caused by artificial light or electrical welding.
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These detectors are sensitive to both UV and IR wavelengths, and detect flame by comparing the threshold signal of both ranges. This helps minimize false alarms.
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emits much energy at its resonance frequency of 4.3 μm. This causes a peak in the total radiation emission and can be well detected. Moreover, the "cold" CO
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is an example of this equipment. In this equipment the information of a UV camera mixed with visible image information. It is used for tracing defects in
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Dual IR (IR/IR) flame detectors compare the threshold signal in two infrared ranges. Often one sensor looks at the 4.4 micrometer carbon dioxide (CO
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Multi-Infrared (Multi-IR/3IR) detectors use algorithms to determine the presence of fire and tell them apart from background noise known to as
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emits an enormous amount of energy, which would be harmful to human beings if not for the vapours and gases in the atmosphere, like water (
325:(CCD). A near infrared (IR) sensor is especially able to monitor flame phenomena, without too much hindrance from water and water vapour.
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in the air. In the case of a very small flame, on the other hand, the decreasing flickering of the flame will play an increasing part.
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light (glow). Dual- or multi-infrared detectors suppress the effects of heat radiation by means of sensors which detect just off the CO
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A more exact relation - valid when the distance between the flame and the flame detector is small - between the radiation density,
240:. Responses to a detected flame depend on the installation, but can include sounding an alarm, deactivating a fuel line (such as a
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emission is appropriate for hydrocarbon fuels; for non-carbon based fuels, e.g., hydrogen, the broadband water bands are sensed.
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can, for the same flame detector and the same type of fire, the maximum distance or the minimum fire area be calculated:
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1181:"Experimentally Defined Convolutional Neural Network Architecture Variants for Non-temporal Real-time Fire Detection"
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Töreyin, B. Ugur; Dedeoglu, Yigithan; Cetin, A. Enis (2005). "Flame detection in video using hidden Markov models".
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more prone to false alarms, while IR3 detectors become somewhat less sensitive but are more immune to false alarms.
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Fire
Services in India: History, Detection, Protection, Management, Environment, Training and Loss Prevention
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Industrial and
Process Furnaces: Principles, Design and Operation, Butterworth-Heinemann/IChemE series
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second, increasing the level of confidence in fire identification, or false alarm rejection.
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operator or control system. A flame detector can often respond faster and more accurately than a
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The intense ionization within the body of a flame can be measured by means by the phenomena of
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monitors and for flame failure detection. They are also common in a variety of household gas
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can limit the effective range of these, since they operate solely in the visible spectrum.
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Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the
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1224:"Why Flame Rod Failures Happen and How to Prevent Them. | HVAC Service Mentor"
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309:. The solar blind UV wavelength band is also easily blinded by oily contaminants.
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In some detectors, a sensor for visible radiation (light) is added to the design.
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sensors operating at this wavelength can be relatively cheap. Multiple channel or
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375:(for example, wood or fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas) much heat and CO
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can be used for visual detection of (wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 μm).
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A severe disadvantage is that almost all radiation can be absorbed by water or
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distinguish between non-flame IR sources and actual flames which emit hot CO
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431:), while the other sensor looks at a reference frequency. Sensing the CO
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1061:"A non-temporal texture driven approach to real-time fire detection"
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peak on 4.3 μm because during the burning of hydrogen no CO
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Chenebert, A.; Breckon, T.P.; Gaszczak, A. (September 2011).
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can be utilized to recognize flames through analysis of the
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National
Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
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2011 18th IEEE International
Conference on Image Processing
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The usual response time of an IR detector is 3–5 seconds.
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of a flame. This can be used to verify the presence of a
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by heat radiation, for example caused by hot machinery.
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blinding by a layer of water on the detector's window.
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IEEE International
Conference on Image Processing 2005
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then the relation reduces to the (inverse) square law
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designed to detect and respond to the presence of a
257:due to the mechanisms it uses to detect the flame.
130:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1188:Proc. International Conference on Image Processing
499:equipment and fire detection over high distances.
1774:Penetrant (mechanical, electrical, or structural)
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798:Double distance = four times bigger flame area (
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647:detect these types of fires better: hydrogen,
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1208:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1582:Hypoxic air technology for fire prevention
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1967:Fire Equipment Manufacturers' Association
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1946:Listing and approval use and compliance
1011:Barrie Jenkins, Peter Mullinger. 2011.
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16:Sensor designed to detect flame or fire
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297:. UV detectors typically operate with
1991:Society of Fire Protection Engineers
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600:Industrial heating and drying systems
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1985:National Fire Protection Association
1179:Dunnings, A., Breckon, T.P. (2018).
878:, at the detector and the distance,
558:Flame igniter (top) and flame sensor
128:adding citations to reliable sources
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59:
18:
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587:UV/IR flame detectors are used in:
305:to minimize the effects of natural
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1487:Condensed aerosol fire suppression
534:Ionization current flame detection
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1862:Fire alarm notification appliance
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342:created from the near IR images.
77:about the history of the subject.
34:This article has multiple issues.
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1134:. Vol. 2. pp. 1230–3.
1017:, p.329. Butterworth-Heinemann.
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1623:Vehicle fire suppression system
1311:Combustibility and flammability
794:the fire is doubled. In short:
642:is released. The 4.3 μm CO
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115:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
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1039:, p. 49. Mittal Publications.
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743:Cone of Vision (Field of View)
625:A fire emits radiation, which
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1:
1973:Institution of Fire Engineers
1930:Fire Safety Evaluation System
1602:Personal protective equipment
998:
2044:GHS precautionary statements
1882:Manual fire alarm activation
563:Thermocouple flame detection
7:
1915:Fire protection engineering
1847:Explosive gas leak detector
1664:Electromagnetic door holder
1497:External water spray system
966:
886:, emitting energy density,
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269:Flame detector type regions
10:
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2091:Harry C. Bigglestone Award
1482:Automatic fire suppression
1422:K-factor (fire protection)
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1997:Underwriters Laboratories
1959:
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1832:Aspirating smoke detector
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1492:Detonation flame arrester
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1140:10.1109/ICIP.2005.1530284
1086:10.1109/ICIP.2011.6115796
983:Flame ionization detector
511:Closed-circuit television
2175:Fire detection and alarm
1941:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
1857:Fire alarm control panel
1837:Carbon monoxide detector
1814:Standpipe (firefighting)
1577:Gaseous fire suppression
1342:Enthalpy of vaporization
604:Domestic heating systems
505:
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406:Infrared thermal cameras
336:Digital image processing
1784:Pressurisation ductwork
1749:Firewall (construction)
1597:Passive fire protection
1547:Fire suppression system
608:Industrial gas turbines
379:is released. The hot CO
261:Optical flame detectors
1960:Industry organizations
1925:Fire-resistance rating
1804:Smoke exhaust ductwork
1779:Penetration (firestop)
1769:Packing (firestopping)
1477:Active fire protection
1437:Spontaneous combustion
1070:. pp. 1781–1784.
978:Active fire protection
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702:electro-optical sensor
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460:3IR+UV flame detection
371:. During burning of a
353:thermal imaging camera
301:shorter than 300
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75:is missing information
2112:Template:Firefighting
2086:Arthur B. Guise Medal
2039:GHS hazard statements
1542:Fire sprinkler system
1522:Fire-retardant fabric
819:. With this constant
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696:instead of expensive
671:Sunlight transmission
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621:Emission of radiation
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613:Emission of radiation
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423:IR/IR flame detection
323:charge-coupled device
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1896:Professions, trades,
1809:Smokeproof enclosure
1669:Electromagnetic lock
1377:Flammability diagram
1288:Fundamental concepts
634:, does not show a CO
467:black-body radiation
357:thermographic camera
307:background radiation
274:Ultraviolet detector
124:improve this article
1852:Fire alarm call box
1759:Heat and smoke vent
756:The detection range
540:flame rectification
439:IR3 flame detection
2185:Natural gas safety
1824:Fire alarm systems
1639:Annulus (firestop)
1567:Flashback arrestor
1532:Fire-safe polymers
1527:Fire retardant gel
1382:Flammability limit
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597:Gas-fueled cookers
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2065:Safety data sheet
2060:List of S-phrases
2055:List of R-phrases
1951:Sprinkler fitting
1842:Circuit integrity
1714:Fire extinguisher
1552:Firefighting foam
1447:Thermal radiation
1157:978-0-7803-9134-5
1103:978-1-4577-1303-3
1033:S. P. Bag. 1995.
993:Fire alarm system
771:industry standard
592:Hydrogen stations
361:thermal radiation
355:(TIC), a type of
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1818:
1744:Firestop pillow
1679:Emergency light
1632:Building design
1627:
1618:Tank blanketing
1587:Inerting system
1562:Flame retardant
1512:Fire protection
1507:Fire prevention
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1321:Dangerous goods
1283:
1281:Fire protection
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893:
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764:Detection range
758:
737:
729:
710:
690:
665:
645:
641:
637:
615:
585:
565:
536:
531:
508:
488:
486:Visible sensors
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417:
408:
386:
382:
378:
369:
348:
315:
276:
263:
238:flame detection
214:
203:
202:
201:
196:
185:
179:
176:
133:
131:
121:
109:
94:
88:
85:
78:
69:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2198:
2188:
2187:
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2172:
2155:
2154:
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2151:
2139:
2126:
2123:
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2119:
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2103:
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2016:
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1994:
1988:
1982:
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1970:
1963:
1961:
1957:
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1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Fire insurance
1907:
1901:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1887:Smoke detector
1884:
1879:
1874:
1872:Flame detector
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1828:
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1820:
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1806:
1801:
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1786:
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1736:
1734:Fire sprinkler
1731:
1726:
1721:
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1696:
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1686:
1681:
1676:
1674:Emergency exit
1671:
1666:
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1646:
1644:Area of refuge
1641:
1635:
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1629:
1628:
1626:
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1613:Spark arrestor
1610:
1605:
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1559:
1557:Flame arrester
1554:
1549:
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1517:Fire retardant
1514:
1509:
1504:
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1489:
1484:
1479:
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1467:
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1459:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1452:Water pressure
1449:
1444:
1442:Structure fire
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
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1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1337:Dust explosion
1334:
1329:
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1308:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1289:
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1277:
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1171:
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1117:
1102:
1077:10.1.1.228.875
1048:
1026:
1003:
1002:
1000:
997:
996:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
968:
965:
890:, is given by
868:
782:
781:The square law
779:
757:
754:
736:
735:Cone of vision
733:
727:
716:Heat radiation
709:
708:Heat radiation
706:
688:
664:
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614:
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571:determine the
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384:
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314:
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275:
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262:
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222:flame detector
216:
215:
198:
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112:
110:
103:
96:
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72:
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63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2167:
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2118:
2117:Template:HVAC
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2107:Template:Fire
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2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
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1968:
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1952:
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1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1905:Duct cleaning
1903:
1902:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1877:Heat detector
1875:
1873:
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1795:
1794:Smoke control
1792:
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1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:Heat transfer
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1402:Friction loss
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1372:Fire triangle
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
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1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
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1325:
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1319:
1317:
1316:Conflagration
1314:
1312:
1309:
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1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
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1219:
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1159:
1153:
1149:
1145:
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1042:
1038:
1037:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1016:
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1004:
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989:
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837:
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795:
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778:
776:
772:
762:
753:
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741:
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724:
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703:
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695:
686:
682:
678:
669:
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619:
607:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
589:
588:
580:
578:
574:
569:
568:Thermocouples
556:
552:
548:
547:and boilers.
546:
541:
526:
524:
520:
516:
512:
503:
500:
498:
494:
483:
479:
475:
471:
469:
468:
457:
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396:
394:
389:
374:
370:
362:
358:
354:
343:
341:
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328:
324:
320:
313:Near IR array
310:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
267:
258:
256:
255:heat detector
252:
247:
243:
239:
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231:
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223:
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194:
191:
183:
172:
169:
165:
162:
158:
155:
151:
148:
144:
141: –
140:
136:
135:Find sources:
129:
125:
119:
118:
113:This article
111:
107:
102:
101:
92:
82:
76:
73:This article
71:
67:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2147:
2135:
2034:Flame spread
1920:Fireproofing
1898:and services
1871:
1799:Smoke damper
1789:Safety glass
1724:Fire hydrant
1689:Fire curtain
1649:Booster pump
1608:Relief valve
1572:Fusible link
1362:Fire loading
1357:Fire control
1327:Deflagration
1232:
1218:
1192:. Retrieved
1187:
1174:
1127:
1120:
1067:
1034:
1029:
1012:
1007:
988:Gas detector
956:
948:
939:
937:
932:
928:
926:
916:
912:
903:
894:
892:
887:
883:
879:
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865:
854:
846:
835:
829:
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820:
816:
812:
808:
805:
797:
796:
792:
767:
746:
719:
674:
624:
586:
583:Applications
572:
566:
549:
537:
509:
501:
497:high voltage
489:
480:
476:
472:
465:
463:
454:
445:
442:
426:
418:
409:
401:
397:
393:water vapour
390:
349:
327:Pyroelectric
316:
277:
237:
221:
219:
204:
186:
177:
167:
160:
153:
146:
134:
122:Please help
117:verification
114:
86:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
1754:Grease duct
1709:Fire escape
1699:Fire damper
1592:Intumescent
1537:Fire safety
1502:Fire bucket
1397:Flash point
1148:11693/27294
777:radiation.
577:pilot flame
529:Other types
373:hydrocarbon
299:wavelengths
287:arc welding
279:Ultraviolet
246:natural gas
236:, allowing
2164:Categories
2051:(NFPA 101)
2014:CE marking
1867:Fire drill
1470:Technology
1367:Fire point
1352:Fire class
1332:Detonation
1240:Appendix F
1045:8170995981
1023:0080558062
999:References
789:Square Law
749:lamination
515:web camera
180:April 2022
150:newspapers
39:improve it
2170:Detectors
2007:Standards
1936:Fire test
1764:Occupancy
1729:Fire pump
1719:Fire hose
1704:Fire door
1684:Exit sign
1659:Crash bar
1432:Pyrolysis
1427:Pool fire
1392:Flashover
1347:Explosive
1295:Backdraft
1238:pp.
1204:cite book
1094:1826/7588
1072:CiteSeerX
775:blackbody
627:human eye
291:radiation
283:lightning
89:June 2014
81:talk page
45:talk page
2136:Category
2100:See also
2029:EN 16034
1739:Firestop
1694:Fire cut
1417:Jet fire
1407:Gas leak
1323:(HAZMAT)
1306:Boilover
1194:9 August
1166:13205011
1112:11394788
967:See also
931:<<
811: =
700:. These
698:sapphire
663:Sunlight
649:methanol
632:hydrogen
545:furnaces
346:Infrared
319:infrared
295:sunlight
2148:Commons
1981:(NCEES)
1302:(BLEVE)
961:
944:
922:
899:
859:
843:
840:√
723:kelvins
657:sulphur
573:absence
242:propane
164:scholar
2079:Awards
1993:(SFPE)
1987:(NFPA)
1969:(FEMA)
1932:(FSES)
1242:(pdf).
1190:. IEEE
1164:
1154:
1110:
1100:
1074:
1043:
1021:
694:quartz
681:clouds
493:camera
293:, and
226:sensor
166:
159:
152:
145:
137:
2070:UL 94
2024:EN 54
1975:(IFE)
1604:(PPE)
1184:(PDF)
1162:S2CID
1132:(PDF)
1108:S2CID
1064:(PDF)
973:Flame
927:When
685:ozone
653:ether
519:Smoke
513:or a
506:Video
415:UV/IR
340:video
331:pixel
317:Near
251:smoke
244:or a
230:flame
224:is a
171:JSTOR
157:books
2019:EN 3
1999:(UL)
1210:link
1196:2018
1152:ISBN
1098:ISBN
1041:ISBN
1019:ISBN
833:and
800:fire
675:The
234:fire
143:news
1144:hdl
1136:doi
1090:hdl
1082:doi
683:),
677:sun
655:or
523:fog
521:or
253:or
232:or
126:by
2166::
1206:}}
1202:{{
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1160:.
1150:.
1142:.
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1096:.
1088:.
1080:.
1066:.
1051:^
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942:=
904:MR
902:2π
897:=
867:CO
830:cd
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579:.
366:CO
303:nm
289:,
285:,
220:A
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1266:t
1259:v
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1198:.
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1138::
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957:D
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888:M
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847:A
838:=
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205:(
193:)
187:(
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178:(
168:·
161:·
154:·
147:·
120:.
91:)
87:(
83:.
55:)
51:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
