458:
374:. It is often accompanied by epididymitis and spermatic cord inflammation. Secondary bacterial infections are very common and are seen to be more severe in previously unexposed immigrants than in native residents. Chronic filarial disease develops gradually over the years. In most patients the lymphatic dilation does not present any physical symptoms. However, inflammatory responses to dying adult worms often lead to chronic lymphedema in the affected regions which then progresses to elephantiasis.
507:(IgG4). A very high plasma content of IgG4 has been recorded in asymptomatic patients of LF. Thus, the newer assays measuring IgG4 responses to crude filarial extracts or using fractions of parasite extracts have a better overall specificity but are not efficient in discriminating microfilaremic from amicrofilaremic serum donors. Assays which measure circulating antigen are expected to be better at measuring active infection because only living worms secrete circulating antigen.
281:
34:
574:
found that "there is good evidence" that albendazole itself does not contribute to the elimination of microfilaraemia or adult filarial worms, and thus is likely an unnecessary component of albendazole-ivermectin treatment. Diethylcarbamazine-medicated salt is effective in controlling lymphatic filariasis while maintaining its coverage at 90% in the community for six months.
474:, using the "gold standard" known as the finger prick test. The finger prick test draws blood from the capillaries of the finger tip; larger veins can be used for blood extraction, but strict windows of the time of day must be observed. Blood must be drawn at appropriate times, which reflect the feeding activities of the vector insects. Examples are
321:(Wb) belonging to the family Onchocercidae, accounts for more than 90% of the filarial infections worldwide. Its complete its life cycle in two hosts, man being the definitive host while the mosquitoes act as the intermediate host. The most common vectors that aid in transmission are Anopheles in Africa,
573:
and albendazole is also effective. Side effects of the drugs include nausea, vomiting, and headaches. All of these treatments are microfilaricides; they have no effect on the adult worms. While the drugs are critical for treatment of the individual, proper hygiene is also required. One review study
636:
Filarial diseases in humans offer prospects for elimination by means of vermicidal treatment. If the human link in the chain of infection can be broken, then notionally the disease could be wiped out in a season. In practice it is not so simple, and there are complications in that multiple species
309:
Recent evidence suggests that climate change has an influence in the spread of the parasitic disease and its vectors. Lymphatic filariasis has been the leading cause of permanent disfigurement and continues to be the second most common cause of long-term disability in the world, even after several
548:
populations. Searches carried out with available sequences from various worms revealed the presence of SXP-1 homologs in many other nematodes with substantial identities in sequence observed during pairwise comparisons. Some examples include O.volvulus (50% identity; Ov-SXP-1), Ascaris suum (43%;
1010:
Rao, K. V., Eswaran, M., Ravi, V., Gnanasekhar, B., Narayanan, R. B., Kaliraj, P., Jayaraman, K., Marson, A., Raghavan, N., & Scott, A. L. (2000). The
Wuchereria bancrofti orthologue of Brugia malayi SXP1 and the diagnosis of bancroftian filariasis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology,
522:
These commercial tests based on the above circulating antigens are also limited to successful detection of only adult bancroftian worms, making diagnosis only possible in later stages of infection when the therapeutics might no more show effect. A search for worm specific antigens was initiated
543:
SXP-1 that encoded for a polypeptide with a predicted molecular weight of 20.8 kDa. Wb-SXP was found to be 85 percent identical to the BmSXP polypeptide and differed along the C terminal where the former had an extra 29 amino acid long extension. The WbSXP-1 variant, where a stop codon has been
163:
In the year 2000, 199 million infection cases of lymphatic filariasis were predicted with 3.1 million cases in
America and around 107 million in South East Asia, making up to 52% of the global cases coming from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, and Myanmar combined. While the African nations that
518:
specific to the parasites have been tested. An Og4C3 monoclonal antibody-based ELISA and an immunochromatographic ( ICT) card test using the same monoclonal antibody have been tested. However, these commercial assays have certain issues with respect to stability, cost and specificity in field
527:
filariasis. The antigen was identified after screening the cDNA library of adult worms with serum from both amicrofilaremic and microfilaremic patients.The native SXP-1 antigen was present in extracts of microfilariae and adult worms and were seen to be not specific to any lifecycle stage.
342:
Individuals infected by filarial worms may be described as either "microfilaraemic" or "amicrofilaraemic", depending on whether microfilariae can be found in their peripheral blood. Filariasis is diagnosed in microfilaraemic cases primarily through direct observation of microfilariae in the
338:
mature and eventually migrate to the insect proboscis from where they get injected into the human skin. Here they travel through the dermis to the lymph organs and further mature into male and female worm forms for the next 6 to 12 months and finally reproduce to complete the cycle.
591:, which live inside the worm and seem to play a major role in both its reproduction and the development of the disease. This drug has shown signs of inhibiting the reproduction of the bacteria, further inducing sterility in the nematode. Clinical trials in June 2005 by the
1306:
Hoerauf A, Mand S, Fischer K, Kruppa T, Marfo-Debrekyei Y, Debrah AY, Pfarr KM, Adjei O, Buttner DW (2003), "Doxycycline as a novel strategy against bancroftian filariasis-depletion of
Wolbachia endosymbionts from Wuchereria bancrofti and stop of microfilaria production",
502:
Filarial parasites are known to induce several immunoregulatory mechanisms like the activation of macrophages and T regulatory cells. It has been found that T regulatory cells play an essential role in how filarial worms modify the host immune response by producing
984:
Janardhan, S., Pandiaraja, P., Pandey, V., Karande, A., & Kaliraj, P. (2011). Development and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against WbSXP-1 for the detection of circulating filarial antigens. Journal of
Helminthology, 85(1), 1–6.
843:
Hawking, F., & Garnham, P. C. C. (1997). The 24-hour periodicity of microfilariae: Biological mechanisms responsible for its production and control. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences, 169(1014), 59–76.
425:
rarely affects the genitals. Those who develop the chronic stages of elephantiasis are usually free from microfilariae (amicrofilaraemic), and often have adverse immunological reactions to the microfilariae, as well as the adult worms.
959:
Pastor, A. F., Silva, M. R., dos Santos, W. J. T., Rego, T., BrandĂŁo, E., de-Melo, Neto, O. P., & Rocha, A. (2021). Recombinant antigens used as diagnostic tools for lymphatic filariasis. Parasites & Vectors, 14(1), 474.
577:
Different trials were made to use the known drug at its maximum capacity in absence of new drugs. In a study from India, it was shown that a formulation of albendazole had better anti-filarial efficacy than albendazole itself.
494:
In past, one of the first successes in the efforts to improve sensitivity and specificity of filarial diagnostic tests was identification of the repeated sequences in the parasite genome. The advancement in technologies like
997:
Dissanayake, S., Xu, M., & Piessens, W. F. (1992). A cloned antigen for serological diagnosis of
Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaremia with daytime blood samples. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 56(2), 269–277.
449:), one of the leading causes of blindness in the world. Serous cavity filariasis presents with symptoms similar to subcutaneous filariasis, in addition to abdominal pain, because these worms are also deep-tissue dwellers.
637:
overlap in certain regions and double infections are common. This creates difficulties for routine mass treatment because people with onchocerciasis in particular react badly to treatment for lymphatic filariasis.
1579:
1564:
1549:
333:
in Asia (Zulfiqar et al., 2023). Female worms are ovoviviparous and can produce thousands of juveniles known as microfilariae, in infected humans. These are ingested by mosquitoes when they bite. The ingested
1349:
Taylor MJ, Makunde WH, McGarry HF, Turner JD, Mand S, Hoerauf A (2005), "Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of
Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial",
482:
vector is the deer fly; daytime collection is preferred. This method of diagnosis is only relevant to microfilariae that use the blood as transport from the lungs to the skin. Some filarial worms, such as
461:
Microfilaria of
Dirofilaria immitis (Heartworms) in a lymph node of a dog with lymphoma. This baby nematode is in a pillow of intermediate-to-large, immature lymphocytes, exhibiting multiple criteria of
164:
comprised around 21% of the cases showed a decrease in the trend over a period of 19 years from 2000 to 2018, studies still proved the global burden of infection to be concentrated in southeast Asia.
553:(29%; Ce-SXP-1).The presence of a number of invariant and conserved residues in all of these nematode-derived molecules suggests that Wb-SXP-1 is a member of a new protein family.
1263:
Gaur RL, Dixit S, Sahoo MK, Khanna M, Singh S, Murthy PK (April 2007). "Anti-filarial activity of novel formulations of albendazole against experimental brugian filariasis".
491:, produce microfilariae that do not use the blood; they reside in the skin only. For these worms, diagnosis relies upon skin snips and can be carried out at any time.
519:
applications. Moreover, it was seen that the ICT format showed 25% of microfilarial negative individuals as being positive for circulating filarial antigens.
972:
Harnett, W., Bradley, J. E., & Garate, T. (1998). Molecular and immunodiagnosis of human filarial nematode infections. Parasitology, 117 Suppl, S59-71.
363:
and underlying tissues—which was the first disease discovered to be transmitted by mosquito bites. Elephantiasis results when the parasites lodge in the
1961:
378:
often causes hydrocele and scrotal elephantiasis. Moreover, disruption of lymphatic vessels or aberrant drainage of lymph fluid often leads to
457:
670:
885:( Red Book: 2021–2024 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, Lymphatic Filariasis (Bancroftian, Malayan, and Timorian), 2021
1668:
1396:
64:
401:
stumps are affected less frequently. However, different species of filarial worms tend to affect different parts of the body;
1051:
617:
592:
831:
Lourens, G. B., & Ferrell, D. K. (2019). Lymphatic
Filariasis. The Nursing Clinics of North America, 54(2), 181–192.
778:
2764:
499:(PCR) led to the development of various assays that made large scale surveys of parasitic prevalence much easier.
1214:
Adinarayanan S, Critchley J, Das PK, Gelband H, et al. (Cochrane
Infectious Diseases Group) (January 2007).
609:
510:
As an attempt to come up with immunodiagnostic test kits for detection of circulating filarial antigen, numerous
2749:
1507:
1465:
2127:
2769:
2464:
2113:
2020:
1661:
793:
91:
370:
Cases of acute inflammatory filariasis manifest 5 to 7 day episodes of fever along with inflammation of
2759:
814:
730:
531:
To identify a W. bancrofti-specific antigen, pastor et al., used the Bm SXP gene to screen against the
2704:
2627:
2598:
1641:
788:
496:
2744:
2710:
1805:
1749:
1598:
585:
was suggested for treating elephantiasis. Filarial parasites have symbiotic bacteria in the genus
544:
introduced at the amino acid position 153 has been shown to be widely distributed among different
2647:
2442:
2431:
2015:
1955:
1941:
1764:
1743:
922:
728:"Summer bleeding" is hemorrhagic subcutaneous nodules in the head and upper forelimbs, caused by
225:
2754:
2545:
2340:
2193:
1883:
1878:
1869:
1845:
1654:
108:
1558:
1491:
173:
2426:
1969:
1850:
1731:
1216:"Diethylcarbamazine (DEC)-medicated salt for community-based control of lymphatic filariasis"
1646:
1076:
Taylor MJ, Hoerauf A, Bockarie M (October 2010). "Lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis".
2678:
2505:
2345:
2319:
2301:
2071:
860:
646:
403:
352:
185:
180:
98:
52:
43:
1167:"Albendazole alone or in combination with microfilaricidal drugs for lymphatic filariasis"
8:
2717:
2692:
2619:
2286:
2235:
1810:
1791:
1737:
1726:
1583:
272:
252:
236:
231:
121:
2578:
2564:
2470:
2450:
2420:
2280:
2255:
2155:
2105:
1996:
1927:
1830:
1375:
1332:
1288:
1240:
1215:
1191:
1166:
1101:
897:"Microfilaria of Dirofilaria immitis (Heartworms) Surrounded by Neoplastic Lymphocytes"
570:
258:
205:, including the lymph nodes; in chronic cases, these worms can lead to the syndrome of
126:
1592:
1588:
1441:
1424:
1363:
1089:
938:
1825:
1770:
1677:
1446:
1367:
1324:
1280:
1245:
1196:
1093:
942:
504:
386:
176:. These are divided into three groups according to the part of the body they affect:
59:
1379:
1336:
1292:
1105:
2611:
2604:
2484:
2098:
2066:
1627:
1436:
1359:
1316:
1272:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1147:
1085:
1028:
934:
364:
202:
613:
2438:
2352:
2090:
2040:
2035:
1933:
1918:
1857:
1756:
1642:
Page from the "Merck Veterinary Manual" on "Parafilaria multipapillosa" in horses
1603:
1397:"Avermectin and Artemisinin - Revolutionary Therapies against Parasitic Diseases"
896:
739:
705:
394:
263:
1165:
Macfarlane CL, Budhathoki SS, Johnson S, Richardson M, Garner P (January 2019).
1012:
478:, whose vector is a mosquito; night is the preferred time for blood collection.
2570:
2533:
2478:
2293:
2272:
2241:
2199:
2078:
2027:
2006:
1975:
1947:
1890:
1817:
999:
815:"CDC - Lymphatic Filariasis - General Information - Frequently Asked Questions"
743:
446:
304:
244:
146:
136:
112:
87:
1320:
1276:
1151:
2738:
2557:
2538:
2312:
2307:
2058:
2046:
1797:
1681:
961:
832:
783:
421:
207:
197:
191:
1573:
986:
973:
2697:
2653:
2549:
2456:
2331:
1902:
1450:
1371:
1328:
1284:
1249:
1200:
1097:
946:
735:
708:), sharing the same vector, and could be useful in human medicine research.
467:
335:
2684:
2669:
2525:
2406:
2387:
2378:
2366:
2220:
2184:
2166:
2133:
2119:
1911:
1837:
1782:
1717:
845:
582:
562:
371:
151:
2589:
2511:
2496:
2266:
1622:
773:
625:
621:
566:
515:
471:
398:
360:
141:
1541:
1071:
1069:
2211:
2054:
1707:
1702:
1164:
813:
Prevention, CDC-Centers for Disease Control and (17 September 2020).
756:
587:
434:
416:
298:
280:
80:
48:
2638:
2519:
2411:
2360:
2175:
1689:
1066:
511:
379:
83:
561:
The recommended treatment for people outside the United States is
2249:
1991:
681:
595:
reported an eight-week course almost eliminated microfilaraemia.
535:
Larval stage 3 cDNA library. This led to the identification of a
412:
288:
These worms are transmitted by infected mosquitoes of the genera
267:
219:
214:
131:
103:
76:
466:
Filariasis is usually diagnosed by identifying microfilariae on
33:
1568:
1553:
1299:
1213:
921:
Metzger, Wolfram Gottfried; MordmĂĽller, Benjamin (April 2014).
650:
438:
430:
1676:
654:
408:
356:
294:
290:
1049:
715:
714:
and others cause different diseases in Asia, in cattle and
536:
1348:
680:
Intradermal onchocerciasis of cattle results in losses in
1394:
658:
445:
manifests itself in the eyes, causing "river blindness" (
390:
1305:
628:, has decreased the occurrence of lymphatic filariasis.
351:
The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is
1395:
Andersson J, Forssberg H, Zierath JR (5 October 2015),
429:
The subcutaneous worms present with rashes, urticarial
1138:
Hewitt K, Whitworth JA (1 August 2005). "Filariasis".
523:
where SXP-1 antigen was recognized to be specific for
16:
Parasitic disease caused by a family of nematode worms
1075:
1531:
1262:
1422:
1342:
920:
2736:
250:Serous cavity filariasis is caused by the worms
1137:
1662:
1026:
1013:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-6851(99)00231-5
1425:"Global elimination of lymphatic filariasis"
1000:https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-6851(92)90176-k
631:
172:Eight known filarial worms have humans as a
1404:The Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet
1220:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1171:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
284:Filariasis is caused by parasitic nematodes
276:, the dog heartworm, rarely infects humans.
2165:
1669:
1655:
962:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04980-3
833:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnur.2019.02.007
812:
32:
1440:
1423:Ndeffo-Mbah ML, Galvani AP (April 2017).
1239:
1190:
987:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022149X10000118
974:https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031182099004084
923:"Loa loa—does it deserve to be neglected"
437:, as well as hyper- and hypopigmentation
1390:
1388:
1030:Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Program
549:As-SXP-1), Loa loa (46%; Li-SXP-1), and
456:
279:
1463:
1416:
1022:
1020:
867:. Source: The World Health Organization
673:is a clinical disease in cattle due to
624:, which, in the further developed form
217:a subcutaneous filariasis is caused by
2737:
1121:The Gale Encyclopedia of Public Health
1118:
846:https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1967.0079
598:
1650:
1385:
855:
853:
618:Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine
593:Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
346:
1017:
616:were co-awarded half of that year's
1043:
894:
90:. They are included in the list of
13:
1484:
1050:U.S. Centers for Disease Control,
850:
779:Eradication of infectious diseases
14:
2781:
1527:
603:
385:Elephantiasis affects mainly the
86:(roundworms) spread by different
671:Verminous hemorrhagic dermatitis
640:
310:efforts of curbing the problem.
111:. Other types of filariasis are
1457:
1429:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases
1256:
1207:
1158:
1131:
1112:
1004:
991:
978:
581:In 2003, the common antibiotic
158:
1232:10.1002/14651858.CD003758.pub2
1183:10.1002/14651858.CD003753.pub4
1053:Lymphatic Filariasis Treatment
966:
953:
927:The Lancet Infectious Diseases
914:
888:
879:
837:
825:
806:
620:for the discovery of the drug
1:
1442:10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30544-8
1364:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66591-9
1119:Turkington CA. "Filariasis".
1090:10.1016/s0140-6736(10)60586-7
939:10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70263-9
799:
313:
2128:Diphyllobothrium mansonoides
1467:The Emperor and the Parasite
1309:Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl)
700:is closely related to human
556:
452:
7:
2465:Angiostrongylus cantonensis
2114:Spirometra erinaceieuropaei
1512:Therapeutics in Dermatology
794:Neglected tropical diseases
767:
645:Filariasis can also affect
407:can affect the legs, arms,
139:caused by three species of
101:caused by three species of
92:neglected tropical diseases
10:
2786:
1464:Pringle H (3 March 2011),
746:, Asia and South America).
731:Parafilaria multipapillosa
2705:Capillaria philippinensis
2668:
2637:
2628:Halicephalobus gingivalis
2599:Strongyloides stercoralis
2588:
2495:
2405:
2377:
2330:
2219:
2210:
2183:
2174:
2152:
2089:
2005:
1990:
1901:
1868:
1781:
1716:
1701:
1688:
1613:
1535:
1496:Indian Journal of Urology
1321:10.1007/s00430-002-0174-6
1277:10.1017/S0031182006001612
1152:10.1383/medc.2005.33.8.61
789:List of parasites (human)
722:
664:
632:Prospects for elimination
497:polymerase chain reaction
237:layer just under the skin
235:. These worms occupy the
201:. These worms occupy the
58:
40:
31:
26:
2765:Veterinary helminthology
2711:Intestinal capillariasis
1806:Dicrocoelium dendriticum
167:
97:The most common type is
2698:Trichuriasis / Whipworm
2648:Enterobius vermicularis
2443:Cutaneous larva migrans
2016:Echinococcus granulosus
1956:Heterophyes heterophyes
1942:Gastrodiscoides hominis
1765:Trichobilharzia regenti
750:
712:Stenofilaria assamensis
226:Mansonella streptocerca
183:is caused by the worms
149:caused by two types of
2546:Visceral larva migrans
2341:Gnathostoma spinigerum
2194:Dracunculus medinensis
2100:Diphyllobothrium latum
1879:Paragonimus westermani
1846:Opisthorchis viverrini
1502:(1), January–June 2005
861:"Lymphatic filariasis"
463:
361:thickening of the skin
285:
2750:Insect-borne diseases
2427:Ancylostoma duodenale
1970:Metagonimus yokogawai
460:
283:
2679:Trichinella spiralis
2506:Ascaris lumbricoides
2320:Lymphatic filariasis
2302:Wuchereria bancrofti
865:Health Topics A to Z
675:Parafilaria bovicola
647:domesticated animals
404:Wuchereria bancrofti
319:Wuchereria bancrofti
186:Wuchereria bancrofti
181:Lymphatic filariasis
129:(Loiasis) caused by
109:spread by mosquitoes
99:lymphatic filariasis
79:infection caused by
53:lymphatic filariasis
44:Wuchereria bancrofti
2693:Trichuris trichiura
2620:Trichostrongyliasis
2236:Onchocerca volvulus
1792:Clonorchis sinensis
1727:Schistosoma mansoni
1708:Trematode infection
1027:The Carter Center,
761:Dirofilaria immitis
610:William C. Campbell
599:Society and culture
569:. A combination of
443:Onchocerca volvulus
273:Dirofilaria immitis
262:, which occupy the
253:Mansonella perstans
232:Onchocerca volvulus
122:onchocerca volvulus
2770:Parasitic diseases
2579:Parascaris equorum
2565:Dioctophyme renale
2471:Angiostrongyliasis
2451:Necator americanus
2421:Hookworm infection
2281:Dirofilaria repens
2106:Diphyllobothriasis
1997:Tapeworm infection
1928:Fasciolopsis buski
1614:External resources
686:Onchocerca dermata
571:diethylcarbamazine
464:
419:formation), while
347:Signs and symptoms
343:peripheral blood.
286:
259:Mansonella ozzardi
127:Loa loa filariasis
65:Infectious disease
2760:Tropical diseases
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2664:
2663:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2148:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2022:E. multilocularis
1986:
1985:
1826:Fasciola hepatica
1678:Parasitic disease
1637:
1636:
1358:(9477): 2116–21,
1084:(9747): 1175–85.
505:immunoglobulin G4
472:blood film smears
470:, thin and thick
387:lower extremities
70:
69:
21:Medical condition
2777:
2613:Trichostrongylus
2605:Strongyloidiasis
2485:Metastrongylosis
2217:
2216:
2181:
2180:
2172:
2171:
2163:
2162:
2067:Hymenolepis nana
2003:
2002:
1903:Intestinal fluke
1714:
1713:
1699:
1698:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1533:
1532:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1503:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1444:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1382:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1271:(Pt 4): 537–44.
1260:
1254:
1253:
1243:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1194:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1024:
1015:
1011:107(1), 71–80.
1008:
1002:
995:
989:
982:
976:
970:
964:
957:
951:
950:
918:
912:
911:
909:
907:
892:
886:
883:
877:
876:
874:
872:
857:
848:
841:
835:
829:
823:
822:
810:
757:Heart filariasis
395:mucous membranes
382:and chyloceles.
365:lymphatic system
223:(the eye worm).
203:lymphatic system
36:
24:
23:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2745:Animal diseases
2735:
2734:
2733:
2724:
2660:
2633:
2584:
2491:
2439:Ancylostomiasis
2409:
2393:
2373:
2353:Gnathostomiasis
2326:
2223:
2206:
2157:
2154:
2140:
2091:Pseudophyllidea
2085:
2036:Taenia saginata
1994:
1982:
1934:Fasciolopsiasis
1919:Echinostomiasis
1897:
1864:
1858:Opisthorchiasis
1777:
1757:Schistosomiasis
1751:S. intercalatum
1705:
1703:Fluke/trematode
1694:
1691:
1684:
1675:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1609:
1608:
1544:
1530:
1517:
1515:
1506:
1492:"Special issue"
1490:
1487:
1485:Further reading
1482:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1421:
1417:
1408:
1406:
1399:
1393:
1386:
1347:
1343:
1304:
1300:
1261:
1257:
1226:(1): CD003758.
1212:
1208:
1177:(1): CD003753.
1163:
1159:
1136:
1132:
1117:
1113:
1074:
1067:
1058:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1025:
1018:
1009:
1005:
996:
992:
983:
979:
971:
967:
958:
954:
919:
915:
905:
903:
893:
889:
884:
880:
870:
868:
859:
858:
851:
842:
838:
830:
826:
811:
807:
802:
770:
753:
725:
706:river blindness
667:
643:
634:
606:
601:
559:
485:M. streptocerca
455:
411:, breasts, and
349:
316:
245:river blindness
174:definitive host
170:
161:
117:river blindness
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2783:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2701:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2674:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2594:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2571:Dioctophymosis
2561:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2534:Toxocara canis
2530:
2529:
2528:
2516:
2515:
2514:
2501:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2479:Metastrongylus
2475:
2474:
2473:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2433:A. braziliense
2423:
2417:
2415:
2403:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2383:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2336:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2294:Dirofilariasis
2284:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2273:Mansonelliasis
2263:
2262:
2261:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2242:Onchocerciasis
2231:
2229:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2200:Dracunculiasis
2189:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2160:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2095:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2079:Hymenolepiasis
2063:
2062:
2061:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2028:Echinococcosis
2011:
2009:
2007:Cyclophyllidea
2000:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1976:Metagonimiasis
1966:
1965:
1964:
1962:Heterophyiasis
1952:
1951:
1950:
1948:Amphistomiasis
1938:
1937:
1936:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1907:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1891:Paragonimiasis
1874:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1818:Dicrocoeliasis
1802:
1801:
1800:
1787:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1771:Swimmer's itch
1761:
1760:
1759:
1745:S. haematobium
1722:
1720:
1711:
1696:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1595:
1576:
1561:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1536:Classification
1529:
1528:External links
1526:
1525:
1524:
1504:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1456:
1435:(4): 358–359.
1415:
1384:
1341:
1298:
1255:
1206:
1157:
1130:
1111:
1065:
1042:
1016:
1003:
990:
977:
965:
952:
933:(4): 353–357.
913:
887:
878:
849:
836:
824:
804:
803:
801:
798:
797:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
769:
766:
765:
764:
752:
749:
748:
747:
744:Eastern Europe
724:
721:
720:
719:
709:
678:
666:
663:
642:
639:
633:
630:
605:
604:Research teams
602:
600:
597:
565:combined with
558:
555:
468:Giemsa stained
454:
451:
447:onchocerciasis
348:
345:
315:
312:
278:
277:
248:
212:
169:
166:
160:
157:
147:Dirofilariasis
137:Mansonelliasis
115:also known as
113:onchocerciasis
68:
67:
62:
56:
55:
47:, a parasitic
41:Life cycle of
38:
37:
29:
28:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2782:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2755:Helminthiases
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2558:Baylisascaris
2555:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2309:
2308:Brugia malayi
2304:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2151:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2059:Cysticercosis
2056:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1885:P. kellicotti
1881:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1798:Clonorchiasis
1796:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1692:platyhelminth
1687:
1683:
1682:helminthiases
1679:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1469:
1468:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1405:
1398:
1391:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1345:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1070:
1055:
1054:
1046:
1032:
1031:
1023:
1021:
1014:
1007:
1001:
994:
988:
981:
975:
969:
963:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
917:
902:
898:
891:
882:
866:
862:
856:
854:
847:
840:
834:
828:
820:
816:
809:
805:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
784:Helminthiasis
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
771:
762:
759:is caused by
758:
755:
754:
745:
741:
737:
733:
732:
727:
726:
717:
713:
710:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
676:
672:
669:
668:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
641:Other animals
638:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
614:Satoshi ĹŚmura
611:
596:
594:
590:
589:
584:
579:
575:
572:
568:
564:
554:
552:
547:
542:
538:
534:
529:
526:
520:
517:
513:
508:
506:
500:
498:
492:
490:
486:
481:
477:
473:
469:
459:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
427:
424:
423:
422:Brugia timori
418:
414:
410:
406:
405:
400:
396:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
353:elephantiasis
344:
340:
337:
332:
328:
324:
320:
311:
308:
306:
301:
300:
296:
292:
282:
275:
274:
269:
265:
264:serous cavity
261:
260:
255:
254:
249:
246:
242:
238:
234:
233:
228:
227:
222:
221:
216:
213:
210:
209:
208:elephantiasis
204:
200:
199:
198:Brugia timori
194:
193:
192:Brugia malayi
188:
187:
182:
179:
178:
177:
175:
165:
156:
154:
153:
148:
144:
143:
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
118:
114:
110:
106:
105:
100:
95:
93:
89:
85:
82:
78:
74:
66:
63:
61:
57:
54:
50:
46:
45:
39:
35:
30:
25:
19:
2718:
2703:
2691:
2677:
2654:Enterobiasis
2646:
2626:
2612:
2597:
2577:
2563:
2556:
2550:Toxocariasis
2539:
2532:
2518:
2504:
2477:
2463:
2457:Necatoriasis
2449:
2432:
2425:
2386:
2359:
2346:
2339:
2332:Thelazioidea
2313:
2306:
2300:
2287:
2279:
2265:
2256:
2248:
2234:
2225:
2192:
2126:
2112:
2099:
2072:
2065:
2047:
2041:
2034:
2021:
2014:
1968:
1954:
1940:
1926:
1917:
1910:
1884:
1877:
1851:
1844:
1832:F. gigantica
1831:
1824:
1811:
1804:
1790:
1763:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1733:S. japonicum
1732:
1725:
1621:
1597:
1578:
1563:
1548:
1516:. Retrieved
1511:
1508:"Filariasis"
1499:
1495:
1471:, retrieved
1466:
1459:
1432:
1428:
1418:
1407:, retrieved
1403:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1315:(4): 211–6,
1312:
1308:
1301:
1268:
1265:Parasitology
1264:
1258:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1146:(8): 61–64.
1143:
1139:
1133:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1081:
1077:
1057:, retrieved
1052:
1045:
1034:, retrieved
1029:
1006:
993:
980:
968:
955:
930:
926:
916:
904:. Retrieved
900:
890:
881:
869:. Retrieved
864:
839:
827:
818:
808:
760:
736:North Africa
729:
711:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
674:
644:
635:
607:
586:
580:
576:
560:
550:
545:
540:
539:sequence of
532:
530:
524:
521:
509:
501:
493:
488:
484:
479:
476:W. bancrofti
475:
465:
442:
428:
420:
402:
389:, while the
384:
376:W. bancrofti
375:
369:
350:
341:
336:microfilaria
330:
326:
325:in America,
322:
318:
317:
303:
289:
287:
271:
257:
251:
240:
230:
224:
218:
206:
196:
190:
184:
171:
162:
159:Epidemiology
150:
140:
130:
120:
116:
102:
96:
72:
71:
51:that causes
42:
18:
2719:C. hepatica
2685:Trichinosis
2670:Adenophorea
2526:Anisakiasis
2407:Strongylida
2388:Gongylonema
2379:Spiruroidea
2367:Thelaziasis
2347:G. hispidum
2221:Filarioidea
2185:Camallanida
2167:Secernentea
2134:Sparganosis
2120:Sparganosis
2073:H. diminuta
2042:T. asiatica
1912:Echinostoma
1852:O. felineus
1838:Fasciolosis
1783:Liver fluke
1718:Blood fluke
1514:. June 2012
895:Wheeler L.
819:www.cdc.gov
702:O. volvulus
583:doxycycline
563:albendazole
546:W.bancrofti
541:W.bancrofti
533:W.bancrofti
525:W.bancrofti
489:O. volvulus
372:lymph nodes
241:O. volvulus
152:Dirofilaria
2739:Categories
2590:Rhabditida
2512:Ascariasis
2497:Ascaridida
2288:D. immitis
2267:Mansonella
2259:filariasis
2226:Filariasis
2153:Roundworm/
1870:Lung fluke
1739:S. mekongi
1680:caused by
1628:Filariasis
1623:Patient UK
1127:: 351–353.
906:2 December
800:References
774:Ascariasis
698:O. ochengi
690:O. ochengi
649:, such as
626:ivermectin
622:avermectin
567:ivermectin
516:Antibodies
399:amputation
314:Life cycle
142:Mansonella
119:caused by
73:Filariasis
27:Filariasis
2314:B. timori
2212:Spirurida
2158:infection
2055:Taeniasis
2048:T. solium
1812:D. hospes
1695:infection
1690:Flatworm/
1409:5 October
588:Wolbachia
557:Treatment
551:C.elegans
480:Loa loa's
453:Diagnosis
435:arthritis
417:hydrocele
415:(causing
299:Anopheles
107:that are
84:nematodes
81:parasitic
60:Specialty
49:roundworm
2639:Oxyurida
2520:Anisakis
2412:hookworm
2361:Thelazia
2176:Spiruria
2156:Nematode
1451:28012944
1380:21382828
1372:15964448
1337:23349595
1329:12684759
1293:24567214
1285:17078904
1250:17253495
1201:30620051
1140:Medicine
1106:29589578
1098:20739055
947:24332895
871:24 March
768:See also
740:Southern
694:O. dukei
608:In 2015
512:Antigens
380:chyluria
331:Mansonia
305:Mansonia
77:filarial
2540:T. cati
2257:Loa loa
2250:Loa loa
1992:Cestoda
1604:D005368
1518:24 July
1473:9 March
1241:6532694
1192:6354574
1059:17 July
1036:17 July
684:due to
682:leather
462:cancer.
439:macules
431:papules
413:scrotum
268:abdomen
266:of the
243:causes
220:Loa loa
215:Loiasis
145:, and
132:Loa loa
104:Filaria
88:vectors
75:, is a
2050:(pork)
1449:
1378:
1370:
1352:Lancet
1335:
1327:
1291:
1283:
1248:
1238:
1199:
1189:
1104:
1096:
1078:Lancet
945:
901:Flickr
723:Horses
692:, and
665:Cattle
657:, and
651:cattle
433:, and
397:, and
229:, and
195:, and
1593:125.9
1589:125.0
1400:(PDF)
1376:S2CID
1333:S2CID
1289:S2CID
1102:S2CID
655:sheep
409:vulva
359:with
357:edema
327:Aedes
323:Culex
295:Culex
291:Aedes
168:Cause
2615:spp.
1599:MeSH
1584:9-CM
1559:1F66
1520:2012
1475:2011
1447:PMID
1411:2015
1368:PMID
1325:PMID
1281:PMID
1246:PMID
1224:2007
1197:PMID
1094:PMID
1061:2008
1038:2008
943:PMID
908:2017
873:2013
751:Dogs
742:and
716:zebu
659:dogs
612:and
537:cDNA
514:and
487:and
391:ears
329:and
302:and
256:and
1580:ICD
1574:B74
1565:ICD
1550:ICD
1437:doi
1360:doi
1356:365
1317:doi
1313:192
1273:doi
1269:134
1236:PMC
1228:doi
1187:PMC
1179:doi
1148:doi
1086:doi
1082:376
935:doi
239:.
94:.
2741::
2548:/
2537:/
2441:/
2430:/
2344:/
2311:/
2305:/
2070:/
2057:/
2045:/
2039:/
2019:/
1882:/
1849:/
1829:/
1809:/
1748:/
1742:/
1736:/
1730:/
1626::
1602::
1587::
1572::
1569:10
1557::
1554:11
1510:.
1500:21
1498:,
1494:,
1445:.
1433:17
1431:.
1427:.
1402:,
1387:^
1374:,
1366:,
1354:,
1331:,
1323:,
1311:,
1287:.
1279:.
1267:.
1244:.
1234:.
1222:.
1218:.
1195:.
1185:.
1173:.
1169:.
1144:33
1142:.
1123:.
1100:.
1092:.
1080:.
1068:^
1019:^
941:.
931:14
929:.
925:.
899:.
863:.
852:^
817:.
738:,
696:.
688:,
661:.
653:,
441:.
393:,
367:.
355:–
297:,
293:,
270:.
189:,
155:.
135:;
125:;
2700:)
2696:(
2414:)
2410:(
2228:)
2224:(
1999:)
1995:(
1710:)
1706:(
1670:e
1663:t
1656:v
1591:-
1582:-
1567:-
1552:-
1542:D
1522:.
1453:.
1439::
1362::
1319::
1295:.
1275::
1252:.
1230::
1203:.
1181::
1175:1
1154:.
1150::
1125:1
1108:.
1088::
949:.
937::
910:.
875:.
821:.
763:.
734:(
718:.
704:(
677:.
307:.
247:.
211:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
