171:, Congress categorizes trade negotiating objectives in three ways: overall objectives, principal objectives, and other priorities. The broader goals encapsulate the overall direction trade negotiations take, such as enhancing the United States' and other countries' economies. Principal objectives are detailed goals that Congress expects to be integrated into trade agreements, such as "reducing barriers and distortions to trade (e.g., goods, services, agriculture); protecting foreign investment and intellectual property rights; encouraging transparency; establishing fair regulatory practices; combating corruption; ensuring that countries enforce their environmental and labor laws; providing for an effective dispute settlement process; and protecting the U.S. right to enforce its trade remedy laws". Consulting Congress is also an important objective.
406:), which opposed the fast track trade promotion authority for the TPP. Several House Republicans opposed the measure on the grounds that it empowered the executive branch. In January 2014, House Democrats refused to put forward a co-sponsor for the legislation, hampering the bill's prospects for passage. On 16 April 2015, several U.S. Senators introduced "The Bipartisan Congressional Trade Priorities and Accountability Act of 2015", which is commonly known as TPA Fast-track legislation. The bill passed the Senate on 21 May 2015, by a vote of 62 to 38, with 31 Democrats, five Republicans and both Independents opposing. The bill went to the U.S. House of Representatives, which narrowly passed the bill 218â208, and also removed the
371:
469:
the matter. Normal congressional committee processes are forbidden, meaning that the executive branch is empowered to write lengthy legislation on its own with no review or amendments." Article II, Section 2. He (the
President) shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur... Democratic members of Congress and general right-to-know internet groups are among those opposed to trade fast track on grounds of a lack of transparency. Such Congressional members have complained that fast track forces "members to jump over hurdles to see negotiation texts and blocks staffer involvement. In 2012, Senator
89:
action by the leadership." The implementing bill is guaranteed an up-or-down vote with no amendments. An implementing bill may go through the expedited process if it follows the congressional guides and: (1) the trade agreement was negotiated during a set time period for which the TPA is in effect; (2) the agreement follows negotiation objectives set by the statute; and (3) during the negotiation process, the executive branch sent required notifications and conducted consultations with
Congress and other stakeholders. The 2002 version of the authority created an additional requirement for 90-day notice to Congress before negotiations could begin.
460:, "it is extremely difficult for any U.S. President to negotiate significant trade deals if he cannot assure other nations that Congress will refrain from adding numerous amendments and conditions that must then be taken back to the negotiating table". The very nature of Trade Promotion Authority requires Congress to vote on the agreements before they can take effect, meaning that without TPA, "those agreements might never even be negotiated".
456:, fast track "has effectively bridged the division of power between the two branches. It gives executive branch (USTR) negotiators needed credibility to conclude trade agreements by assuring other nations' representatives that Congress won't rework them; it guarantees a major Congressional role in trade policy while reducing members' vulnerability to special interestsâ. Additionally, according to President Reagan's Attorney General
192:
products, wines and spirits produced in a particular region of a country. This new objective is intended to counter in large part the
European Union's efforts to include GI protection in its bilateral trade agreements for the names of its products that U.S. and other country exporters argue are generic in nature or commonly used across borders, such as parma ham or
410:
portions of the Senate bill. The TPA was passed by the Senate on 24 June 2015, without the TAA provisions, requiring only the signature of the
President before becoming law. President Obama expressed a desire to sign the TPA and TAA together, and did sign both into law on 29 June, as the TAA was able
199:
Investment/Investor rights: âThe overall negotiating objectives on foreign investment are designed âto reduce or eliminate artificial or trade distorting barriers to foreign investment, while ensuring that foreign investors in the United States are not accorded greater substantive rights with respect
204:
The 2002 and 2015 versions of the TPA set trade negotiation objectives on worker rights, labor issues, and environmental standards. The 2002 version stated a country which the executive branch negotiated a trade agreement with had to follow their own labor and environmental standards, while the 2015
80:
The TPA had the effect of delegating congressional power to the executive branch with limitations. Fast track agreements are enacted as "congressional-executive agreements" (CEAs), which are negotiated for by the executive branch following set guidelines from
Congress, and are approved by a majority
468:
Groups opposed to Trade
Promotion Authority claim that it places too much power in the executive branch, "allowing the president to unilaterally select partner countries for âtradeâ pacts, decide the agreements' contents, and then negotiate and sign the agreementsâall before Congress has a vote on
191:
are administered that may impede market access opportunities. The third seeks to eliminate and prevent the improper use of a country's system to protect or recognize geographical indications (GI). These are trademark-like terms used to protect the quality and reputation of distinctive agricultural
88:
If a trade agreement that reduces tariffs or non-tariff barriers to trade negotiated by the executive branch meets the guidelines set by
Congress, the TPA allows Congress to "consider the required implementing bill under expedited procedures pursuant to which the bill may come to the floor without
422:
The ultimate approval of this legislation conferred on the Obama administration "enhanced power to negotiate major trade agreements with Asia and Europe." Through the TPA, Obama could "submit trade deals to
Congress for an expedited vote without amendments." The successful conclusion of these
362:. Unlike treaties, such agreements only require a majority of the House and Senate to pass. Under the TPA, Congress authorizes the President to negotiate "free trade agreements ... if they are approved by both houses in a bill enacted into public law and other statutory conditions are met."
186:
Agriculture: There are three negotiating objectives regarding agriculture. One lays out in greater detail what U.S. negotiators should achieve in negotiating robust trade rules on sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures. The second calls for trade negotiators to ensure transparency in how
182:
Services: Services objectives "require that U.S. negotiator strive to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade in services, including regulations that deny nondiscriminatory treatment to U.S. services and inhibit the right of establishment (through foreign investment) to U.S. service
452:, also said "the United States might become less competitive globally if it disengaged from seeking further trade openings: 'If you're not in an agreementâthat trade will be diverted from us to someone elseâwe will lose out to another country'". According to I.M. Destler of the
178:
Market access: These negotiating objectives seek to reduce or eliminate barriers that limit market access for U.S. products. "It also calls for the use of sectoral tariff and non-tariff barrier elimination agreements to achieve greater market
47:. Although it technically expired in July 2007, it remained in effect for agreements that were already under negotiation until their passage in 2011. In June 2015, a third renewal passed Congress and was signed into law by President
72:. It has been praised for allowing the government to negotiate trade deals which would otherwise have been impossible to complete. However, it has also been criticized for usurping congressional powers and for lacking transparency.
2448:
120:.) The committees to which the bill has been referred have 45 days after its introduction to report the bill, or be automatically discharged, and each House must vote within 15 days after the bill is reported or discharged. (
3304:
2441:
2837:
200:
to investment protections than domestic investors in the United States, and to secure for investors important rights comparable to those that would be available under the United States legal principles and practices."
1673:
245:(GATT). With this grant of authority, Congress eventually enacted legislation implementing NAFTA. TPA authority was then further extended to April 16, 1994, the day after the Uruguay Round concluded in the
59:
on majority votes instead of the three-fifths threshold normally needed in the Senate to conclude debate on a bill or the two-thirds threshold for the Senate to ratify a treaty. Congress may not amend or
54:
Under the TPA, the
President's trade negotiations must follow guidelines and negotiating objectives set by Congress. If the negotiations follow the negotiating objectives, the implementing bill may pass
85:, Section 2, of the U.S. Constitution which states that: " shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur."
2039:
2703:
1393:
2970:
2339:
151:.) On the House and Senate floors, each Body can debate the bill for no more than 20 hours, and thus Senators cannot filibuster the bill and it will pass with a simple majority vote. (
225:). This authority was set to expire in 1980, but was extended for eight years in 1979. By that grant of authority and procedure, Congress then enacted implementing legislation for the
3421:
2331:
814:
473:(D-Ore.) complained that corporate lobbyists were given easy access while his office was being stymied, and even introduced protest legislation requiring more congressional input."
3115:
2434:
3368:
3032:
3398:
1114:
1540:
1975:
307:), extended and conditioned the application of the original procedures. Under the second period of fast track authority, Congress enacted implementing legislation for the
205:
version added that the country had to follow their own set standards but also had to follow "internationally recognized" core labor standards and environmental standards.
2506:
324:
3354:
3149:
3071:
3016:
2174:
2290:
1480:
104:
of the House and Senate or their designees must introduce the implementing bill submitted by the
President on the first day on which their House is in session. (
3375:
3318:
3002:
2652:
2066:
3156:
1781:
3126:
2830:
2779:
2768:
1687:
1618:
1473:
351:
347:
933:
296:
2418:
1420:
386:(TPP) negotiations, which had been undertaken as if the authority were still in effect. In December 2013, 151 House Democrats signed a letter written by
1533:
2527:
2211:
2585:
2246:
1900:
1636:
1454:
3476:
2921:
2541:
2534:
2478:
2167:
2160:
2153:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2125:
1735:
1574:
336:
316:
312:
268:
made fast track part of his campaign platform in 2000. In May 2001, as president he made a speech about the importance of free trade at the annual
840:
2689:
2499:
2183:
1758:
1510:
747:
1164:
3253:
3223:
2872:
2513:
2485:
1870:
1524:
453:
328:
320:
276:
and other senior U.S. businessmen in 1965. Subsequently, the Council played a role in the implementation and securing of TPA through Congress.
2283:
2914:
2645:
2578:
2457:
730:
The Impact of Trade Agreements: Effect of the Tokyo Round, U.S.-Israel FTA, U.S.-Canada FTA, NAFTA, and the Uruguay Round on the U.S. Economy
82:
3281:
3260:
3193:
2900:
2659:
2548:
2492:
818:
724:
308:
3207:
3108:
2816:
2520:
2276:
1907:
1728:
1680:
968:
332:
39:
in 2002, the TPA is an impermanent power granted by Congress to the President. It remained in effect from 1975 to 1994, pursuant to the
3246:
2788:
2059:
1650:
1590:
1319:
1188:
1215:"The Need for Fast Track Authority" (testimony before the subcommittee on trade committee on ways and means, USHR, 30 September 1997)"
3336:
3200:
2823:
2255:
2118:
2097:
2084:
1920:
230:
140:
2724:
2601:
2297:
1556:
621:
444:, the TPA is "critical to completing new trade agreements that have the potential to unleash U.S. economic growth and investment".
1240:
1092:
913:
3428:
3405:
3165:
2313:
2218:
2190:
1989:
1583:
1563:
1413:
3325:
3078:
2935:
2304:
2232:
2225:
1952:
1945:
1712:
1604:
1438:
280:
242:
1015:
3297:
2865:
2624:
2239:
2111:
2052:
2034:
1813:
399:
354:
using fast track rules, all of which the George W. Bush administration signed before the deadline. By 2013, the majority of
2673:
2104:
1982:
1765:
1742:
1517:
81:
in both chambers of Congress. Without the TPA legislation, the President's power to negotiate trade deals is restricted by
2262:
495:
3087:
2886:
2564:
1719:
355:
234:
65:
3239:
3135:
2696:
2197:
1886:
1854:
1806:
1406:
1388:
708:
530:
343:
300:
218:
152:
144:
121:
113:
105:
3023:
2809:
2269:
1863:
1284:
359:
112:.) Senators and Representatives may not amend the President's bill, either in committee or in the Senate or House. (
69:
577:
Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Frequently Asked Questions, (2019). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from
2858:
1931:
391:
261:
35:
to negotiate international agreements in an expedited manner and with limited congressional oversight. Renamed the
370:
3412:
3230:
3172:
3094:
2557:
2403:
2396:
2389:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2361:
2204:
1503:
1496:
1489:
659:
1041:
3384:
3267:
3101:
3064:
2986:
2893:
2802:
2717:
1893:
1375:
1340:
226:
168:
32:
1312:
3288:
3179:
2907:
1877:
1657:
751:
159:.) Thus, it is possible that the entire Congressional consideration of a bill takes no longer than 90 days.
56:
2995:
2949:
2747:
2592:
2075:
1751:
1643:
992:
449:
260:
In the second half of the 1990s, fast track authority languished due to opposition from House Republicans.
254:
1354:
1214:
887:
2963:
2754:
2354:
2005:
1664:
1447:
864:"Why Certain Trade Agreements Are Approved as Congressional-Executive Agreements Rather Than as Treaties"
407:
3453:
3444:
3391:
2942:
2014:
1938:
695:
675:
646:
3347:
3186:
3055:
1966:
1829:
1429:
383:
1150:
1136:
3048:
2761:
1065:
250:
783:
3361:
1959:
1705:
1547:
1137:"Text - H.R.2146 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Defending Public Safety Employees' Retirement Act"
269:
1335:
Trade Promotion Authority and Fast-Track Negotiating Authority for Trade Agreements: Major Votes
546:
92:
The 1979 version of the authority changed the name of the STR to the U.S. Trade Representative.
3311:
2851:
1836:
1820:
382:
administration indicated that renewal of the authority was a requirement for the conclusion of
965:
423:
bilateral talks was necessary before the other ten TPP members could complete the trade deal.
2979:
2740:
2733:
1611:
441:
253:(WTO). Under this authority, Congress ultimately passed the implementing legislation for the
136:
3481:
2638:
2615:
2608:
2044:
292:
8:
1333:
918:
246:
156:
1398:
148:
125:
109:
64:
the implementing bill. The TPA is the mechanism used by the U.S. government to pass the
3274:
2571:
1843:
1151:"Text - H.R.1295 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015"
977:
914:"House Democrats Balk At Efforts By Obama, Boehner On Controversial Pacific Trade Deal"
304:
222:
3009:
2631:
2464:
1790:
941:
712:
526:
284:
273:
214:
188:
117:
44:
40:
728:
684:
547:"Article II Section 2 | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress"
1774:
1597:
766:
704:
655:
411:
to make its way through Congress in a separate bill. The TPA law is known as the
291:
with 190 Republicans and 27 Democrats making up the majority. The bill passed the
3039:
2844:
972:
457:
193:
101:
28:
3214:
1361:
499:
265:
1368:
288:
233:. TPA authority was renewed from 1988 to 1993 to allow for negotiation of the
100:
If the President transmits a fast track trade agreement to Congress, then the
3470:
3142:
2682:
2427:
2029:
1383:
945:
238:
2666:
2347:
1350:
800:
Council of the Americas role in securing the TPA â see David Rockefeller's
445:
387:
379:
48:
863:
815:"Bush losing trade negotiating authority; Democrats not eager to renew it"
593:"Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) and the Role of Congress in Trade Policy"
592:
578:
139:). After the bill passes in the House, it is sent to the Senate where the
2956:
2928:
2879:
2795:
1461:
1346:
395:
1370:
Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) and the Role of Congress in Trade Policy
413:
Bipartisan Congressional Trade Priorities and Accountability Act of 2015
663:
403:
342:
In October 2011, the Congress and President Obama enacted into law the
61:
746:
470:
1265:
2710:
723:
3422:
Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act
437:
374:
US House Vote on the Trade Promotion Authority Bill, 18 June 2015
1115:"Obama signs fast-track trade, worker assistance bills into law"
934:"Deal Reached on Fast-Track Authority for Obama on Trade Accord"
3116:
White House Office of Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships
132:
3369:
Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration
523:
Case Studies in US Trade Negotiation, Vol. 1: Making the Rules
521:
Devereaux, Charan; Lawrence, Robert; Watkins, Michael (2006).
622:"Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Frequently Asked Questions"
2074:
1093:"Obama Won't Sign TPA Without TAA 'Path' (Video) (Updated)"
841:"Democrats Balk at Obama's Pacific Trade Accord Fast Track"
3150:
Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001
1658:
Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974 and 1976
1428:
135:
are revenues), the bill must originate in the House (see
520:
1285:"Why House Democrats Might Kill Obama's Big Trade Deal"
496:"The Rise and Fall of Fast Track: Regime 5 â 1975â2008"
325:
Dominican RepublicâCentral America Free Trade Agreement
299:
on August 1, 2002. The Trade Act of 2002, § 2103â2105 (
131:
In the likely case that the bill is a revenue bill (as
3319:
Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005
3072:
President's Council on Service and Civic Participation
3003:
Higher Education Relief Opportunities For Students Act
1189:"Obama and the G.O.P Facing Opposition to Trade Pacts"
3157:
Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003
1166:
Japan, U.S. Seek Trade Pact Deals on Rice, Auto Parts
498:. Public Citizen's Global Trade Watch. Archived from
2769:
Foreign Investment and National Security Act of 2007
1619:
Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States
1283:
Carter, Zach; McAuliff, Michael (January 11, 2014).
1266:"Fast Track: An Undemocratic Path to Unfair 'Trade'"
1042:"Trade Authority Bill Wins Final Approval in Senate"
2027:
912:Zach Carter and Michael McAuliff (9 January 2014).
888:"White House wants trade promotion authority: Kirk"
1157:
696:
676:
647:
1901:Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products
1688:Vietnam Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act
993:"Senate passes 'fast track' trade promotion bill"
817:. Associated Press. June 30, 2007. Archived from
213:Congress started the fast track authority in the
3468:
2922:National Security Entry-Exit Registration System
2340:Joint session of Congress (September 11 attacks)
1381:
1241:"Trade Promotion Authority and Economic Freedom"
1039:
1356:The Rise and Fall of Fast Track Trade Authority
1112:
753:Overview and Compilation of U.S. Trade Statutes
674:Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988,
620:Beth, Richard; Cooper, William; Ferguson, Ian.
365:
3254:Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002
3224:Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002
1871:Energy Research and Development Administration
1282:
1219:Peterson Institute for International Economics
619:
454:Peterson Institute for International Economics
2060:
1414:
1090:
525:. Columbia University Press. pp. 57â63.
493:
426:
3282:Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008
3261:Mortgage Forgiveness Debt Relief Act of 2007
3194:Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
1058:
3208:Financial Literacy and Education Commission
2831:Government response to September 11 attacks
2817:Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act
1729:National Mass Transportation Assistance Act
1035:
1033:
1013:
990:
981:, 21 May 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
3247:Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
2789:Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act
2067:
2053:
1651:Education for All Handicapped Children Act
1591:Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control
1421:
1407:
858:
856:
854:
339:. The authority expired on July 1, 2007.
95:
3201:Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act
2824:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act
2458:JordanâUnited States Free Trade Agreement
833:
162:
2038:) is being considered for deletion. See
1392:) is being considered for deletion. See
1030:
369:
279:At 3:30 a.m. on July 27, 2002, the
208:
3477:Federal government of the United States
3429:Water Resources Development Act of 2007
3166:Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act
2191:Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
1990:Water Resources Development Act of 1976
1367:Hornbeck, J.F., and Cooper, William H.
931:
851:
579:https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43491.pdf
489:
487:
485:
417:Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015
16:Power of POTUS to negotiate trade deals
3469:
3326:Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006
2936:Secondary Security Screening Selection
1953:Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
1946:Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
1713:Federal-Aid Highway Amendments of 1974
1605:National Security Study Memorandum 200
1186:
1016:"House passes 'fast track' trade bill"
748:U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means
243:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
43:and from 2002 to 2007 pursuant to the
2866:National Construction Safety Team Act
2625:Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
2048:
1814:Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board
1455:VP confirmation of Nelson Rockefeller
1402:
1066:"Senate passes fast-track trade bill"
431:
352:PanamaâU.S. Trade Promotion Agreement
348:South KoreaâU.S. Free Trade Agreement
237:(NAFTA), and the commencement of the
3399:MagnusonâStevens Reauthorization Act
3298:Renovation, Repair and Painting Rule
2915:U.S. Department of Homeland Security
1983:Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976
1766:Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation
1743:Commodity Futures Trading Commission
932:Weisman, Jonathan (April 16, 2015).
707:, enacted July 2, 1993, codified at
573:
571:
569:
567:
494:Tucker, Todd; Wallach, Lori (2009).
482:
463:
75:
3088:Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003
2565:Darfur Peace and Accountability Act
1720:Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula
1314:Trade Promotion Authority Annotated
1212:
725:U.S. International Trade Commission
356:United States free trade agreements
337:PeruâU.S. Trade Promotion Agreement
317:AustraliaâU.S. Free Trade Agreement
313:U.S.âSingapore Free Trade Agreement
235:North American Free Trade Agreement
66:North American Free Trade Agreement
13:
3240:Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004
3136:American Jobs Creation Act of 2004
2507:Dominican RepublicâCentral America
1887:Energy Policy and Conservation Act
1807:Securities Acts Amendments of 1975
1305:
1187:Lowrey, Annie (January 30, 2014).
1040:Jonathan Weisman (June 14, 2015),
701:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
681:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
652:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
590:
415:, and the TAA law is known as the
360:congressional-executive agreements
344:Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement
70:congressional-executive agreements
14:
3493:
2810:Born-Alive Infants Protection Act
2042:to help reach a consensus. âș
1864:Energy Reorganization Act of 1974
1396:to help reach a consensus. âș
1238:
1113:Danielle Haynes (June 29, 2015).
564:
329:U.S.âBahrain Free Trade Agreement
321:U.S.âMorocco Free Trade Agreement
3017:Criticism of government response
2996:Higher Education Opportunity Act
2887:President's Surveillance Program
1932:Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974
231:U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement
3413:Renewable Identification Number
3231:Forest Land Enhancement Program
3173:Credit Rating Agency Reform Act
3095:Public Service Loan Forgiveness
2873:NIST WTC Disaster Investigation
1329:, New York: Random House, 2002.
1276:
1258:
1232:
1206:
1180:
1143:
1129:
1106:
1091:Steven Dennis (June 17, 2015).
1084:
1007:
984:
959:
925:
906:
880:
807:
794:
776:
769:, "Archer Slow on Fast Track,"
760:
740:
717:
309:U.S.âChile Free Trade Agreement
37:trade promotion authority (TPA)
3385:Diesel Emissions Reduction Act
3305:SAFE Transportation Equity Act
3268:Pension Protection Act of 2006
3102:Unborn Victims of Violence Act
3065:Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act
2987:Election Assistance Commission
2894:Terrorist Surveillance Program
2803:Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
2298:State funeral of Ronald Reagan
1376:Congressional Research Service
1341:Congressional Research Service
784:"George W. Bush on Free Trade"
689:
668:
645:Trade Agreements Act of 1979,
639:
613:
600:Congressional Research Service
584:
539:
514:
448:, who was chairman of Obama's
333:U.S.âOman Free Trade Agreement
249:, transitioning GATT into the
174:Principal objectives include:
169:Congressional Research Service
33:President of the United States
1:
3289:Troubled Asset Relief Program
3180:Economic Stimulus Act of 2008
2908:Homeland Security Act of 2002
1878:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1014:Susan Davis (June 18, 2015).
626:Cornell University ILR School
476:
2950:Terrorist Screening Database
2901:NSA warrantless surveillance
2748:H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004
2593:Vision for Space Exploration
2305:State funeral of Gerald Ford
2076:Presidency of George W. Bush
2035:Presidency of George W. Bush
1752:Home Mortgage Disclosure Act
1644:Equal Credit Opportunity Act
1322:, 2007. Senate print 110â10.
991:Ted Barrett (May 22, 2015).
922:. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
450:Council of Economic Advisers
366:TPP and 2015 reauthorization
255:Uruguay Round Agreements Act
7:
2971:FISA Amendments Act of 2008
2964:Protect America Act of 2007
2755:L-1 Visa Reform Act of 2004
1908:Strategic Petroleum Reserve
1665:Federal Election Commission
1169:, Bloomberg, April 19, 2015
408:Trade Adjustment Assistance
227:U.S.-Israel Free Trade Area
10:
3498:
3392:Healthy Forests Initiative
3033:Medicare Modernization Act
2943:Terrorist Screening Center
2838:Rescue and recovery effort
2674:August 2001 daily briefing
2291:Presidential proclamations
1939:Forestry Incentive Program
1541:Presidential Proclamations
1320:Government Printing Office
427:Political views on the TPA
137:U.S. Const., art I, sec. 7
3438:
3348:Clean Boating Act of 2008
3335:
3187:Energy Policy Act of 2005
3125:
3056:Highly qualified teachers
2778:
2472:Trade promotion authority
2417:
2332:Joint session of Congress
2323:
2092:
2083:
1999:
1967:Maximum contaminant level
1919:
1853:
1830:Tax Reduction Act of 1975
1697:
1628:
1573:
1437:
1430:Presidency of Gerald Ford
1389:Presidency of Gerald Ford
551:constitution.congress.gov
384:Trans-Pacific Partnership
3445:â Clinton administration
3049:No Child Left Behind Act
2762:Secure Fence Act of 2006
2219:Supreme Court candidates
2184:Legislation and programs
2040:templates for discussion
1518:Supreme Court candidates
1394:templates for discussion
272:in New York, founded by
251:World Trade Organization
141:Senate Finance Committee
31:is the authority of the
3406:Renewable Fuel Standard
2660:Pre-attack intelligence
2015:Carter administration â
1960:Safe Drinking Water Act
1706:Fair Credit Billing Act
1468:Assassination attempts
1245:The Heritage Foundation
270:Council of the Americas
264:Presidential candidate
96:Congressional procedure
3454:Obama administration â
3362:Clear Skies Initiative
2006:â Nixon administration
1837:Tax Reform Act of 1976
1821:National Market System
1674:Rockefeller Commission
971:July 21, 2016, at the
375:
163:Negotiating objectives
3376:Executive Order 13432
3355:Climate change policy
2980:Help America Vote Act
2741:Executive Order 13470
2734:Executive Order 13355
2212:Judicial appointments
1612:Executive Order 11905
1511:Judicial appointments
1311:Dauster, William G.
442:Randall L. Stephenson
373:
209:Enactment and history
2646:Communication issues
2639:September 11 attacks
2355:Mission Accomplished
1976:MagnusonâStevens Act
1798:Fast track authority
1325:Rockefeller, David.
358:were implemented as
25:fast track authority
3109:2006 VRA Amendments
2449:by Condoleezza Rice
2435:International trips
2270:Impeachment efforts
1681:1975 VRA Amendments
1584:International trips
1332:Smith, Carolyn C.
1289:The Huffington Post
919:The Huffington Post
894:. February 29, 2012
788:www.ontheissues.org
771:Journal of Commerce
440:executive chairman
378:In early 2012, the
247:Marrakech Agreement
143:has jurisdiction. (
3312:SarbanesâOxley Act
3275:Public Law 110-343
2572:Mexico City policy
1844:Whip Inflation Now
1557:Halloween Massacre
1374:Washington, D.C.:
1360:Washington, D.C.:
1339:Washington, D.C.:
1318:Washington, D.C.:
1193:The New York Times
1072:. Associated Press
1046:The New York Times
978:The New York Times
938:The New York Times
432:Arguments in favor
376:
189:tariff-rate quotas
157:§ 2191(f)-(g)
3464:
3463:
3010:Hurricane Katrina
2653:Military response
2632:USA Freedom Corps
2558:2002 steel tariff
2465:Trade Act of 2002
2413:
2412:
2404:2008 SOTU Address
2397:2007 SOTU Address
2390:2006 SOTU Address
2383:2005 SOTU Address
2376:2004 SOTU Address
2369:2003 SOTU Address
2362:2002 SOTU Address
2277:Executive actions
2198:Email controversy
2025:
2024:
1791:Trade Act of 1974
1564:Carter transition
1504:1977 SOTU Address
1497:1976 SOTU Address
1490:1975 SOTU Address
591:Cooper, William.
464:Arguments against
285:Trade Act of 2002
274:David Rockefeller
215:Trade Act of 1974
167:According to the
149:§ 2191(e)(2)
126:§ 2191(e)(1)
110:§ 2191(c)(1)
76:Content and scope
68:as well as other
45:Trade Act of 2002
41:Trade Act of 1974
3489:
3457:
3448:
3431:
3424:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3394:
3387:
3378:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3350:
3328:
3321:
3314:
3307:
3300:
3291:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3233:
3226:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3189:
3182:
3175:
3168:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3118:
3111:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3058:
3051:
3042:
3035:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2989:
2982:
2973:
2966:
2959:
2952:
2945:
2938:
2931:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2840:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2676:
2669:
2662:
2655:
2648:
2641:
2634:
2627:
2618:
2611:
2604:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2551:
2544:
2537:
2530:
2523:
2516:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2474:
2467:
2460:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2406:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2357:
2350:
2343:
2335:
2316:
2314:Obama transition
2307:
2300:
2293:
2286:
2284:Executive orders
2279:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2249:
2242:
2235:
2228:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2205:Shoeing incident
2200:
2193:
2186:
2177:
2170:
2163:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2112:2nd inauguration
2107:
2105:1st inauguration
2100:
2090:
2089:
2069:
2062:
2055:
2046:
2045:
2018:
2009:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1934:
1910:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1880:
1873:
1866:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1823:
1816:
1809:
1800:
1793:
1784:
1777:
1775:Net capital rule
1768:
1761:
1754:
1745:
1738:
1736:CFTC Act of 1974
1731:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1690:
1683:
1676:
1667:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1639:
1621:
1614:
1607:
1600:
1598:Helsinki Accords
1593:
1586:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1543:
1536:
1534:Executive Orders
1527:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1499:
1492:
1483:
1476:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1423:
1416:
1409:
1400:
1399:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1153:. June 29, 2015.
1147:
1141:
1140:
1139:. June 29, 2015.
1133:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1037:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1002:
1000:
988:
982:
963:
957:
956:
954:
952:
929:
923:
910:
904:
903:
901:
899:
884:
878:
877:
875:
873:
868:
860:
849:
848:
837:
831:
830:
828:
826:
811:
805:
804:, 2002, (p.438).
798:
792:
791:
780:
774:
767:Steve Charnovitz
764:
758:
757:
744:
738:
737:
735:
721:
715:
702:
698:
693:
687:
682:
678:
672:
666:
653:
649:
643:
637:
636:
634:
632:
617:
611:
610:
608:
606:
597:
588:
582:
575:
562:
561:
559:
557:
543:
537:
536:
518:
512:
511:
509:
507:
502:on July 31, 2012
491:
305:§ 3803â3805
297:vote of 64 to 34
223:§ 2191â2194
102:majority leaders
29:trade agreements
3497:
3496:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3467:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3451:
3442:
3434:
3427:
3420:
3411:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3383:
3374:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3346:
3338:
3331:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3296:
3287:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3229:
3222:
3213:
3206:
3199:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3155:
3148:
3141:
3134:
3127:Economic policy
3121:
3114:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3054:
3047:
3040:Medicare Part D
3038:
3031:
3024:Disaster relief
3022:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2994:
2985:
2978:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2927:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2845:9/11 Commission
2843:
2836:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2780:Domestic policy
2774:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2732:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2697:Afghanistan War
2695:
2688:
2681:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2623:
2616:Slovakia summit
2614:
2609:Slovenia summit
2607:
2600:
2591:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2547:
2540:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2512:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2477:
2470:
2463:
2456:
2447:
2442:by Colin Powell
2440:
2433:
2426:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2353:
2346:
2338:
2330:
2319:
2312:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2261:
2254:
2245:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2124:
2117:
2110:
2103:
2096:
2079:
2073:
2043:
2026:
2021:
2012:
2003:
1995:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1965:
1958:
1951:
1944:
1937:
1930:
1922:
1915:
1906:
1899:
1892:
1885:
1876:
1869:
1862:
1849:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1796:
1789:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1757:
1750:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1718:
1711:
1704:
1698:Economic policy
1693:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1663:
1656:
1649:
1642:
1637:Cannabis policy
1635:
1629:Domestic policy
1624:
1617:
1610:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1582:
1569:
1562:
1555:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1523:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1488:
1479:
1472:
1467:
1460:
1453:
1446:
1433:
1427:
1397:
1308:
1306:Further reading
1303:
1293:
1291:
1281:
1277:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1249:
1247:
1237:
1233:
1223:
1221:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1195:
1185:
1181:
1172:
1170:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1111:
1107:
1097:
1095:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1050:
1048:
1038:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1012:
1008:
998:
996:
989:
985:
973:Wayback Machine
964:
960:
950:
948:
930:
926:
911:
907:
897:
895:
886:
885:
881:
871:
869:
866:
862:
861:
852:
839:
838:
834:
824:
822:
821:on July 3, 2007
813:
812:
808:
799:
795:
782:
781:
777:
773:, June 4, 1997.
765:
761:
745:
741:
733:
727:(August 2003).
722:
718:
700:
694:
690:
680:
673:
669:
651:
644:
640:
630:
628:
618:
614:
604:
602:
595:
589:
585:
576:
565:
555:
553:
545:
544:
540:
533:
519:
515:
505:
503:
492:
483:
479:
466:
458:Edwin Meese III
434:
429:
368:
289:215 to 212 vote
211:
194:Parmesan cheese
165:
98:
78:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3495:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3449:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3425:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3402:
3395:
3388:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3372:
3365:
3351:
3343:
3341:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3285:
3271:
3264:
3257:
3250:
3243:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3215:Red Flags Rule
3211:
3197:
3190:
3183:
3176:
3169:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3153:
3139:
3131:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3068:
3061:
3060:
3059:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3020:
3006:
2999:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2939:
2932:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2827:
2820:
2813:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2784:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2751:
2744:
2737:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2725:2008 Iraq SOFA
2721:
2718:financial cost
2714:
2707:
2704:2002 Iraq AUMF
2700:
2693:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2649:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2612:
2602:Russia summits
2598:
2597:
2596:
2582:
2575:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2461:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2431:
2423:
2421:
2419:Foreign policy
2415:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2365:
2358:
2351:
2344:
2336:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2273:
2266:
2259:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2243:
2236:
2229:
2222:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2157:
2150:
2143:
2136:
2129:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2049:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2010:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1927:
1925:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1894:CAFE standards
1883:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1859:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1840:
1833:
1826:
1825:
1824:
1817:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1755:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1732:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1709:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1684:
1677:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1654:
1647:
1640:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1579:
1577:
1575:Foreign policy
1571:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1560:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1537:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1521:
1507:
1500:
1493:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1477:
1465:
1458:
1451:
1443:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1411:
1403:
1380:
1379:
1365:
1362:Public Citizen
1344:
1330:
1323:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1275:
1270:Public Citizen
1257:
1239:Riley, Bryan.
1231:
1213:Destler, I.M.
1205:
1179:
1156:
1142:
1128:
1105:
1083:
1057:
1029:
1006:
983:
958:
924:
905:
879:
850:
832:
806:
793:
775:
759:
756:. p. 225.
739:
716:
713:§ 2902(e)
709:19 U.S.C.
688:
667:
638:
612:
583:
581:on 2021-01-14.
563:
538:
532:978-0881323627
531:
513:
480:
478:
475:
465:
462:
433:
430:
428:
425:
367:
364:
301:19 U.S.C.
287:narrowly by a
266:George W. Bush
219:19 U.S.C.
210:
207:
202:
201:
197:
184:
180:
164:
161:
153:19 U.S.C.
145:19 U.S.C.
122:19 U.S.C.
118:§ 2191(d)
114:19 U.S.C.
106:19 U.S.C.
97:
94:
77:
74:
27:for brokering
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3494:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3474:
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3337:Environmental
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3143:Bush tax cuts
3140:
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2428:Bush Doctrine
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2247:controversies
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2233:Harriet Miers
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2017:
2016:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1928:
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1921:Environmental
1918:
1909:
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1855:Energy policy
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1525:controversies
1522:
1519:
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1487:
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1481:San Francisco
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750:(June 2001).
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436:According to
424:
420:
418:
414:
409:
405:
401:
400:George Miller
397:
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381:
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244:
240:
239:Uruguay Round
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
217:, § 151â154 (
216:
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185:
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3443:
2667:Phoenix Memo
2586:Space policy
2471:
2348:Axis of evil
2240:Samuel Alito
2226:John Roberts
2033:
2013:
2004:
1797:
1548:Nixon pardon
1448:Inauguration
1387:
1369:
1355:
1351:Lori Wallach
1334:
1326:
1313:
1292:. Retrieved
1288:
1278:
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1248:. Retrieved
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1192:
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1108:
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1045:
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1009:
997:. Retrieved
986:
976:
966:Senate votes
961:
949:. Retrieved
937:
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908:
896:. Retrieved
891:
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870:. Retrieved
844:
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823:. Retrieved
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625:
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377:
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130:
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49:Barack Obama
36:
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22:
20:
18:
3482:Trade blocs
2957:Real ID Act
2929:No Fly List
2880:Patriot Act
2796:Amber alert
2549:South Korea
2078:(2001â2009)
2028:âč The
1462:Wilson desk
1432:(1974â1977)
1382:âč The
1347:Todd Tucker
1018:. USA Today
872:February 4,
556:January 14,
283:passed the
183:providers."
3471:Categories
2098:Transition
1474:Sacramento
658:, 93
477:References
350:, and the
335:, and the
262:Republican
83:Article II
62:filibuster
2859:criticism
2690:2001 AUMF
2542:Singapore
2479:Australia
1173:August 8,
1051:August 8,
951:April 17,
946:0362-4331
845:Bloomberg
471:Ron Wyden
241:, of the
2711:Iraq War
2500:Colombia
2324:Speeches
2119:Timeline
2085:Timeline
2030:template
1439:Timeline
1384:template
1294:July 29,
1250:July 29,
1224:July 29,
1198:July 29,
1121:June 29,
1098:June 29,
1076:June 26,
1070:CBS News
1022:June 29,
999:June 29,
969:Archived
898:June 30,
825:June 30,
631:July 31,
605:July 30,
506:June 30,
438:AT&T
229:and the
179:access."
57:Congress
2514:Morocco
2486:Bahrain
2263:Cabinet
2256:Pardons
2175:2008â09
2032:below (
1386:below (
1378:, 2011.
1364:, 2009.
1343:, 2006.
1327:Memoirs
892:Reuters
802:Memoirs
697:Pub. L.
685:100â418
677:Pub. L.
648:Pub. L.
133:tariffs
3339:policy
2852:report
2579:PEPFAR
2528:Panama
2342:(2001)
2334:(2001)
1923:policy
1782:NRSROs
944:
711:
705:103â49
703:
683:
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398:) and
346:, the
331:, the
327:, the
323:, the
319:, the
315:, the
311:, the
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293:Senate
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147:
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116:
108:
3079:award
2493:Chile
1759:ERISA
1117:. UPI
995:. CNN
867:(PDF)
734:(PDF)
660:Stat.
656:96â39
596:(PDF)
380:Obama
295:by a
281:House
2535:Peru
2521:Oman
2168:2007
2161:2006
2154:2005
2147:2004
2140:2003
2133:2002
2126:2001
1349:and
1296:2014
1252:2014
1226:2014
1200:2014
1175:2015
1123:2015
1100:2015
1078:2015
1053:2015
1024:2015
1001:2015
953:2015
942:ISSN
900:2012
874:2013
827:2007
633:2014
607:2014
558:2021
527:ISBN
508:2012
23:The
664:144
402:(D-
128:.)
3473::
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394:-
392:D
390:(
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