127:
141:
20:
113:
34:
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797:
1656:
1668:
157:
is another common way to form epitokes. For species that use this method, the atoke undergoes physiological and morphological modifications as it transforms into the epitoke. Typically, male worms undergo a more pronounced transformation from atoke to epitoke. Modifications may include an increase in
103:
to produce buds from its posterior end. Each bud develops into an epitoke and, once fully formed, will then break off from the atoke and become free-swimming. Many genetically identical epitokes are formed in this way, thus allowing a higher chance of finding a mate of the same species and subsequent
182:), the development of large eyes, and the musculature may even change to perform swimming movements instead of feeding movements. The majority of species that undergo epigamy are unable to revert to the atoke form and die after reproducing.
210:
are yellowish-brown, while the female epitokes are yellow because of the eggs they contain, and the male epitokes are white in the front part due to sperm and red in the hind part due to blood vessels (see pictures).
76:(lives on the bottom), epitokes are specialized for swimming as well as reproducing. The primary benefit to epitoky is increased chances of finding other members of the same species for reproduction.
185:
Male and female epitokes are produced and swim to the water's surface only at certain times of the year and are often synchronized with moon cycles in a behavior called
189:. Swarming brings individuals of the same species together so that there is an increased rate of fertilization. Some polychaete species have been found to use
833:
1413:
1460:
1425:
1124:
878:
718:
502:
418:
193:, presumably to compact and maintain swarms. Both schizogamous and epigamous epitokes are non-feeding individuals that die once
236:
826:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1470:
331:
306:
1700:
868:
773:
588:
819:
1611:
1328:
1323:
1139:
696:
1512:
1705:
1095:
753:
104:
passing of genes to the next generation. Atokes may then live through another season to form more epitokes.
1448:
768:
568:
551:
1554:
1672:
1443:
1373:
1033:
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411:
1633:
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546:
1601:
971:
1418:
1403:
1280:
536:
1485:
1340:
1186:
477:
1380:
1147:
1475:
850:
842:
758:
255:
Chatelain, Étienne Hébert; Breton, Sophie; Lemieux, Hélène; Blier, Pierre U. (2008). "Epitoky in
204:
marine worms, because epitokes may look very different than atokes. For instance, the atokes of
1435:
1080:
1058:
991:
981:
976:
674:
669:
465:
460:
404:
1495:
1586:
1129:
1038:
1003:
778:
206:
146:
132:
118:
1596:
1502:
1172:
1225:
1157:
1018:
944:
713:
100:
150:: Its frontal part is filled with white sperm, while its rear is red due to blood vessels.
8:
1571:
1559:
1023:
1008:
900:
890:
873:
863:
610:
578:
69:
1549:
1544:
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895:
723:
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375:
348:
19:
1152:
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1065:
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728:
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327:
302:
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1507:
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126:
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1119:
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964:
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563:
370:
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276:
1315:
1250:
1208:
140:
1628:
1616:
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635:
190:
65:
38:
1300:
1177:
1162:
1684:
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519:
280:
1623:
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1350:
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1694:
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1230:
1043:
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733:
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541:
507:
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112:
33:
1028:
949:
800:
652:
529:
524:
470:
384:
365:
1606:
1527:
1480:
1305:
1198:
811:
1013:
932:
922:
917:
1335:
349:"The normal development of Platynereis dumerilii (Nereididae, Annelida)"
1295:
937:
201:
50:
26:
1679:
1537:
1167:
1235:
1070:
640:
615:
605:
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159:
1408:
1395:
1213:
1655:
657:
558:
175:
1517:
1048:
625:
598:
194:
171:
167:
73:
62:
1667:
1075:
647:
620:
453:
163:
23:
299:
Reproductive
Strategies and Developmental Patterns in Annelids
57:) is modified or transformed into a sexually mature worm (the
347:
Fischer, Antje HL; Henrich, Thorsten; Arendt, Detlev (2010).
200:
In the past, epitokes were thought to be a separate group of
179:
448:
254:
322:
Karleskint, George; Turner, Richard; Small, James (2009).
427:
231:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 302–304.
267:(Polychaeta: Nereididae): A story about sex and death".
29:
budding epitokes for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
297:
Dorresteijn, Adriaan W.C.; Westheide, Wilfried (2013).
396:
1644:
321:
346:
296:
79:There are two methods in which epitoky can occur:
53:marine worms wherein a sexually immature worm (the
1692:
72:. Unlike the immature form, which is typically
827:
412:
324:Introduction to Marine Biology, Third Edition
292:
290:
229:Biology of the Invertebrates, Seventh Edition
170:of the gut, filling of the body cavity with
49:is a process that occurs in many species of
841:
250:
248:
834:
820:
419:
405:
287:
374:
364:
301:. Springer Science & Business Media.
269:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B
16:Sexual maturation process in marine worms
245:
226:
139:
125:
111:
32:
18:
1693:
136:: Its body is filled with yellow eggs.
815:
400:
1359:Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
515:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
197:have been released into the water.
162:and the development of paddle-like
42:(common clam worm) in epitoky stage
13:
14:
1717:
326:. Cengage Learning. p. 237.
1678:
1666:
1654:
796:
795:
589:Evolution of sexual reproduction
166:for enhanced swimming ability,
697:Sexual reproduction in animals
340:
315:
220:
1:
214:
90:
569:Sex as a biological variable
552:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7:
1034:semelparity and iteroparity
10:
1722:
707:Penile-vaginal intercourse
547:Sequential hermaphroditism
281:10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.09.006
107:
1434:
1394:
1349:
1314:
1271:
1138:
1125:Non-reproductive behavior
849:
791:
744:
577:
537:Testis-determining factor
434:
227:Pechenik, Jan I. (2015).
478:Sex-determination system
95:Many species go through
1701:Reproduction in animals
843:Animal sexual behaviour
426:
122:: It is yellowish-brown
99:, where the atoke uses
992:traumatic insemination
461:Sexual differentiation
366:10.1186/1742-9994-7-31
151:
137:
123:
43:
30:
1120:Interspecies breeding
503:Temperature-dependent
207:Platynereis dumerilii
147:Platynereis dumerilii
143:
133:Platynereis dumerilii
129:
119:Platynereis dumerilii
115:
36:
22:
1706:Asexual reproduction
1673:evolutionary biology
1634:Short-beaked echidna
1374:side-blotched lizard
891:sexual ornamentation
353:Frontiers in Zoology
101:asexual reproduction
1461:Homosexual behavior
1426:Homosexual behavior
1281:Spawning strategies
1081:Bateman's principle
901:sexy son hypothesis
879:hormonal motivation
874:reproductive system
864:Sexual reproduction
719:Hormonal motivation
692:Fungal reproduction
611:Reproductive system
70:sexual reproduction
1409:Breeding behaviour
1130:Fisher's principle
955:sexual intercourse
896:handicap principle
724:Human reproduction
702:Sexual intercourse
687:Plant reproduction
152:
138:
130:Female epitoke of
124:
44:
31:
1642:
1641:
1456:Lordosis behavior
1336:Frog reproduction
1286:Polyandry in fish
1066:Sexual dimorphism
987:sperm competition
906:Fisherian runaway
886:Courtship display
809:
808:
729:Lordosis behavior
444:Sexual dimorphism
275:(2008): 202–208.
238:978-0-07-352418-4
1713:
1683:
1682:
1671:
1670:
1659:
1658:
1650:
1612:ringtailed lemur
1471:African wild dog
1444:Sexual selection
1404:Sexual selection
1324:Sexual selection
965:pseudocopulation
859:Sexual selection
836:
829:
822:
813:
812:
799:
798:
759:Animal sexuality
682:Sexual selection
421:
414:
407:
398:
397:
389:
388:
378:
368:
344:
338:
337:
319:
313:
312:
294:
285:
284:
252:
243:
242:
224:
144:Male epitoke of
61:). Epitokes are
1721:
1720:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1617:sexual swelling
1513:European badger
1430:
1390:
1345:
1310:
1267:
1134:
1103:Sexual conflict
1044:hermaphroditism
845:
840:
810:
805:
787:
774:Differentiation
764:Human sexuality
754:Plant sexuality
740:
636:Spermatogenesis
580:
573:
436:
430:
425:
394:
392:
345:
341:
334:
320:
316:
309:
295:
288:
253:
246:
239:
225:
221:
217:
191:bioluminescence
110:
93:
39:Alitta succinea
17:
12:
11:
5:
1719:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1688:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1640:
1639:
1637:
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1631:
1626:
1621:
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1614:
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1599:
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1216:
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1206:
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1184:
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1170:
1165:
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1127:
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1117:
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1093:
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1078:
1073:
1063:
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1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1001:
1000:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
969:
968:
967:
962:
957:
952:
942:
941:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
913:Mating systems
910:
909:
908:
903:
898:
893:
883:
882:
881:
876:
871:
861:
855:
853:
847:
846:
839:
838:
831:
824:
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803:
792:
789:
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781:
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771:
756:
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572:
571:
566:
561:
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555:
554:
549:
539:
534:
533:
532:
527:
520:Sex chromosome
517:
512:
511:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
475:
474:
473:
468:
458:
457:
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409:
401:
391:
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339:
332:
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286:
244:
237:
218:
216:
213:
109:
106:
92:
89:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1718:
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1702:
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1600:
1598:
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1590:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1555:Spotted hyena
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1497:
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1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
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1469:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
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1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1262:
1261:penis fencing
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1231:apophallation
1229:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1140:Invertebrates
1137:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1039:opportunistic
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1005:
1002:
998:
997:penile spines
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
974:
973:
972:Fertilisation
970:
966:
963:
961:
960:Pelvic thrust
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
947:
946:
943:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
928:mate guarding
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
915:
914:
911:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
888:
887:
884:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
866:
865:
862:
860:
857:
856:
854:
852:
848:
844:
837:
832:
830:
825:
823:
818:
817:
814:
802:
794:
793:
790:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
766:
765:
762:
761:
760:
757:
755:
752:
751:
749:
747:
743:
735:
734:Pelvic thrust
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
708:
705:
704:
703:
700:
699:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
676:
673:
671:
668:
667:
666:
665:Fertilization
663:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
649:
646:
642:
639:
637:
634:
633:
632:
631:Gametogenesis
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
600:
597:
595:
592:
591:
590:
587:
586:
584:
582:
576:
570:
567:
565:
564:parasexuality
562:
560:
557:
553:
550:
548:
545:
544:
543:
542:Hermaphrodite
540:
538:
535:
531:
528:
526:
523:
522:
521:
518:
516:
513:
509:
508:Haplodiploidy
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
480:
479:
476:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
462:
459:
455:
452:
450:
447:
446:
445:
442:
441:
439:
433:
429:
422:
417:
415:
410:
408:
403:
402:
399:
395:
386:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
358:
354:
350:
343:
335:
333:9780495561972
329:
325:
318:
310:
308:9789401728874
304:
300:
293:
291:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
251:
249:
240:
234:
230:
223:
219:
212:
209:
208:
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
156:
149:
148:
142:
135:
134:
128:
121:
120:
114:
105:
102:
98:
88:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
40:
35:
28:
25:
21:
1602:olive baboon
1550:Hippopotamus
1538:domestic cat
1486:domestic dog
1414:golden eagle
1381:Crocodilians
1255:
1029:polygynandry
950:cloacal kiss
653:spermatozoon
581:reproduction
530:Y chromosome
525:X chromosome
471:Virilization
466:Feminization
393:
356:
352:
342:
323:
317:
298:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
228:
222:
205:
199:
186:
184:
154:
153:
145:
131:
117:
96:
94:
84:
80:
78:
58:
54:
46:
45:
37:
1341:Salamanders
1221:Echinoderms
1204:sea anemone
1187:Cephalopods
1091:cannibalism
1014:promiscuity
933:mating plug
923:mating call
918:mate choice
68:capable of
1695:Categories
1316:Amphibians
1296:Salmon run
1226:Gastropods
1148:Arthropods
1113:intralocus
1108:interlocus
1086:bimaturism
945:Copulation
938:lek mating
714:Copulation
435:Biological
215:References
202:polychaete
97:schizogamy
91:Schizogamy
81:schizogamy
51:polychaete
27:polychaete
1583:Primates
1572:Pinnipeds
1560:Marsupial
1491:gray wolf
1251:earthworm
1236:love dart
1209:jellyfish
1178:butterfly
1071:anisogamy
1059:synchrony
1049:cuckoldry
1019:polyandry
869:evolution
769:Mechanics
746:Sexuality
641:Oogenesis
616:Sex organ
606:Germ cell
594:Anisogamy
359:(1): 31.
160:parapodia
116:Atoke of
1607:mandrill
1565:kangaroo
1508:Elephant
1419:seabirds
1351:Reptiles
1301:Seahorse
1199:Cnidaria
1163:scorpion
1096:coercion
1054:seasonal
1024:polygyny
1009:monogamy
982:external
977:internal
801:Category
779:Activity
675:Internal
670:External
559:Intersex
385:21192805
261:Neanthes
187:swarming
158:size of
1685:Science
1661:Biology
1647:Portals
1624:Raccoon
1597:gorilla
1533:cheetah
1518:Felidae
1503:Dolphin
1496:red fox
1436:Mammals
1386:Tuatara
1364:lizards
1256:epitoky
1192:octopus
851:General
626:Meiosis
599:Isogamy
376:3027123
195:gametes
172:gametes
168:atrophy
164:chaetae
155:Epigamy
108:Epigamy
85:epigamy
74:benthic
63:pelagic
59:epitoke
47:Epitoky
1629:Rodent
1592:bonobo
1577:walrus
1476:coyote
1369:snakes
1306:Sharks
1247:Worms
1243:Sponge
1173:insect
1168:beetle
1158:spider
1076:oogamy
648:Gamete
621:Mating
579:Sexual
454:Female
383:
373:
330:
305:
265:virens
257:Nereis
235:
66:morphs
24:Syllid
1587:human
1545:Fossa
1528:tiger
1481:dingo
1466:Canid
1396:Birds
1329:frogs
1214:coral
1004:Modes
437:terms
180:sperm
55:atoke
1523:lion
1291:Eels
1273:Fish
1153:crab
658:ovum
449:Male
381:PMID
328:ISBN
303:ISBN
233:ISBN
176:eggs
83:and
1449:rut
428:Sex
371:PMC
361:doi
277:doi
273:149
178:or
1697::
498:ZO
493:XO
488:ZW
483:XY
379:.
369:.
355:.
351:.
289:^
271:.
263:)
247:^
87:.
1649::
835:e
828:t
821:v
420:e
413:t
406:v
387:.
363::
357:7
336:.
311:.
283:.
279::
259:(
241:.
174:(
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