138:
152:
31:
124:
45:
1691:
808:
1667:
1679:
168:
is another common way to form epitokes. For species that use this method, the atoke undergoes physiological and morphological modifications as it transforms into the epitoke. Typically, male worms undergo a more pronounced transformation from atoke to epitoke. Modifications may include an increase in
114:
to produce buds from its posterior end. Each bud develops into an epitoke and, once fully formed, will then break off from the atoke and become free-swimming. Many genetically identical epitokes are formed in this way, thus allowing a higher chance of finding a mate of the same species and subsequent
193:), the development of large eyes, and the musculature may even change to perform swimming movements instead of feeding movements. The majority of species that undergo epigamy are unable to revert to the atoke form and die after reproducing.
221:
are yellowish-brown, while the female epitokes are yellow because of the eggs they contain, and the male epitokes are white in the front part due to sperm and red in the hind part due to blood vessels (see pictures).
87:(lives on the bottom), epitokes are specialized for swimming as well as reproducing. The primary benefit to epitoky is increased chances of finding other members of the same species for reproduction.
196:
Male and female epitokes are produced and swim to the water's surface only at certain times of the year and are often synchronized with moon cycles in a behavior called
200:. Swarming brings individuals of the same species together so that there is an increased rate of fertilization. Some polychaete species have been found to use
844:
1424:
1471:
1436:
1135:
889:
729:
513:
429:
204:, presumably to compact and maintain swarms. Both schizogamous and epigamous epitokes are non-feeding individuals that die once
247:
837:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1481:
342:
317:
1711:
879:
784:
599:
830:
1622:
1339:
1334:
1150:
707:
1523:
1716:
1106:
764:
115:
passing of genes to the next generation. Atokes may then live through another season to form more epitokes.
1459:
779:
579:
562:
1565:
1683:
1454:
1384:
1044:
508:
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1644:
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982:
1429:
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547:
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1351:
1197:
488:
1391:
1158:
1486:
861:
853:
769:
266:
Chatelain, Étienne Hébert; Breton, Sophie; Lemieux, Hélène; Blier, Pierre U. (2008). "Epitoky in
17:
215:
marine worms, because epitokes may look very different than atokes. For instance, the atokes of
1446:
1091:
1069:
1002:
992:
987:
685:
680:
476:
471:
415:
1506:
1597:
1140:
1049:
1014:
789:
217:
157:
143:
129:
1607:
1513:
1183:
1236:
1168:
1029:
955:
724:
111:
161:: Its frontal part is filled with white sperm, while its rear is red due to blood vessels.
8:
1582:
1570:
1034:
1019:
911:
901:
884:
874:
621:
589:
80:
1560:
1555:
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1533:
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965:
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734:
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697:
386:
359:
30:
1163:
1602:
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916:
896:
739:
525:
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338:
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1518:
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1214:
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975:
869:
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574:
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1326:
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1219:
151:
1639:
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1113:
774:
756:
702:
646:
201:
76:
49:
1311:
1188:
1173:
1695:
1671:
530:
291:
1634:
1543:
1476:
1396:
1361:
1202:
1705:
1271:
1241:
1054:
1007:
970:
938:
923:
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641:
552:
518:
1587:
1253:
123:
44:
1039:
960:
811:
663:
540:
535:
481:
395:
376:
1617:
1538:
1491:
1316:
1209:
822:
1024:
943:
933:
928:
1346:
360:"The normal development of Platynereis dumerilii (Nereididae, Annelida)"
1306:
948:
212:
61:
37:
1690:
1548:
1178:
1246:
1081:
651:
626:
616:
604:
170:
1419:
1406:
1224:
1666:
668:
569:
186:
1528:
1059:
636:
609:
205:
182:
178:
84:
73:
1678:
1086:
658:
631:
464:
174:
34:
310:
Reproductive
Strategies and Developmental Patterns in Annelids
68:) is modified or transformed into a sexually mature worm (the
358:
Fischer, Antje HL; Henrich, Thorsten; Arendt, Detlev (2010).
211:
In the past, epitokes were thought to be a separate group of
190:
459:
265:
333:
Karleskint, George; Turner, Richard; Small, James (2009).
438:
242:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 302–304.
278:(Polychaeta: Nereididae): A story about sex and death".
40:
budding epitokes for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
308:
Dorresteijn, Adriaan W.C.; Westheide, Wilfried (2013).
407:
1655:
332:
357:
307:
90:There are two methods in which epitoky can occur:
64:marine worms wherein a sexually immature worm (the
1703:
83:. Unlike the immature form, which is typically
838:
423:
335:Introduction to Marine Biology, Third Edition
303:
301:
240:Biology of the Invertebrates, Seventh Edition
181:of the gut, filling of the body cavity with
60:is a process that occurs in many species of
852:
261:
259:
845:
831:
430:
416:
298:
385:
375:
312:. Springer Science & Business Media.
280:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B
27:Sexual maturation process in marine worms
256:
237:
150:
136:
122:
43:
29:
14:
1704:
147:: Its body is filled with yellow eggs.
826:
411:
1370:Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
526:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
208:have been released into the water.
173:and the development of paddle-like
53:(common clam worm) in epitoky stage
24:
25:
1728:
337:. Cengage Learning. p. 237.
1689:
1677:
1665:
807:
806:
600:Evolution of sexual reproduction
177:for enhanced swimming ability,
708:Sexual reproduction in animals
351:
326:
231:
13:
1:
225:
101:
580:Sex as a biological variable
563:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7:
1045:semelparity and iteroparity
10:
1733:
718:Penile-vaginal intercourse
558:Sequential hermaphroditism
292:10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.09.006
118:
1445:
1405:
1360:
1325:
1282:
1149:
1136:Non-reproductive behavior
860:
802:
755:
588:
548:Testis-determining factor
445:
238:Pechenik, Jan I. (2015).
489:Sex-determination system
106:Many species go through
1712:Reproduction in animals
854:Animal sexual behaviour
437:
133:: It is yellowish-brown
110:, where the atoke uses
1003:traumatic insemination
472:Sexual differentiation
377:10.1186/1742-9994-7-31
162:
148:
134:
54:
41:
1131:Interspecies breeding
514:Temperature-dependent
218:Platynereis dumerilii
158:Platynereis dumerilii
154:
144:Platynereis dumerilii
140:
130:Platynereis dumerilii
126:
47:
33:
1717:Asexual reproduction
1684:evolutionary biology
1645:Short-beaked echidna
1385:side-blotched lizard
902:sexual ornamentation
364:Frontiers in Zoology
112:asexual reproduction
1472:Homosexual behavior
1437:Homosexual behavior
1292:Spawning strategies
1092:Bateman's principle
912:sexy son hypothesis
890:hormonal motivation
885:reproductive system
875:Sexual reproduction
730:Hormonal motivation
703:Fungal reproduction
622:Reproductive system
81:sexual reproduction
1420:Breeding behaviour
1141:Fisher's principle
966:sexual intercourse
907:handicap principle
735:Human reproduction
713:Sexual intercourse
698:Plant reproduction
163:
149:
141:Female epitoke of
135:
55:
42:
1653:
1652:
1467:Lordosis behavior
1347:Frog reproduction
1297:Polyandry in fish
1077:Sexual dimorphism
998:sperm competition
917:Fisherian runaway
897:Courtship display
820:
819:
740:Lordosis behavior
455:Sexual dimorphism
286:(2008): 202–208.
249:978-0-07-352418-4
16:(Redirected from
1724:
1694:
1693:
1682:
1681:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1623:ringtailed lemur
1482:African wild dog
1455:Sexual selection
1415:Sexual selection
1335:Sexual selection
976:pseudocopulation
870:Sexual selection
847:
840:
833:
824:
823:
810:
809:
770:Animal sexuality
693:Sexual selection
432:
425:
418:
409:
408:
400:
399:
389:
379:
355:
349:
348:
330:
324:
323:
305:
296:
295:
263:
254:
253:
235:
155:Male epitoke of
72:). Epitokes are
21:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1688:
1676:
1664:
1656:
1654:
1649:
1628:sexual swelling
1524:European badger
1441:
1401:
1356:
1321:
1278:
1145:
1114:Sexual conflict
1055:hermaphroditism
856:
851:
821:
816:
798:
785:Differentiation
775:Human sexuality
765:Plant sexuality
751:
647:Spermatogenesis
591:
584:
447:
441:
436:
405:
403:
356:
352:
345:
331:
327:
320:
306:
299:
264:
257:
250:
236:
232:
228:
202:bioluminescence
121:
104:
50:Alitta succinea
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1730:
1720:
1719:
1714:
1699:
1698:
1686:
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1389:
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1366:
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1234:
1229:
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1222:
1217:
1207:
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1191:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1155:
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1143:
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1133:
1128:
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1099:
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1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
980:
979:
978:
973:
968:
963:
953:
952:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
924:Mating systems
921:
920:
919:
914:
909:
904:
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864:
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835:
827:
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583:
582:
577:
572:
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566:
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560:
550:
545:
544:
543:
538:
531:Sex chromosome
528:
523:
522:
521:
516:
511:
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501:
496:
486:
485:
484:
479:
469:
468:
467:
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451:
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434:
427:
420:
412:
402:
401:
350:
343:
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318:
297:
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229:
227:
224:
120:
117:
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100:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1729:
1718:
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1707:
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1668:
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1659:
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1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1566:Spotted hyena
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
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1527:
1525:
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1517:
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1512:
1508:
1505:
1503:
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1498:
1495:
1493:
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1483:
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1479:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1458:
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1456:
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1452:
1450:
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1438:
1435:
1431:
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1422:
1421:
1418:
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1413:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1273:
1272:penis fencing
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1242:apophallation
1240:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1151:Invertebrates
1148:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1050:opportunistic
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1008:penile spines
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
985:
984:
983:Fertilisation
981:
977:
974:
972:
971:Pelvic thrust
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
958:
957:
954:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
939:mate guarding
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
926:
925:
922:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
899:
898:
895:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
877:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
865:
863:
859:
855:
848:
843:
841:
836:
834:
829:
828:
825:
813:
805:
804:
801:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
777:
776:
773:
772:
771:
768:
766:
763:
762:
760:
758:
754:
746:
745:Pelvic thrust
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
719:
716:
715:
714:
711:
710:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
677:
676:Fertilization
674:
670:
667:
665:
662:
661:
660:
657:
653:
650:
648:
645:
644:
643:
642:Gametogenesis
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
611:
608:
606:
603:
602:
601:
598:
597:
595:
593:
587:
581:
578:
576:
575:parasexuality
573:
571:
568:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
554:
553:Hermaphrodite
551:
549:
546:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
532:
529:
527:
524:
520:
519:Haplodiploidy
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
491:
490:
487:
483:
480:
478:
475:
474:
473:
470:
466:
463:
461:
458:
457:
456:
453:
452:
450:
444:
440:
433:
428:
426:
421:
419:
414:
413:
410:
406:
397:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
369:
365:
361:
354:
346:
344:9780495561972
340:
336:
329:
321:
319:9789401728874
315:
311:
304:
302:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
262:
260:
251:
245:
241:
234:
230:
223:
220:
219:
214:
209:
207:
203:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
167:
160:
159:
153:
146:
145:
139:
132:
131:
125:
116:
113:
109:
99:
97:
93:
88:
86:
82:
78:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
52:
51:
46:
39:
36:
32:
19:
1613:olive baboon
1561:Hippopotamus
1549:domestic cat
1497:domestic dog
1425:golden eagle
1392:Crocodilians
1266:
1040:polygynandry
961:cloacal kiss
664:spermatozoon
592:reproduction
541:Y chromosome
536:X chromosome
482:Virilization
477:Feminization
404:
367:
363:
353:
334:
328:
309:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
239:
233:
216:
210:
197:
195:
165:
164:
156:
142:
128:
107:
105:
95:
91:
89:
69:
65:
57:
56:
48:
1352:Salamanders
1232:Echinoderms
1215:sea anemone
1198:Cephalopods
1102:cannibalism
1025:promiscuity
944:mating plug
934:mating call
929:mate choice
79:capable of
1706:Categories
1327:Amphibians
1307:Salmon run
1237:Gastropods
1159:Arthropods
1124:intralocus
1119:interlocus
1097:bimaturism
956:Copulation
949:lek mating
725:Copulation
446:Biological
226:References
213:polychaete
108:schizogamy
102:Schizogamy
92:schizogamy
62:polychaete
38:polychaete
1594:Primates
1583:Pinnipeds
1571:Marsupial
1502:gray wolf
1262:earthworm
1247:love dart
1220:jellyfish
1189:butterfly
1082:anisogamy
1070:synchrony
1060:cuckoldry
1030:polyandry
880:evolution
780:Mechanics
757:Sexuality
652:Oogenesis
627:Sex organ
617:Germ cell
605:Anisogamy
370:(1): 31.
171:parapodia
127:Atoke of
1618:mandrill
1576:kangaroo
1519:Elephant
1430:seabirds
1362:Reptiles
1312:Seahorse
1210:Cnidaria
1174:scorpion
1107:coercion
1065:seasonal
1035:polygyny
1020:monogamy
993:external
988:internal
812:Category
790:Activity
686:Internal
681:External
570:Intersex
396:21192805
272:Neanthes
198:swarming
169:size of
1696:Science
1672:Biology
1658:Portals
1635:Raccoon
1608:gorilla
1544:cheetah
1529:Felidae
1514:Dolphin
1507:red fox
1447:Mammals
1397:Tuatara
1375:lizards
1267:epitoky
1203:octopus
862:General
637:Meiosis
610:Isogamy
387:3027123
206:gametes
183:gametes
179:atrophy
175:chaetae
166:Epigamy
119:Epigamy
96:epigamy
85:benthic
74:pelagic
70:epitoke
58:Epitoky
18:Epitoke
1640:Rodent
1603:bonobo
1588:walrus
1487:coyote
1380:snakes
1317:Sharks
1258:Worms
1254:Sponge
1184:insect
1179:beetle
1169:spider
1087:oogamy
659:Gamete
632:Mating
590:Sexual
465:Female
394:
384:
341:
316:
276:virens
268:Nereis
246:
77:morphs
35:Syllid
1598:human
1556:Fossa
1539:tiger
1492:dingo
1477:Canid
1407:Birds
1340:frogs
1225:coral
1015:Modes
448:terms
191:sperm
66:atoke
1534:lion
1302:Eels
1284:Fish
1164:crab
669:ovum
460:Male
392:PMID
339:ISBN
314:ISBN
244:ISBN
187:eggs
94:and
1460:rut
439:Sex
382:PMC
372:doi
288:doi
284:149
189:or
1708::
509:ZO
504:XO
499:ZW
494:XY
390:.
380:.
366:.
362:.
300:^
282:.
274:)
258:^
98:.
1660::
846:e
839:t
832:v
431:e
424:t
417:v
398:.
374::
368:7
347:.
322:.
294:.
290::
270:(
252:.
185:(
20:)
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