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1421:. As a result of the warmer climate and the sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests, and more coal deposits would have been available for methane release. If we compare the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of atmospheric methane, the early Eocene would have produced triple the amount of methane. The warm temperatures during the early Eocene could have increased methane production rates, and methane that is released into the atmosphere would in turn warm the troposphere, cool the stratosphere, and produce water vapor and carbon dioxide through oxidation. Biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation. The breakdown of methane in an atmosphere containing oxygen produces carbon monoxide, water vapor and infrared radiation. The carbon monoxide is not stable, so it eventually becomes carbon dioxide and in doing so releases yet more infrared radiation. Water vapor traps more infrared than does carbon dioxide. At about the beginning of the Eocene Epoch (55.8–33.9 Ma) the
1646:; however, data on the exact timing of metamorphic release of atmospheric carbon dioxide is not well resolved in the data. Recent studies have mentioned, however, that the removal of the ocean between Asia and India could have released significant amounts of carbon dioxide. Another hypothesis still implicates a diminished negative feedback of silicate weathering as a result of continental rocks having become less weatherable during the warm Early and Middle Eocene, allowing volcanically released carbon dioxide to persist in the atmosphere for longer. Yet another explanation hypothesises that MECO warming was caused by the simultaneous occurrence of minima in both the 400 kyr and 2.4 Myr eccentricity cycles. During the MECO, sea surface temperatures in the Tethys Ocean jumped to 32–36 °C, and Tethyan seawater became more dysoxic. A decline in carbonate accumulation at ocean depths of greater than three kilometres took place synchronously with the peak of the MECO, signifying
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1502:. Using all different ranges of greenhouse gasses that occurred during the early Eocene, models were unable to produce the warming that was found at the poles and the reduced seasonality that occurs with winters at the poles being substantially warmer. The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles. This error has been classified as the "equable climate problem". To solve this problem, the solution would involve finding a process to warm the poles without warming the tropics. Some hypotheses and tests which attempt to find the process are listed below.
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where in most situations the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is rare. When methane is oxidized, a significant amount of water vapor is released. Another requirement for polar stratospheric clouds is cold temperatures to ensure condensation and cloud production. Polar stratospheric cloud production, since it requires the cold temperatures, is usually limited to nighttime and winter conditions. With this combination of wetter and colder conditions in the lower stratosphere, polar stratospheric clouds could have formed over wide areas in Polar
Regions.
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the sea floor, they became part of the sediments on the seabed and effectively sequestered the carbon by locking it out of the atmosphere for good. The ability for the azolla to sequester carbon is exceptional, and the enhanced burial of azolla could have had a significant effect on the world atmospheric carbon content and may have been the event to begin the transition into an ice house climate. The azolla event could have led to a draw down of atmospheric carbon dioxide of up to 470 ppm. Assuming the carbon dioxide concentrations were at 900 ppmv prior to the
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remained predominant in East Asia. The cooling during the initial stages of the opening of the Drake
Passage ~38.5 Ma was not global, as evidenced by an absence of cooling in the North Atlantic. During the cooling period, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling. The end of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene is marked with the massive expansion of area of the Antarctic ice sheet that was a major step into the icehouse climate. Multiple proxies, such as oxygen isotopes and
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1065:(ICS), in 1969, standardized stratigraphy based on the prevailing opinions in Europe: the Cenozoic Era subdivided into the Tertiary and Quaternary sub-eras, and the Tertiary subdivided into the Paleogene and Neogene periods. In 1978, the Paleogene was officially defined as the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs; and the Neogene as the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. In 1989, Tertiary and Quaternary were removed from the time scale due to the arbitrary nature of their boundary, but Quaternary was reinstated in 2009.
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1554:. Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and trap outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or
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20 °C in the winter months. A multitude of feedbacks also occurred in the models due to the polar stratospheric clouds' presence. Any ice growth was slowed immensely and would lead to any present ice melting. Only the poles were affected with the change in temperature and the tropics were unaffected, which with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would also cause the tropics to increase in temperature. Due to the warming of the troposphere from the increased
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1394:, while model simulations suggest a concentration of 1,680 ppm fits best with deep sea, sea surface, and near-surface air temperatures of the time. Other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marine boron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 million years. This large influx of carbon dioxide could be attributed to volcanic out-gassing due to
1586:. The transition from a warming climate into a cooling climate began at around 49 Ma. Isotopes of carbon and oxygen indicate a shift to a global cooling climate. The cause of the cooling has been attributed to a significant decrease of >2,000 ppm in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. One proposed cause of the reduction in carbon dioxide during the warming to cooling transition was the
1445:, with a higher rate of fluvial sedimentation as a consequence of the warmer temperatures. Unlike the PETM, the lesser hyperthermals of the Early Eocene had negligible consequences for terrestrial mammals. These Early Eocene hyperthermals produced a sustained period of extremely hot climate known as the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). During the early and middle EECO, the superabundance of the
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were used to determine the sustainability of the polar stratospheric clouds. It was determined that in order to maintain the lower stratospheric water vapor, methane would need to be continually released and sustained. In addition, the amounts of ice and condensation nuclei would need to be high in order for the polar stratospheric cloud to sustain itself and eventually expand.
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release during this short-term warming. A sharp increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide was observed with a maximum of 4,000 ppm: the highest amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide detected during the Eocene. Other studies suggest a more modest rise in carbon dioxide levels. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been hypothesised to have been driven by increased
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isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. However, modeling results call into question the thermal isolation model for late Eocene cooling, and decreasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may have been more important. Once the
Antarctic region began to cool down, the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and
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ocean water during the early Eocene, one common hypothesis was that due to these increases there would be a greater transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Simulating these differences, the models produced lower heat transport due to the lower temperature gradients and were unsuccessful in producing an equable climate from only ocean heat transport.
1441:(ETM2), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), were analyzed and found that orbital control may have had a role in triggering the ETM2 and ETM3. An enhancement of the biological pump proved effective at sequestering excess carbon during the recovery phases of these hyperthermals. These hyperthermals led to increased perturbations in planktonic and benthic
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inserted into North
America and a climate model was run using varying carbon dioxide levels. The model runs concluded that while the lake did reduce the seasonality of the region greater than just an increase in carbon dioxide, the addition of a large lake was unable to reduce the seasonality to the levels shown by the floral and faunal data.
1345:. Because of this the maximum sea level was 150 meters higher than current levels. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene–Oligocene transition at 34 Ma. During this decrease, ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene–Oligocene transition is the period of time when the
6827:
Cramwinckel, Margot J.; Van der Ploeg, Robin; Van
Helmond, Niels A. G. M.; Waarlo, Niels; Agnini, Claudia; Bijl, Peter K.; Van der Boon, Annique; Brinkhuis, Henk; Frieling, Joost; Krijgsman, Wout; Mather, Tamsin A.; Middelburg, Jack J.; Peterse, Francien; Slomp, Caroline P.; Sluijs, Appy (1 September
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Bijl, P. K.; Bendle, J. A. P.; Bohaty, S. M.; Pross, J.; Schouten, S.; Tauxe, L.; Stickley, C. E.; McKay, R. M.; Rohl, U.; Olney, M.; Sluijs, A.; Escutia, C.; Brinkhuis, H.; Klaus, A.; Fehr, A.; Williams, T.; Carr, S. A.; Dunbar, R. B.; Gonzalez, J. J.; Hayden, T. G.; Iwai, M.; Jimenez-Espejo, F. J.;
1977:
forms reigned. All the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10 kg; based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60% of the size of the primitive
Palaeocene mammals that preceded them. They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It is assumed that the
1682:. Along with the decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxide reducing the global temperature, orbital factors in ice creation can be seen with 100,000-year and 400,000-year fluctuations in benthic oxygen isotope records. Another major contribution to the expansion of the ice sheet was the creation of the
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making its way down to the seafloor and causing a corresponding decline in populations of benthic foraminifera. An abrupt decrease in lakewater salinity in western North
America occurred during this warming interval. This warming is short lived, as benthic oxygen isotope records indicate a return to
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were modified in different model runs to determine all the possible different scenarios that could occur and their effects on temperature. One particular case led to warmer winters and cooler summer by up to 30% in the North
American continent, and it reduced the seasonal variation of temperature by
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of silicates. For the early Eocene there is much discussion on how much carbon dioxide was in the atmosphere. This is due to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content. For example, diverse geochemical and paleontological proxies indicate that at the maximum of global
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remained connected, and warm equatorial currents may have mixed with colder
Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the planet and keeping global temperatures high. When Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were routed away from Antarctica. An
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Goudsmit-Harzevoort, Barbara; Lansu, Angelique; Baatsen, Michiel L. J.; von der Heydt, Anna S.; de Winter, Niels J.; Zhang, Yurui; Abe-Ouchi, Ayako; de Boer, Agatha; Chan, Wing-Le; Donnadieu, Yannick; Hutchinson, David K.; Knorr, Gregor; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Morozova, Polina; Niezgodzki, Igor (17
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composition in the ocean. These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4–8 °C (7.2–14.4 °F) at the surface of the ocean. Recent analysis of and research into these hyperthermals in the early Eocene has
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The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the EECO, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event called the middle Eocene climatic optimum (MECO). Lasting for about 400,000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform
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they would have dropped to 430 ppmv, or 30 ppmv more than they are today, after the Azolla Event. This cooling trend at the end of the EECO has also been proposed to have been caused by increased siliceous plankton productivity and marine carbon burial, which also helped draw carbon dioxide out of
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blooms across the Arctic Ocean. Compared to current carbon dioxide levels, these azolla grew rapidly in the enhanced carbon dioxide levels found in the early Eocene. The isolation of the Arctic Ocean, evidenced by euxinia that occurred at this time, led to stagnant waters and as the azolla sank to
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The transport of heat from the tropics to the poles, much like how ocean heat transport functions in modern times, was considered a possibility for the increased temperature and reduced seasonality for the poles. With the increased sea surface temperatures and the increased temperature of the deep
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Due to the nature of water as opposed to land, less temperature variability would be present if a large body of water is also present. In an attempt to try to mitigate the cooling polar temperatures, large lakes were proposed to mitigate seasonal climate changes. To replicate this case, a lake was
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covered the Early Eocene through early
Oligocene, and three of the four were given informal early/late substages. Wolfe tentatively deemed the Franklinian as Early Eocene, the Fultonian as Middle Eocene, the Ravenian as Late, and the Kummerian as Early Oligocene. The beginning of the Kummerian was
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During the early-middle Eocene, forests covered most of the Earth including the poles. Tropical forests extended across much of modern Africa, South America, Central America, India, South-east Asia and China. Paratropical forests grew over North America, Europe and Russia, with broad-leafed
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While the polar stratospheric clouds could explain the reduction of the equator to pole temperature gradient and the increased temperatures at the poles during the early Eocene, there are a few drawbacks to maintaining polar stratospheric clouds for an extended period of time. Separate model runs
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Methane is an important factor in the creation of the primary Type II polar stratospheric clouds that were created in the early Eocene. Since water vapor is the only supporting substance used in Type II polar stratospheric clouds, the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is necessary
4331:
Ding, Huixia; Zhang, Zeming; Dong, Xin; Tian, Zuolin; Xiang, Hua; Mu, Hongchen; Gou, Zhengbin; Shui, Xinfang; Li, Wangchao; Mao, Lingjuan (February 2016). "Early Eocene ( c . 50 Ma) collision of the Indian and Asian continents: Constraints from the North Himalayan metamorphic rocks, southeastern
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analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion of heavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures. The warming is considered to be primarily due to carbon dioxide increases, because carbon isotope signatures rule out major methane
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To test the polar stratospheric clouds effects on the Eocene climate, models were run comparing the effects of polar stratospheric clouds at the poles to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The polar stratospheric clouds had a warming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to
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At the end of the MECO, the MLEC resumed. Cooling and the carbon dioxide drawdown continued through the late Eocene and into the Eocene–Oligocene transition around 34 Ma. The post-MECO cooling brought with it a major aridification trend in Asia, enhanced by retreating seas. A monsoonal climate
6189:
Speelman, E. N.; Van Kempen, M. M. L.; Barke, J.; Brinkhuis, H.; Reichart, G. J.; Smolders, A. J. P.; Roelofs, J. G. M.; Sangiorgi, F.; De Leeuw, J. W.; Lotter, A. F.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (27 March 2009). "The Eocene Arctic Azolla bloom: environmental conditions, productivity, and carbon
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Bertrand, Ornella C.; Shelley, Sarah L.; Williamson, Thomas E.; Wible, John R.; Chester, Stephen G. B.; Flynn, John J.; Holbrook, Luke T.; Lyson, Tyler R.; Meng, Jin; Miller, Ian M.; Püschel, Hans P.; Smith, Thierry; Spaulding, Michelle; Tseng, Z. Jack; Brusatte, Stephen L. (April 2022).
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analyses point to a maximum low latitude sea surface temperature of 36.3 °C (97.3 °F) ± 1.9 °C (35.4 °F) during the EECO. Relative to present-day values, bottom water temperatures are 10 °C (18 °F) higher according to isotope proxies. With these bottom water
4473:
Cramwinckel, Margot J.; Huber, Matthew; Kocken, Ilja J.; Agnini, Claudia; Bijl, Peter K.; Bohaty, Steven M.; Frieling, Joost; Goldner, Aaron; Hilgen, Frederik J.; Kip, Elizabeth L.; Peterse, Francien; Van der Ploeg, Robin; Röhl, Ursula; Schouten, Stefan; Sluijs, Appy (2 July 2018).
3986:
Gohn, G. S.; Koeberl, C.; Miller, K. G.; Reimold, W. U.; Browning, J. V.; Cockell, C. S.; Horton, J. W.; Kenkmann, T.; Kulpecz, A. A.; Powars, D. S.; Sanford, W. E.; Voytek, M. A. (2008-06-27). "Deep Drilling into the Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure".
5068:
Galeotti, S.; Krishnan, Srinath; Pagani, Mark; Lanci, Luca; Gaudio, Alberto; Zachos, James C.; Monechi, Simonetta; Morelli, Guia; Lourens, Lucas (2010). "Orbital chronology of Early Eocene hyperthermals from the Contessa Road section, central Italy".
1385:, that reduced the atmospheric carbon dioxide. This event was similar in magnitude to the massive release of greenhouse gasses at the beginning of the PETM, and it is hypothesized that the sequestration was mainly due to organic carbon burial and
3265:
Zhang, Q.; Willems, H.; Ding, L.; Xu, X. (2019). "Response of larger benthic foraminifera to the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum and the position of the Paleocene/Eocene boundary in the Tethyan shallow benthic zones: Evidence from south Tibet".
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4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records. The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.
2908:
From p. 55: "The period next antecedent we shall call Eocene, from ήως, aurora, and χαινος, recens, because the extremely small proportion of living species contained in these strata, indicates what may be considered the first commencement, or
4890:
Royer, Dana L.; Wing, Scott L.; Beerling, David J.; Jolley, David W.; Koch, Paul L.; Hickey1, Leo J.; Berner, Robert A. (22 June 2001). "Paleobotanical Evidence for Near Present-Day Levels of Atmospheric CO2 During Part of the Tertiary".
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to the north. Planktonic foraminifera in the northwestern Peri-Tethys are very similar to those of the Tethys in the middle Lutetian but become completely disparate in the Bartonian, indicating biogeographic separation. Though the North
4669:
Galeotti, Simone; Deconto, Robert; Naish, Timothy; Stocchi, Paolo; Florindo, Fabio; Pagani, Mark; Barrett, Peter; Bohaty, Steven M.; Lanci, Luca; Pollard, David; Sandroni, Sonia; Talarico, Franco M.; Zachos, James C. (10 March 2016).
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Evans, David; Sagoo, Navjit; Renema, Willem; Cotton, Laura J.; Müller, Wolfgang; Todd, Jonathan A.; Saraswati, Pratul Kumar; Stassen, Peter; Ziegler, Martin; Pearson, Paul N.; Valdes, Paul J.; Affek, Hagit P. (22 January 2018).
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in the region. One possible cause of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase could have been a sudden increase due to metamorphic release due to continental drift and collision of India with Asia and the resulting formation of the
3727:
Francis, J.E.; Marenssi, S.; Levy, R.; Hambrey, M.; Thorn, V.C.; Mohr, B.; Brinkhuis, H.; Warnaar, J.; Zachos, J.; Bohaty, S.; DeConto, R. (2008). "Chapter 8 From Greenhouse to Icehouse – The Eocene/Oligocene in Antarctica".
1699:, sediments indicate the opening occurred ~41 Ma while tectonics indicate that this occurred ~32 Ma. Solar activity did not change significantly during the greenhouse-icehouse transition across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.
1528:
While typically seen as a control on ice growth and seasonality, the orbital parameters were theorized as a possible control on continental temperatures and seasonality. Simulating the Eocene by using an ice free planet,
1259:. The Kishenehn Basin, around 1.5 km in elevation during the Lutetian, was uplifted to an altitude of 2.5 km by the Priabonian. Huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts, resulting in the deposition of the
1616:. Many regions of the world became more arid and cold over the course of the stage, such as the Fushun Basin. In East Asia, lake level changes were in sync with global sea level changes over the course of the MLEC.
1337:, and arguably the warmest time interval since the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and Early Triassic, and ends in an icehouse climate. The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the end of the
5882:
3623:
1405:
During the early Eocene, methane was another greenhouse gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. Methane has 30 times more of a warming effect than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale (i.e., methane has a
4209:
Licht, Alexis; Métais, Grégoire; Coster, Pauline; İbilioğlu, Deniz; Ocakoğlu, Faruk; Westerweel, Jan; Mueller, Megan; Campbell, Clay; Mattingly, Spencer; Wood, Melissa C.; Beard, K. Christopher (2022-03-01).
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Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming in the Bartonian. This warming event, signifying a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions, is known as the
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of colder bottom waters. The issue with this hypothesis of the consideration of this being a factor for the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the timing of the creation of the circulation is uncertain. For
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the atmosphere. Cooling after this event, part of a trend known as the Middle-Late Eocene Cooling (MLEC), continued due to continual decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide from organic productivity and
1078:
The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house. The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the
2352:
is common in fossil faunas from presently temperate areas, but only lives in the tropics and subtropics today. Platypleurin cicadas diversified during the Eocene. Ostracods flourished in the oceans.
1341:(PETM) at 56 Ma to a maximum during the Eocene Optimum at around 49 Ma. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to
8251:"Late Eocene to Early Miocene calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy from the ANH-San Jacinto- 1 well: Stratigraphic implications for the Sinú-San Jacinto basin in the Caribbean region of Colombia"
5390:
8157:"Out of Africa? A dated molecular phylogeny of the cicada tribe Platypleurini Schmidt (Hemiptera: Cicadidae), with a focus on African genera and the genus Platypleura Amyot & Audinet-Serville"
7241:
Bosboom, Roderic; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Grothe, Arjen; Brinkhuis, Henk; Villa, Giuliana; Mandic, Oleg; Stoica, Marius; Kouwenhoven, Tanja; Huang, Wentao; Yang, Wei; Guo, ZhaoJie (1 June 2014).
2387:
3617:
Katsuki, K.; Kong, G. S.; Nakai, M.; Passchier, S.; Pekar, S. F.; Riesselman, C.; Sakai, T.; Shrivastava, P. K.; Sugisaki, S.; Tuo, S.; van de Flierdt, T.; Welsh, K.; Yamane, M. (2013-06-11).
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of the health of a marine ecosystem)—one of the largest in the Cenozoic. This event happened around 55.8 Ma, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.
3554:
Wolfe, J.A. (1968). Paleogene Biostratigraphy of nonmarine rocks in King County, Washington (Report). Professional Paper. Vol. 571. United States Geological Survey. pp. 1–29.
7139:"The Early to Middle Eocene Transition: An Integrated Calcareous Nannofossil and Stable Isotope Record From the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1410)"
1325:. The incipient subcontinent collided with the Kohistan–Ladakh Arc around 50.2 Ma and with Karakoram around 40.4 Ma, with the final collision between Asia and India occurring ~40 Ma.
6386:
Ma, Yiquan; Fan, Majie; Li, Mingsong; Ogg, James G.; Zhang, Chen; Feng, Jun; Zhou, Chunhua; Liu, Xiaofeng; Lu, Yongchao; Liu, Huimin; Eldrett, James S.; Ma, Chao (15 January 2023).
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support the presence of a warmer equable climate being present during this period of time. A few of these proxies include the presence of fossils native to warm climates, such as
1307:
and Asia. About 40 Ma, Balkanatolia and Asia were connected, while Europe was connected 34 Ma. The Fushun Basin contained large, suboxic lakes known as the paleo-Jijuntun Lakes.
1686:. The creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current would isolate the cold water around the Antarctic, which would reduce heat transport to the Antarctic along with creating
8213:"Implication of middle Eocene to early Miocene ostracodes from the N. El Faras-1X Well, Qattara Depression, Egypt, for paleobathymetry and paleobiogeographic reconstruction"
7084:
Pagani, M.; Zachos, J. C.; Freeman, Katherine H.; Tipple, Brett; Bohaty, Stephen (2005). "Marked Decline in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations During the Paleogene".
5466:
Reinhardt, Lutz; Von Gosen, Werner; Lückge, Andreas; Blumenberg, Martin; Galloway, Jennifer M.; West, Christopher K.; Sudermann, Markus; Dolezych, Martina (7 January 2022).
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One of the unique features of the Eocene's climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climate that existed in the early parts of the Eocene. A multitude of
5468:"Geochemical indications for the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) and Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM-2) hyperthermals in terrestrial sediments of the Canadian Arctic"
3414:
Bijl, Peter K.; Houben, Alexander J. P.; Schouten, Stefan; Bohaty, Steven M.; Sluijs, Appy; Reichart, Gert-Jan; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Brinkhuis, Henk (2010-11-05).
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drilling sites indicated a warming event for 600,000 years. A similar shift in carbon isotopes is known from the Northern Hemisphere in the Scaglia Limestones of Italy.
3678:
Huber, Matthew; Brinkhuis, Henk; Stickley, Catherine E.; Döös, Kristofer; Sluijs, Appy; Warnaar, Jeroen; Schellenberg, Stephen A.; Williams, Graham L. (December 2004).
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The Eocene is not only known for containing the warmest period during the Cenozoic; it also marked the decline into an icehouse climate and the rapid expansion of the
1433:
led to hypotheses that the hyperthermals are based on orbital parameters, in particular eccentricity and obliquity. The hyperthermals in the early Eocene, notably the
2206:
Eocene birds include some enigmatic groups with resemblances to modern forms, some of which continued from the Paleocene. Bird taxa of the Eocene include carnivorous
6653:
Henehan, Michael J.; Edgar, Kirsty M.; Foster, Gavin L.; Penman, Donald E.; Hull, Pincelli M.; Greenop, Rosanna; Anagnostou, Eleni; Pearson, Paul N. (9 March 2020).
4176:
Denk, Thomas; Grímsson, Friðgeir; Zetter, Reinhard; Símonarson, Leifur A. (2011). "The Biogeographic History of Iceland – the North Atlantic Land Bridge Revisited".
2016:. Older primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance. Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in western North America, Europe,
1981:
Rodents were widespread. East Asian rodent faunas declined in diversity when they shifted from ctenodactyloid-dominant to cricetid–dipodid-dominant after the MECO.
3576:
1817:
Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry, with forests thinning considerably in some areas. The newly evolved
1678:, indicate that at the Eocene–Oligocene transition, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration had decreased to around 750–800 ppm, approximately twice that of
6829:
5108:"Large-Amplitude Variations in Carbon Cycling and Terrestrial Weathering during the Latest Paleocene and Earliest Eocene: The Record at Mead Stream, New Zealand"
1542:
up to 75%. While orbital parameters did not produce the warming at the poles, the parameters did show a great effect on seasonality and needed to be considered.
737:
4418:
2342:, England. Insects found in Eocene deposits mostly belong to genera that exist today, though their range has often shifted since the Eocene. For instance the
8544:
4063:
Frizon de Lamotte, Dominique; Raulin, Camille; Mouchot, Nicolas; Wrobel-Daveau, Jean-Christophe; Blanpied, Christian; Ringenbach, Jean-Claude (17 May 2011).
763:
6768:
Giorgioni, Martino; Jovane, Luigi; Rego, Eric S.; Rodelli, Daniel; Frontalini, Fabrizio; Coccioni, Rodolfo; Catanzariti, Rita; Özcan, Ercan (27 June 2019).
5266:
Sexton, Philip F.; Norris, Richard D.; Wilson, Paul A.; Pälike, Heiko; Westerhold, Thomas; Röhl, Ursula; Bolton, Clara T.; Gibbs, Samantha (16 March 2011).
5467:
3332:"Global decline in ocean ventilation, oxygenation, and productivity during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum: Implications for the benthic extinction"
2751:
Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Ouda, Khaled; Dupuis, Christian; William A. Berggren; John A. Van Couvering; Working Group on the Paleocene/Eocene Boundary (2007).
7436:
Diester-Haass, L.; Zahn, R. (1996). "Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Southern Ocean: History of water mass circulation and biological productivity".
2892:
William Whewell, D. D., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge: An account of his writings with selections from his literary and scientific correspondence
5106:
Slotnick, Benjamin S.; Cickens, Gerald R.; Nicolo, Micah J.; Hollis, Christopher J.; Crampton, James S.; Zachos, James C.; Sluijs, Appy (11 May 2012).
751:
5514:
Abels, Hemmo A.; Clyde, William C.; Gingerich, Philip D.; Hilgen, Frederik J.; Fricke, Henry C.; Bowen, Gabriel J.; Lourens, Lucas J. (1 April 2012).
7515:
7303:
7247:
6978:
6555:
6056:
5677:
8045:"Oldest co-occurrence of Varanus and Python from Africa—first record of squamates from the early Miocene of Moghra Formation, Western Desert, Egypt"
7020:
Mulch, Andreas; Chamberlain, C. P.; Cosca, Michael A.; Teyssier, Christian; Methner, Katharina; Hren, Michael T.; Graham, Stephan A. (April 2015).
6245:"Significance of euxinic condition in the middle Eocene paleo-Arctic basin: A geochemical study on the IODP Arctic Coring Expedition 302 sediments"
3877:
1398:
or oxidation of methane stored in large reservoirs deposited from the PETM event in the sea floor or wetland environments. For contrast, today the
4258:
3953:
Grande, Lance (2001). "An Updated Review of the Fish Faunas from the Green River Formation, the World's Most Productive Freshwater Lagerstätten".
2116:, but whales as a group had become very diverse during the Eocene, which is when the major transitions from being terrestrial to fully aquatic in
5611:
Crouch, E. M.; Shepherd, C. L.; Morgans, H. E. G.; Naafs, B. D. A.; Dallanave, E.; Phillips, A.; Hollis, C. J.; Pancost, R. D. (1 January 2020).
4936:
8104:
Wolfe, Alexander P.; Tappert, Ralf; Muehlenbachs, Karlis; Boudreau, Marc; McKellar, Ryan C.; Basinger, James F.; Garrett, Amber (1 July 2009).
7997:"Stratigraphic distribution of large flightless birds in the Palaeogene of Europe and its palaeobiological and palaeogeographical implications"
4975:
Sloan, L. C.; Walker, C. G.; Moore, T. C. Jr.; Rea, D. K.; Zachos, J. C. (1992). "Possible methane-induced polar warming in the early Eocene".
1410:
of 29.8±11). Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, and forests. The
1297:
was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar.
7673:
Wing, Scott L.; Greenwood, David R. (28 August 1993). "Fossils and fossil climate: the case for equable continental interiors in the Eocene".
6445:
Jovane, Luigi; Florindo, Fabio; Coccioni, Rodolfo; Marsili, Andrea; Monechi, Simonetta; Roberts, Andrew P.; Sprovieri, Mario (1 March 2007).
3680:"Eocene circulation of the Southern Ocean: Was Antarctica kept warm by subtropical waters?: Did the East Australian Current Warm Antarctica?"
2055:, in which the former two, unlike the latter, did not belong to ungulates but groups that became extinct shortly after their establishments.
6709:
Van der Ploeg, Robin; Selby, David; Cramwinckel, Margot J.; Li, Yang; Bohaty, Steven M.; Middelburg, Jack J.; Sluijs, Appy (23 July 2018).
3006:
1495:
temperatures, temperatures in areas where deep water forms near the poles are unable to be much cooler than the bottom water temperatures.
1087:
brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic
6876:
Spofforth, D. J. A.; Agnini, C.; Pälike, H.; Rio, D.; Fornaciari, E.; Giusberi, L.; Luciani, V.; Lanci, L.; Muttoni, G. (24 August 2010).
5675:
Sloan, L. C.; Rea, D. K. (1995). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide and early Eocene climate: a general circulation modeling sensitivity study".
4546:
West, Christopher K.; Greenwood, David R.; Reichgelt, Tammo; Lowe, Alexander J.; Vachon, Janelle M.; Basinger, James F. (4 August 2020).
4417:
Rennie, Victoria C. F.; Paris, Guillaume; Sessions, Alex L.; Abramovich, Sigal; Turchyn, Alexandra V.; Adkins, Jess F. (13 August 2018).
3487:"Eocene-Oligocene mammalian faunal turnover in the Hampshire Basin, UK: calibration to the global time scale and the major cooling event"
1931:
1118:
The Eocene is conventionally divided into early (56–47.8 Ma), middle (47.8–38 Ma), and late (38–33.9 Ma) subdivisions. The corresponding
8249:
Arias-Villegas, Viviana; Bedoya Agudelo, Erika L.; Vallejo-Hincapié, Felipe; Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Pardo-Trujillo, Andrés (August 2023).
1570:
of the polar stratospheric clouds, the stratosphere would cool and would potentially increase the amount of polar stratospheric clouds.
8412:
4133:"A high resolution lutetian-Bartonian planktonic foraminiferal zonation in the Crimean-Caucasus region of the northeastern Peri-Tethys"
1988:(hoofed animals) became prevalent because of a major radiation between Europe and North America, along with carnivorous ungulates like
1852:
tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America,
7399:; Bailey, T. R.; Pearson, P.N.; Coxall, H. K.; Rosenthal, Y. (2008). "Cooling and ice growth across the Eocene-Oligocene transition".
4065:"The southernmost margin of the Tethys realm during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic: Initial geometry and timing of the inversion processes"
8537:
7851:"Rodent faunas, their paleogeographic pattern, and responses to climate changes from the early Eocene to the early Oligocene in Asia"
5974:
Sloan, L. C. (1994). "Equable climates during the early Eocene: Significance of regional paleogeography for North American climate".
548:
8359:
7193:
Bosboom, Roderic E.; Abels, Hemmo A.; Hoorn, Carina; Van den Berg, Bas C. J.; Guo, Zhaojie; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume (1 March 2014).
8255:
6655:"Revisiting the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum "Carbon Cycle Conundrum" With New Estimates of Atmospheric pCO2 From Boron Isotopes"
1062:
616:
566:
6094:
Sloan, L. C.; Pollard, D. (1998). "Polar stratospheric clouds: A high latitude warming mechanism in an ancient greenhouse world".
2694:
Zachos, J. C.; Kump, L. R. (2005). "Carbon cycle feedbacks and the initiation of Antarctic glaciation in the earliest Oligocene".
2371:
1797:
during the early Eocene, although they became less abundant as the climate cooled. Dawn redwoods were far more extensive as well.
1365:, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature. The end of the PETM was met with very large
7892:
7022:"Rapid change in high-elevation precipitation patterns of western North America during the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO)"
5613:"Climatic and environmental changes across the early Eocene climatic optimum at mid-Waipara River, Canterbury Basin, New Zealand"
5039:
4287:"Characterization of depositional conditions for lacustrine oil shales in the Eocene Jijuntun Formation, Fushun Basin, NE China"
3373:"Atmospheric composition, radiative forcing, and climate change as a consequence of a massive methane release from gas hydrates"
3114:
Odin, G. S.; Curry, D.; Hunziker, J. Z. (1978). "Radiometric dates from NW European glauconites and the Palaeogene time-scale".
8339:
7021:
6834:
6451:
3882:
3581:
3268:
1712:
7822:. (2017) Repetitive mammalian dwarfing during ancient greenhouse warming events.Sci. Adv.3,e1601430.DOI:10.1126/sciadv.1601430
6495:"Cyclostratigraphy and astronomical tuning of the middle eocene terrestrial successions in the Bohai Bay Basin, Eastern China"
4734:
Bowen, J. G.; Zachos, J. C. (2010). "Rapid carbon sequestration at the termination of the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum".
4606:"Paleocene–Eocene and Plio–Pleistocene sea-level changes as "species pumps" in Southeast Asia: Evidence from Althepus spiders"
7351:
7143:
7137:
Cappelli, C.; Bown, P. R.; Westerhold, T.; Bohaty, S. M.; De Riu, M.; Loba, V.; Yamamoto, Y.; Agnini, C. (15 November 2019).
6930:
6882:
6659:
4840:
4610:
4193:
3970:
3878:"Late Paleogene paleotopographic evolution of the northern Cordilleran orogenic front: Implications for demise of the orogen"
3684:
3377:
2136:
1434:
1103:
965:
8043:
Georgalis, Georgios L.; Abdel Gawad, Mohamed K.; Hassan, Safiya M.; El-Barkooky, Ahmed N.; Hamdan, Mohamed A. (2020-05-22).
8530:
6974:"Benthic foraminiferal response to the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO) in the South-Eastern Atlantic (ODP Site 1263)"
6551:"New biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic and isotopic insights into the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum in low latitudes"
2753:"The Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Eocene Series in the Dababiya section (Egypt)"
1338:
1080:
673:
508:
7700:
Jahren, A. Hope (28 August 1993). "Fossils and fossil climate: the case for equable continental interiors in the Eocene".
2419:
956:. The average temperature of Earth at the beginning of the Eocene was about 27 degrees Celsius. The end is set at a major
7476:
Barker, P. F.; Thomas, E. (2004). "Origin, signature and palaeoclimatic influence of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current".
7199:
6392:
6249:
5176:
5071:
4548:"Paleobotanical proxies for early Eocene climates and ecosystems in northern North America from middle to high latitudes"
4375:
4334:
1395:
8369:
6830:"Deoxygenation and organic carbon sequestration in the Tethyan realm associated with the middle Eocene climatic optimum"
5172:"Tempo and scale of late Paleocene and early Eocene carbon isotope cycles: Implications for the origin of hyperthermals"
8110:
7855:
5332:"Earth system feedback statistically extracted from the Indian Ocean deep-sea sediments recording Eocene hyperthermals"
4137:
7513:
Huber, M.; Nof, D. (2006). "The ocean circulation in the southern hemisphere and its climatic impacts in the Eocene".
8322:
7657:
7297:
Li, Qijia; Utescher, Torsten; Liu, Yusheng (Christopher); Ferguson, David; Jia, Hui; Quan, Cheng (1 September 2022).
4047:
3774:
3749:
3116:
2842:
1767:. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of
869:
8354:
6549:
Edgar, Kirsty M.; Wilson, P. A.; Sexton, P. F.; Gibbs, S. J.; Roberts, Andrew P.; Norris, R. D. (20 November 2010).
922:
9208:
7594:"Sunspot cycles recorded in Eocene lacustrine fine-grained sedimentary rocks in the Bohai Bay Basin, eastern China"
5766:
3679:
1894:
was wiped out, and by the beginning of the Oligocene, the continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of
1255:
came to an end in the Eocene, and compression was replaced with crustal extension that ultimately gave rise to the
8304:
4951:
4780:
Pearson, P. N.; Palmer, M. R. (2000). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years".
3790:
English, Joseph M.; Johnston, Stephen T. (September 2004). "The Laramide Orogeny: What Were the Driving Forces?".
1949:. At the beginning of the Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. These modern mammals, like
988:
that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified, though their exact dates are slightly uncertain.
825:
7459:
5997:
8405:
5960:
5562:
Slotnick, B. S.; Dickens, G. R.; Hollis, C. J.; Crampton, J. S.; Strong, C. Percy; Phillips, A. (17 Sep 2015).
5330:
Yasukawa, Kazutaka; Nakamura, Kentaro; Fujinaga, Koijiro; Ikehara, Minoru; Kato, Yasuhiro (12 September 2017).
1621:
7347:"Bipolar Atlantic deepwater circulation in the middle-late Eocene: Effects of Southern Ocean gateway openings"
1590:. With the equable climate during the early Eocene, warm temperatures in the arctic allowed for the growth of
4419:"Cenozoic record of δ34S in foraminiferal calcite implies an early Eocene shift to deep-ocean sulfide burial"
3069:
2901:
2607:
2072:
Large terrestrial mammalian predators had already existed since the Paleocene, but new forms now arose like
1683:
777:
694:
8349:
5218:
Turner, Sandra Kirtland; Sexton, Philip D.; Charles, Christopher D.; Norris, Richard D. (7 September 2014).
4212:"Balkanatolia: The insular mammalian biogeographic province that partly paved the way to the Grande Coupure"
2451:
1498:
An issue arises, however, when trying to model the Eocene and reproduce the results that are found with the
8155:
Price, Benjamin W.; Marshall, David C.; Barker, Nigel P.; Simon, Chris; Villet, Martin H. (29 March 2019).
6349:
Bohaty, S. M.; Zachos, J. C. (2003). "Significant Southern Ocean warming event in the late middle Eocene".
6096:
6017:
3792:
1422:
1270:
977:
17:
7194:
6973:
6550:
6494:
6244:
5171:
5170:
Zachos, James C.; McCarren, Heather; Murphy, Brandon; Röhl, Ursula; Westerhold, Thomas (15 October 2010).
4370:
2945:
Burke, K. D.; Williams, J. W.; Chandler, M. A.; Haywood, A. M.; Lunt, D. J.; Otto-Bliesner, B. L. (2018).
1650:
took place in the deep ocean. On top of that, MECO warming caused an increase in the respiration rates of
1428:
During the warming in the early Eocene between 55 and 52 Ma, there were a series of short-term changes of
8553:
7598:
7026:
6499:
6013:"Heat transport, deeps waters, and thermal gradients: Coupled simulation of an Eocene Greenhouse Climate"
2930:
2925:
1333:
The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the
605:
6925:
6877:
6654:
4285:
Xu, Sheng-Chuan; Liu, Zhao-Jun; Zhang, Pu; Boak, Jeremy M.; Liu, Rong; Meng, Qing-Tao (1 October 2016).
2527:
1637:
rates and metamorphic decarbonation reactions between Australia and Antarctica and increased amounts of
1471:, located in the higher latitudes, the presence in the high latitudes of frost-intolerant flora such as
9203:
7805:
5435:
Stassen, Peter; Steurbaut, Etienne; Morsi, Abdel-Mohsen; Schulte, Peter; Speijer, Robert (1 May 2021).
2830:
7593:
7242:
6387:
6294:
Scotese, Christopher Robert; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).
5612:
4605:
4211:
2673:
In Lyell's time, epochs were divided into periods. In modern geology, periods are divided into epochs.
8398:
8379:
8156:
5646:
5564:"The onset of the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum at Branch Stream, Clarence River valley, New Zealand"
3047:
3043:
2403:
1551:
1042:
7299:"Monsoonal climate of East Asia in Eocene times inferred from an analysis of plant functional types"
7243:"Timing, cause and impact of the late Eocene stepwise sea retreat from the Tarim Basin (west China)"
6447:"The middle Eocene climatic optimum event in the Contessa Highway section, Umbrian Apennines, Italy"
2559:
2515:
7550:
Barker, P. F.; Filippelli, Gabriel M.; Florindo, Fabio; Martin, Ellen E.; Scher, Howard D. (2007).
7346:
7138:
4836:"The Relationship Between the Global Mean Deep-Sea and Surface Temperature During the Early Eocene"
4835:
4064:
4040:
The Chesapeake Bay Crater : Geology and Geophysics of a Late Eocene Submarine Impact Structure
2435:
1438:
1407:
1256:
973:
6878:"Organic carbon burial following the middle Eocene climatic optimum in the central western Tethys"
908:
8826:
8821:
8385:
8355:
The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada
8344:
8250:
8212:
7996:
7298:
6295:
4286:
2033:
1558:
and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).
1487:
1154:
5391:"Ecological Response of Shallow-Marine Foraminifera to Early Eocene Warming in Equatorial India"
3029:
2729:
6296:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years"
5112:
2144:
1890:
forest existed there. It became much colder as the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical
1342:
2890:
8161:
8001:
7551:
7478:
6715:
6300:
5617:
4930:
3575:
Retallack, G.J.; Orr, W.N.; Prothero, D.R.; Duncan, R.A.; Kester, P.R.; Ambers, C.P. (2004).
3212:
2171:
1260:
945:
Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the
650:
7212:
6405:
6388:"East Asian lake hydrology modulated by global sea-level variations in the Eocene warmhouse"
6262:
5189:
5084:
4388:
4347:
1061:
for the Miocene and Pliocene in 1853. After decades of inconsistent usage, the newly formed
8264:
8170:
8010:
7938:
7742:
7607:
7566:
7524:
7487:
7447:
7410:
7360:
7312:
7256:
7208:
7152:
7095:
7035:
6987:
6939:
6891:
6783:
6724:
6668:
6611:
6564:
6508:
6460:
6401:
6360:
6309:
6258:
6201:
6192:
6154:
6105:
6065:
6026:
5985:
5948:
5891:
5823:
5780:
5626:
5575:
5529:
5481:
5402:
5345:
5281:
5233:
5185:
5121:
5107:
5080:
4986:
4902:
4849:
4791:
4745:
4685:
4619:
4561:
4489:
4432:
4384:
4343:
4298:
4223:
4078:
3996:
3848:
3801:
3632:
3590:
3501:
3427:
3386:
3345:
3277:
3221:
3175:
3125:
2958:
2703:
2634:
2499:
1530:
1366:
1146:
2808:
2772:
1978:
hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that were better able to manage the heat.
1479:
found in the tropics that would require much higher average temperatures to sustain them.
1141:
The Western North American floras of the Eocene were divided into four floral "stages" by
8:
9157:
6924:
Bohaty, Steven M.; Zachos, James C.; Florindo, Fabio; Delaney, Margaret L. (9 May 2009).
6145:
6054:
Sloan, L. C.; Morrill, C. (1998). "Orbital forcing and Eocene continental temperatures".
5771:
5516:"Terrestrial carbon isotope excursions and biotic change during Palaeogene hyperthermals"
5472:
4672:"Antarctic Ice Sheet variability across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary climate transition"
4552:
4069:
3876:
Fan, Majie; Constenius, Kurt N.; Phillips, Rachel F.; Dettman, David L. (17 March 2021).
1776:
1771:
and even tropical trees and plants from the Eocene also have been found in Greenland and
1679:
1647:
1583:
1414:
1411:
1399:
1346:
1084:
8268:
8174:
8014:
7942:
7746:
7702:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
7675:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
7611:
7570:
7528:
7491:
7451:
7414:
7364:
7316:
7260:
7156:
7099:
7039:
6991:
6943:
6895:
6787:
6770:"Carbon cycle instability and orbital forcing during the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum"
6728:
6672:
6615:
6568:
6512:
6464:
6364:
6313:
6205:
6158:
6109:
6069:
6030:
5989:
5952:
5895:
5827:
5784:
5630:
5579:
5533:
5485:
5406:
5349:
5285:
5268:"Eocene global warming events driven by ventilation of oceanic dissolved organic carbon"
5237:
5125:
4990:
4906:
4853:
4795:
4749:
4689:
4623:
4565:
4493:
4436:
4369:
Bouilhol, Pierre; Jagoutz, Oliver; Hanchar, John M.; Dudas, Francis O. (15 March 2013).
4302:
4259:"Balkanatolia: Forgotten Continent Discovered by Team of Paleontologists and Geologists"
4227:
4082:
4000:
3852:
3837:"Kinematic history of the Laramide orogeny in latitudes 35°-49°N, western United States"
3805:
3636:
3594:
3505:
3431:
3390:
3349:
3281:
3225:
3179:
3129:
2962:
2707:
2575:
2543:
2147:, "likely driven by a need for greater cognition in increasingly complex environments".
2104:
to appear. Their groups became highly successful and continued to live past the Eocene.
1181:(2004) as 40 Mya, with a refined end at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary where the younger
885:
that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (Ma). It is the second epoch of the
8132:
8105:
8081:
8044:
7970:
7765:
7728:
7168:
7119:
7051:
6851:
6804:
6774:
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6745:
6710:
6684:
6635:
6524:
6225:
6121:
5914:
5877:
5857:
5844:
5814:
5809:
5742:
5593:
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5336:
5331:
5305:
5145:
5020:
4815:
4709:
4651:
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4521:
4448:
4020:
3817:
3709:
3655:
3618:
3517:
3467:
3293:
3242:
3207:
3141:
1658:
1634:
1418:
1391:
7923:
6243:
Ogawa, Yusuke; Takahashi, Kozo; Yamanaka, Toshiro; Onodera, Jonaotaro (30 July 2009).
6077:
5047:
4671:
3741:
3415:
3023:
2591:
8955:
8919:
8318:
8186:
8137:
8086:
8068:
7974:
7962:
7954:
7929:
7874:
7770:
7653:
7623:
7438:
7401:
7272:
7172:
7111:
7086:
7055:
6855:
6809:
6750:
6688:
6627:
6602:
6528:
6417:
6351:
6217:
6213:
6125:
5976:
5939:
5919:
5861:
5849:
5746:
5734:
5690:
5650:
5597:
5520:
5371:
5297:
5224:
5220:"Persistence of carbon release events through the peak of early Eocene global warmth"
5012:
4918:
4893:
4865:
4819:
4807:
4736:
4701:
4676:
4643:
4635:
4583:
4513:
4452:
4423:
4239:
4189:
4132:
4094:
4043:
4012:
3966:
3899:
3821:
3770:
3745:
3660:
3521:
3486:
3471:
3459:
3451:
3336:
3331:
3313:"Terminal Paleocene Mass Extinction in the Deep Sea: Association with Global Warming"
3297:
3247:
3145:
2976:
2838:
2483:
2467:
2280:
1613:
1567:
1370:
1175:
1038:
8022:
7835:. (2023) Melting climates shrink North American small mammals. 120 (50) e2310855120
7619:
7592:
Shi, Juye; Jin, Zhijun; Liu, Quanyou; Fan, Tailiang; Gao, Zhiqian (1 October 2021).
7499:
7123:
7059:
6639:
6520:
6321:
6229:
5638:
5309:
5149:
4713:
4655:
4525:
4475:
4235:
4024:
3713:
3161:"Examining the case for the use of the Tertiary as a formal period or informal unit"
2857:
2788:
2715:
1269:
At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the
9049:
8924:
8893:
8690:
8272:
8228:
8224:
8178:
8127:
8119:
8076:
8058:
8018:
7946:
7864:
7760:
7750:
7709:
7682:
7615:
7574:
7532:
7495:
7455:
7418:
7368:
7320:
7264:
7216:
7195:"Aridification in continental Asia after the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO)"
7160:
7103:
7043:
6995:
6947:
6899:
6843:
6799:
6791:
6740:
6732:
6676:
6619:
6572:
6516:
6468:
6409:
6368:
6317:
6266:
6209:
6162:
6113:
6073:
6034:
5993:
5956:
5909:
5899:
5839:
5831:
5788:
5724:
5715:
5686:
5642:
5634:
5583:
5537:
5489:
5410:
5361:
5353:
5289:
5272:
5241:
5193:
5137:
5129:
5088:
5024:
5002:
4994:
4977:
4910:
4857:
4799:
4782:
4753:
4693:
4627:
4569:
4547:
4505:
4497:
4480:
4440:
4392:
4351:
4306:
4231:
4181:
4086:
4004:
3958:
3933:
3891:
3856:
3809:
3737:
3701:
3693:
3650:
3640:
3598:
3555:
3509:
3443:
3435:
3394:
3353:
3285:
3237:
3229:
3183:
3160:
3133:
3081:
3077:
2966:
2803:
2767:
2711:
1974:
1806:
fossils were dated from 51.9 Ma, and were found in the Laguna del Hunco deposit in
1760:
1732:
1491:
1490:
of 40 °C (104 °F) to 45 °C (113 °F) at low latitudes, although
1252:
957:
952:
in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope
889:
831:
5588:
5563:
4952:"Chapter 7: The Earth's energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate sensitivity"
4914:
3536:
3095:
George, T. N.; Harland, W. B. (1969). "Recommendations on stratigraphical usage".
3065:
1910:
orders first appeared in the Eocene. The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with
1050:
9198:
9149:
9145:
9141:
9018:
8914:
8852:
8747:
8716:
8685:
8364:
8276:
8248:
7755:
7536:
7324:
7268:
6999:
6576:
5878:"Eocene greenhouse climate revealed by coupled clumped isotope-Mg/Ca thermometry"
4185:
3188:
2880:
2862:
2614:
2335:
2253:
2215:
2211:
1807:
1794:
1727:
1716:
1499:
1464:
1280:
finally closed with the collision of Africa and Eurasia, while the uplift of the
1206:
1018:
meaning "new" or "recent", as the epoch saw the dawn of recent, or modern, life.
981:
882:
640:
311:
41:
9174:
6711:"Middle Eocene greenhouse warming facilitated by diminished weathering feedback"
5937:
Sloan, L. C.; Barron, E. J. (1990). ""Equable" climates during Earth history?".
5437:"Biotic impact of Eocene thermal maximum 2 in a shelf setting (Dababiya, Egypt)"
4631:
3962:
3312:
1922:
9168:
8987:
8857:
8752:
8721:
7578:
7220:
6795:
6736:
6493:
Shi, Juye; Jin, Zhijun; Liu, Quanyou; Zhang, Rui; Huang, Zhenkai (March 2019).
6413:
6270:
5883:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5835:
5357:
5197:
5092:
4396:
4355:
4310:
3813:
3624:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3233:
2360:
Calcareous nannoplankton were a prominent feature of Eocene marine ecosystems.
2047:
2025:
1954:
1891:
1629:
1625:
1429:
1358:
1318:
1294:
1229:
1119:
946:
8522:
7924:"Brawn before brains in placental mammals after the end-Cretaceous extinction"
5267:
4501:
4444:
2752:
1707:
1263:
9192:
8888:
8878:
8847:
8810:
8742:
8711:
8314:
8190:
8072:
7958:
7878:
7869:
7850:
7627:
7396:
7276:
6600:
Pearson, P. N. (2010). "Increased Atmospheric CO2 During the Middle Eocene".
6421:
5654:
4869:
4639:
4243:
4098:
3903:
3455:
3137:
3019:
2884:
2653:
2458:
2442:
2410:
2394:
2339:
2327:
2241:
2232:
2226:
2092:
meanwhile established themselves as some of the largest omnivores. The first
2064:
2058:
1906:
During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quite modern. Many modern
1857:
1848:
trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake
1780:
1696:
1555:
1285:
1245:
1142:
1022:
997:
904:
896:
792:
779:
709:
696:
72:
7950:
7107:
6926:"Coupled greenhouse warming and deep-sea acidification in the middle Eocene"
6623:
5904:
4832:
4697:
4574:
4008:
3769:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 242, 251.
3645:
3513:
3439:
2997:
became generally accepted as marking the Eocene-Oligocene boundary; in 1998
2971:
2946:
1598:. The significantly high amounts of carbon dioxide also acted to facilitate
9179:
9110:
8960:
8883:
8141:
8123:
8090:
7966:
7897:
7774:
7713:
7686:
7115:
6813:
6754:
6631:
6221:
5923:
5853:
5738:
5515:
5436:
5414:
5375:
5301:
5219:
5016:
4922:
4811:
4705:
4647:
4517:
4062:
4016:
3664:
3463:
3251:
2994:
2980:
2534:
2426:
2378:
2315:
2268:
2207:
2108:
2052:
2041:
1752:
1651:
1604:
1595:
1587:
1442:
1382:
1334:
1310:
1304:
1092:
1088:
741:
7836:
6972:
Boscolo Galazzo, Flavia; Thomas, Ellen; Giusberti, Luca (1 January 2015).
5793:
3577:"Eocene–Oligocene extinction and paleoclimatic change near Eugene, Oregon"
9105:
8974:
8950:
8795:
8590:
7372:
7164:
6951:
6903:
6826:
6680:
6167:
6140:
6039:
6012:
5007:
4861:
4090:
3697:
3399:
3372:
3054:. Vol. 17. London, England: Charles Knight and Co. pp. 153–154.
2642:
2582:
2566:
2550:
2323:
2314:
Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notably the
2274:
2258:
2245:
2237:
2089:
2009:
1950:
1768:
1756:
1723:
1654:
1550:
Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were
1289:
1150:
47:
7727:
Gandolfo, MA; Hermsen, EJ; Zamaloa, MC; Nixon, KC; González, CC (2011).
7345:
Borrelli, Chiara; Cramer, Benjamin S.; Katz, Miriam E. (27 March 2014).
5293:
3074:
Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde
2159:
2124:
were evolving at this time, and would eventually evolve into the extant
1994:. Early forms of many other modern mammalian orders appeared, including
113:
9100:
9060:
9003:
8903:
8800:
8674:
8574:
8490:
8182:
8063:
7047:
5493:
4509:
3705:
3447:
2998:
2647:
2598:
2343:
2319:
2200:
2195:
2140:
2029:
1879:
1875:
1802:
1715:
was humid subtropical forest vegetation of high diversity dominated by
1687:
1609:
1538:
1472:
1446:
1386:
1277:
1217:
1127:
745:
452:
267:
92:
57:
9163:
8374:
7893:"Mammals' bodies outpaced their brains right after the dinosaurs died"
7422:
6117:
5141:
3861:
3836:
3052:
Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
1025:(ignoring the Quaternary) divided the Tertiary Epoch into the Eocene,
9115:
9065:
9039:
8998:
8945:
8790:
8766:
8647:
8637:
8626:
8485:
8464:
8459:
8444:
8434:
8421:
8042:
6847:
6472:
6372:
5541:
5245:
4998:
4803:
4757:
3895:
3602:
3416:"Transient Middle Eocene Atmospheric CO 2 and Temperature Variations"
3357:
3289:
2506:
2490:
2474:
2220:
2101:
2093:
2085:
2084:(the earliest lineage of a once-successful predatory family known as
2080:
2074:
2017:
1883:
1869:
1849:
1845:
1811:
1790:
1691:
1643:
1638:
1534:
1468:
1378:
1241:
1213:
1202:
1135:
1054:
953:
949:
942:
938:
886:
669:
528:
443:
416:
406:
365:
319:
277:
97:
5729:
5710:
4476:"Synchronous tropical and polar temperature evolution in the Eocene"
1624:(MECO). At around 41.5 Ma, stable isotopic analysis of samples from
9075:
9070:
9034:
8934:
8867:
8836:
8731:
8700:
8661:
8611:
8585:
8561:
8506:
8501:
8480:
8475:
8390:
8302:
Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)
7849:
Li, Qian; Li, Qi; Xu, Rancheng; Wang, Yuanqing (7 September 2022).
7733:
6141:"Maintenance of polar stratospheric clouds in a moist stratosphere"
5133:
3938:
3925:
2947:"Pliocene and Eocene provide best analogs for near-future climates"
2286:
2097:
2000:
1985:
1675:
1449:
1322:
1303:
was separated in three different landmasses 50 Ma; Western Europe,
1233:
1131:
1123:
1046:
1034:
1030:
893:
470:
461:
434:
425:
243:
230:
87:
82:
67:
62:
52:
7240:
5465:
3619:"Eocene cooling linked to early flow across the Tasmanian Gateway"
3560:
2750:
1744:
evergreen and broad-leafed deciduous forests at higher latitudes.
9089:
9029:
8779:
8616:
8600:
8384:
Eocene Epoch. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from
4371:"Dating the India–Eurasia collision through arc magmatic records"
2331:
2299:
2249:
2125:
2121:
2117:
1990:
1958:
1853:
1834:
1818:
1362:
1300:
1222:
1058:
1026:
985:
389:
303:
102:
77:
8106:"A new proposal concerning the botanical origin of Baltic amber"
8103:
6188:
1455:
in New Zealand indicates elevated ocean salinity in the region.
1193:
9125:
9008:
8454:
8211:
Shahin, Abdalla; El Khawagah, Samar; Shahin, Banan (May 2023).
6708:
5329:
4112:
3002:
2348:
2303:
2129:
2013:
1946:
1942:
1895:
1878:
began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical
1861:
1841:
1784:
1772:
1764:
1748:
1737:
1599:
1591:
1476:
1237:
969:
767:
397:
7919:
7549:
6971:
2895:. Vol. 2. London, England: Macmillan and Co. p. 111.
1475:
which cannot survive during sustained freezes, and fossils of
1049:
in 1840 in place of the Tertiary, and Austrian paleontologist
858:
846:
837:
8049:
7729:"Oldest Known Eucalyptus Macrofossils Are from South America"
7192:
7019:
6444:
6242:
5561:
4416:
4124:
2628:
2190:
2113:
2021:
1995:
1970:
1935:
1887:
1865:
1830:
1822:
1480:
1390:
warmth the atmospheric carbon dioxide values were at 700–900
1010:
1000:
931:
771:
688:
684:
7136:
6293:
5434:
4950:
Forster, P.; Storelvmo, T.; Armour, K.; Collins, W. (2021).
4472:
4175:
3875:
3317:
Effects of Past Global Change on Life: Studies in Geophysics
2993:
The extinction of the Hantkeninidae, a planktonic family of
2944:
7726:
7460:
10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0163:eotits>2.3.co;2
6923:
6289:
6287:
5998:
10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0881:ecdtee>2.3.co;2
5105:
5067:
4668:
4368:
4280:
4278:
4157:
2263:
1966:
1911:
1907:
1856:
and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorial
1826:
1374:
1314:
1281:
861:
840:
8334:
6767:
5961:
10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0489:ecdeh>2.3.co;2
5808:
Grossman, Ethan L.; Joachimski, Michael M. (27 May 2022).
5610:
4545:
4208:
3726:
3677:
3574:
3484:
3208:"A probabilistic assessment of the rapidity of PETM onset"
2833:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
968:, which may be related to the impact of one or more large
7083:
5513:
5389:
Khanolkar, Sonal; Saraswati, Pratul Kumar (1 July 2015).
5217:
2005:
1962:
917:
8154:
6875:
6652:
6284:
5265:
5169:
4275:
4180:. Topics in Geobiology. Vol. 35. pp. 647–668.
3985:
3413:
3159:
Knox, R. W. O.'B.; Pearson, P. N.; Barry, T. L. (2012).
2906:. Vol. 3. London, England: John Murray. p. 55.
2693:
1122:
are referred to as lower, middle, and upper Eocene. The
8210:
7395:
6379:
5810:"Ocean temperatures through the Phanerozoic reassessed"
4889:
7781:
6548:
5874:
2789:"Decision on the Eocene-Oligocene boundary stratotype"
7552:"Onset and Role of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current"
7296:
6138:
3957:. Topics in Geobiology. Vol. 18. pp. 1–38.
3615:
3028:. Vol. 3. Geological Society of London. p.
870:
849:
843:
5767:"The early Eocene equable climate problem revisited"
1945:
of most of the modern mammal orders appear within a
930:, "new") and refers to the "dawn" of modern ('new')
4974:
3485:Hooker, J.J.; Collinson, M.E.; Sille, N.P. (2004).
2298:Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of
855:
834:
130:
7995:Buffetaut, Eric; Angst, Delphine (November 2014).
7922:
7344:
5807:
5388:
5031:
4042:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
3264:
3205:
7516:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
7435:
7304:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
7248:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6979:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6556:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6057:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5678:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4330:
4131:Benyamovskiy, Vladimir Naumovich (January 2012).
3926:"The varves and climate of the Green River epoch"
3206:Turner, S. K.; Hull, P. M.; Ridgwell, A. (2017).
3113:
2913:, of the existing state of the animate creation."
9190:
4949:
3730:Developments in Earth and Environmental Sciences
3158:
3072:[Reports addressed to Professor Bronn].
2039:Established megafauna of the Eocene include the
1425:in the Earth's atmosphere more or less doubled.
1188:
8552:
8380:Eocene Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera
8370:Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America
3789:
3370:
3097:Proceedings of the Geological Society of London
2951:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2787:Silva, Isabella; Jenkins, D. (September 1993).
2135:It is thought that millions of years after the
1969:capable of grasping, as well as differentiated
7994:
6492:
6139:Kirk-Davidoff, D. B.; Lamarque, J. F. (2008).
5764:
4826:
4284:
3765:Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, L. Robin M. (2017).
2100:, established themselves as amongst the first
1288:, and created another shallow sea with island
937:The Eocene spans the time from the end of the
565:Subdivision of the Paleogene according to the
8538:
8406:
8365:Basilosaurus - The plesiosaur that wasn't....
7672:
5568:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
4779:
3568:
3535:Rafferty, John P.; et al., eds. (2013).
3329:
3201:
3199:
3094:
1545:
1486:BAYSPAR measurements indicate extremely high
1102:The end of the Eocene was also marked by the
7591:
7475:
7471:
7469:
7079:
7077:
6440:
6438:
6348:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6178:
6093:
6053:
4163:
4130:
4118:
3764:
3070:"Mittheilungen an Professor Bronn gerichtet"
3007:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
2786:
2746:
2744:
2742:
1751:and even preserved remains of trees such as
1711:Eocene vegetation of the Clarno Nut Beds in
1197:Map of the Earth in the early Eocene (50 Ma)
118:Map of the Earth in the early Eocene (50 Ma)
6595:
6593:
5936:
4935:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4775:
4773:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4733:
3310:
2918:
2735:. International Commission on Stratigraphy.
1736:shows it in an open landscape dominated by
1594:, which is a floating aquatic fern, on the
8545:
8531:
8413:
8399:
7848:
7429:
7391:
7389:
6385:
6344:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6089:
6087:
6010:
5760:
5758:
5756:
5704:
5702:
5700:
5061:
5037:
3196:
3168:Proceedings of the Geologists' Association
2318:found mainly along the south coast of the
1458:
572:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago
8131:
8080:
8062:
7868:
7764:
7754:
7543:
7466:
7074:
6803:
6744:
6435:
6175:
6166:
6038:
5913:
5903:
5843:
5792:
5728:
5647:1983/aedc04cc-bba8-44c6-8f9d-ba398bb24607
5587:
5365:
5006:
4970:
4968:
4604:Li, Fengyuan; Li, Shuqiang (2018-10-01).
4573:
3937:
3930:U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
3860:
3654:
3644:
3559:
3547:
3398:
3241:
3187:
2970:
2888:
2837:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2807:
2771:
2739:
2730:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
1932:French National Museum of Natural History
1091:(single-celled species which are used as
964:(the "Great Break" in continuity) or the
8256:Journal of South American Earth Sciences
7512:
7506:
6590:
5674:
4764:
3534:
3371:Schmidt, G. A.; Shindell, D. T. (2003).
3042:
2687:
2189:
2068:, Dinosaurier Museum Altmühltal, Germany
2057:
1921:
1793:were growing as far north as Alaska and
1722:
1706:
1192:
1138:stages are united as the middle Eocene.
1083:, a short period of intense warming and
1063:International Commission on Stratigraphy
7837:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2310855120
7386:
6599:
6335:
6084:
6047:
6004:
5967:
5930:
5753:
5697:
5668:
3923:
1657:, leading to a decreased proportion of
1514:
14:
9191:
7799:
7787:
7699:
7647:
6835:Geological Society of America Bulletin
6452:Geological Society of America Bulletin
6132:
4965:
4883:
4727:
3952:
3883:Geological Society of America Bulletin
3582:Geological Society of America Bulletin
3304:
3269:Geological Society of America Bulletin
3064:
1829:shores, and had not yet expanded into
1713:John Day Fossil Beds National Monument
562:
8526:
8394:
8305:Global Stratotype Sections and Points
7352:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
7144:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
6931:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
6883:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
6660:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5973:
5708:
4841:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4611:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
4291:International Journal of Coal Geology
3685:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
3553:
3378:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
3018:
2899:
2829:
2137:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event
1523:
8420:
8360:Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales
8286:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
8238:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
8032:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
7637:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
7334:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
7286:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4603:
4256:
4037:
3834:
3311:Kennet, J. P.; Stott, L. D. (1995).
3005:, central Italy, was designated the
2154:
1947:brief period during the early Eocene
1747:Polar forests were quite extensive.
537:
516:
498:
27:Second epoch of the Paleogene Period
9144:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
7200:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
6393:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
6250:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5177:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5072:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4376:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4335:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2028:. Marine fauna are best known from
1759:from the Eocene have been found on
1225:north and reinforcing the cooling.
24:
9148:= megaannum (millions years ago);
8317:: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999.
8294:
8111:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
7856:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
5441:Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences
4138:Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences
2987:
996:The term "Eocene" is derived from
25:
9220:
9152:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
8328:
8200:– via Wiley Online Library.
5765:Huber, M.; Caballero, R. (2011).
5395:Journal of Foraminiferal Research
4108:– via Wiley Online Library.
3767:Earth history and palaeogeography
3494:Journal of the Geological Society
3117:Journal of the Geological Society
2870:
2850:
2823:
2278:, and primitive penguins such as
2218:, large flightless forms such as
1435:Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
1126:Stage constitutes the lower, the
1104:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event
966:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event
9173:
9162:
8242:
8204:
8148:
8097:
8036:
7988:
7913:
7885:
7842:
7825:
7812:
7793:
7720:
7693:
7666:
7641:
7585:
7338:
7290:
7234:
7186:
7130:
7013:
6214:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00195.x
6011:Huber, M.; Sloan, L. C. (2001).
4178:Late Cainozoic Floras of Iceland
3330:Winguth, C.; Thomas, E. (2012).
2606:
2590:
2574:
2558:
2542:
2526:
2514:
2498:
2482:
2466:
2450:
2434:
2418:
2402:
2386:
2370:
2272:, primitive swifts of the genus
2158:
1577:
1357:Greenhouse gases, in particular
1339:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
1284:isolated its final remnant, the
1212:At the beginning of the period,
1209:toward their present positions.
1081:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
934:that appeared during the epoch.
830:
112:
45:
8023:10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.07.001
7620:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103614
7559:Topical Studies in Oceanography
7500:10.1016/j.earscirev.2003.10.003
6965:
6917:
6869:
6820:
6761:
6702:
6646:
6542:
6521:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.01.001
6486:
6322:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503
6236:
5868:
5801:
5639:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102961
5604:
5555:
5507:
5459:
5428:
5382:
5323:
5259:
5211:
5163:
5099:
4943:
4662:
4597:
4539:
4466:
4410:
4362:
4324:
4250:
4236:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103929
4202:
4169:
4056:
4031:
3979:
3946:
3917:
3869:
3828:
3783:
3758:
3720:
3671:
3609:
3528:
3478:
3407:
3364:
3323:
3319:. National Academy of Sciences.
3258:
3152:
3107:
3088:
3058:
3036:
3012:
2809:10.18814/epiiugs/1993/v16i3/002
2773:10.18814/epiiugs/2007/v30i4/003
2716:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.01.001
2667:
1961:, had features like long, thin
1352:
1113:
8229:10.1016/j.marmicro.2023.102244
2938:
2889:Todhunter, Isaac, ed. (1876).
2863:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
2835:English Pronouncing Dictionary
2780:
2722:
1779:grew as far north as northern
1668:
1622:Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum
1505:
1251:In western North America, the
941:Epoch to the beginning of the
497:
13:
1:
8591:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
6078:10.1016/s0031-0182(98)00091-1
5589:10.1080/00288306.2015.1063514
4915:10.1126/science.292.5525.2310
3932:. Professional Paper. 158-E.
3742:10.1016/S1571-9197(08)00008-6
2680:
2309:
1684:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
1321:to initiate formation of the
1189:Palaeogeography and tectonics
1073:
8386:Eocene Epoch | geochronology
8350:Eocene and Oligocene Fossils
8277:10.1016/j.jsames.2023.104470
7756:10.1371/journal.pone.0021084
7537:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.037
7325:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111138
7269:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.03.035
7000:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.10.004
6577:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.09.016
6097:Geophysical Research Letters
6018:Geophysical Research Letters
5691:10.1016/0031-0182(95)00012-7
4186:10.1007/978-94-007-0372-8_12
3835:Bird, Peter (October 1998).
3793:International Geology Review
3189:10.1016/j.pgeola.2012.05.004
2112:is a very well-known Eocene
1271:Chesapeake Bay impact crater
991:
7:
8554:Geological history of Earth
7599:Global and Planetary Change
7027:American Journal of Science
6500:Global and Planetary Change
5711:"Snakes tell a torrid tale"
4632:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.05.014
3963:10.1007/978-1-4615-1271-4_1
2931:Online Etymology Dictionary
2696:Global and Planetary Change
2622:
2355:
2293:
2199:, an early relative of the
2012:(elephants), primates, and
1041:in 1833. British geologist
762:Massignano quarry section,
668:Strong negative anomaly in
563:
225:
10:
9225:
8827:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
8822:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
8586:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
7806:Princeton University Press
7579:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.07.028
7221:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.014
6796:10.1038/s41598-019-45763-2
6737:10.1038/s41467-018-05104-9
6414:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117925
6271:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.06.011
5836:10.1038/s41598-022-11493-1
5358:10.1038/s41598-017-11470-z
5198:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.09.004
5093:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.021
4397:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.023
4356:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.12.006
4311:10.1016/j.coal.2016.09.004
3814:10.2747/0020-6814.46.9.833
3234:10.1038/s41467-017-00292-2
2887:dated 31 January 1831 in:
2363:
1917:
1552:polar stratospheric clouds
1546:Polar stratospheric clouds
1402:are at 400 ppm or 0.04%.
1369:dioxide into the forms of
1328:
1068:
1011:
1001:
921:
907:
9139:
9124:
9111:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
9088:
9048:
9017:
8986:
8973:
8961:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
8933:
8902:
8866:
8835:
8809:
8778:
8765:
8730:
8699:
8673:
8660:
8625:
8599:
8573:
8560:
8428:
7652:. Elsevier. p116 Fig 40.
4502:10.1038/s41586-018-0272-2
4445:10.1038/s41561-018-0200-y
2254:various pseudotooth birds
1840:The cooling also brought
1349:began to rapidly expand.
1149:) based on work with the
1130:Stage the upper; and the
808:
758:
734:Upper boundary definition
733:
725:
679:
665:Lower boundary definition
664:
656:
646:
636:
631:
623:
611:
601:
596:
588:
583:
128:
123:
111:
37:
32:
9106:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
8951:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
8796:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
8648:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
8638:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
8307:Accessed April 30, 2006.
8217:Marine Micropaleontology
7870:10.3389/fevo.2022.955779
7800:Bender, Michael (2013).
4164:Torsvik & Cocks 2017
4119:Torsvik & Cocks 2017
3138:10.1144/gsjgs.135.5.0481
2903:Principles of Geology, …
2660:
2150:
1901:
1886:from the Eocene suggest
1800:The earliest definitive
1702:
1488:sea surface temperatures
1439:Eocene Thermal Maximum 2
1408:global warming potential
1257:Basin and Range Province
133:
9209:Paleogene geochronology
9101:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
9066:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
9061:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
9004:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
8894:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
8801:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
8612:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
7951:10.1126/science.abl5584
7213:2014E&PSL.389...34B
7108:10.1126/science.1110063
6624:10.1126/science.1197894
6406:2023E&PSL.60217925M
6263:2009E&PSL.285..190O
5905:10.1073/pnas.1714744115
5190:2010E&PSL.299..242Z
5085:2010E&PSL.290..192G
5038:O'Neil, Dennis (2012).
4698:10.1126/science.aab0669
4575:10.5194/cp-16-1387-2020
4389:2013E&PSL.366..163B
4348:2016E&PSL.435...64D
4038:Poag, C. Wylie (2004).
4009:10.1126/science.1158708
3924:Bradley, W. H. (1930).
3646:10.1073/pnas.1220872110
3514:10.1144/0016-764903-091
3440:10.1126/science.1193654
3082:2027/hvd.32044106271273
2972:10.1073/pnas.1809600115
2900:Lyell, Charles (1833).
2246:putative rail relatives
2034:southeast United States
1821:were still confined to
1459:Equable climate problem
1367:sequestration of carbon
1201:During the Eocene, the
1155:King County, Washington
742:Planktonic Foraminifers
9071:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
9040:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
8999:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
8946:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
8791:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
8617:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
8300:Ogg, Jim; June, 2004,
8124:10.1098/rspb.2009.0806
7818:Abigail R. D’Ambrosia
7714:10.1098/rstb.1993.0109
7687:10.1098/rstb.1993.0109
5415:10.2113/gsjfr.45.3.293
5113:The Journal of Geology
3076:(in German): 806–810.
2203:
2069:
1984:Both groups of modern
1938:
1740:
1720:
1396:North Atlantic rifting
1236:began to fragment, as
1198:
1009:) meaning "Dawn", and
216:−25 —
206:−30 —
196:−35 —
186:−40 —
176:−45 —
166:−50 —
156:−55 —
146:−60 —
136:−65 —
9076:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
9035:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
8956:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
8643:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
8345:PBS Deep Time: Eocene
8312:Earth System History.
8162:Systematic Entomology
8002:Earth-Science Reviews
7831:Katherina B. Searing
7648:Briggs, John (1995).
7479:Earth-Science Reviews
6716:Nature Communications
6301:Earth-Science Reviews
5794:10.5194/cp-7-603-2011
5618:Earth-Science Reviews
4216:Earth-Science Reviews
3213:Nature Communications
3025:Principles of Geology
2638:(with link directory)
2230:, long legged falcon
2193:
2061:
1973:adapted for chewing.
1925:
1730:'s reconstruction of
1726:
1710:
1417:is 0.000179% or 1.79
1400:carbon dioxide levels
1381:at the bottom of the
1261:Green River Formation
1196:
1185:floral stage starts.
9116:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
9009:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
8889:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
8879:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
7565:(21–22): 2388–2398.
7373:10.1002/2012PA002444
7165:10.1029/2019PA003686
6952:10.1029/2008PA001676
6904:10.1029/2009PA001738
6681:10.1029/2019PA003713
6168:10.5194/cp-4-69-2008
6040:10.1029/2001GL012943
5040:"The First Primates"
4862:10.1029/2022PA004532
4091:10.1029/2010TC002691
3890:(11–12): 2549–2566.
3698:10.1029/2004PA001014
3400:10.1029/2002PA000757
2635:List of fossil sites
2521:Eocene turtle fossil
2120:occurred. The first
1914:and other sea life.
1777:Tropical rainforests
1659:primary productivity
1515:Ocean heat transport
1157:. The four stages,
1106:, also known as the
1033:, and New Pliocene (
529:permanent ice-sheets
9171: •
9160: •
9158:Geologic time scale
8920:Middle (458–470 Ma)
8884:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
8853:Middle (383–393 Ma)
8748:Middle (237–247 Ma)
8717:Middle (164–174 Ma)
8375:Map of Eocene Earth
8310:Stanley, Steven M.
8269:2023JSAES.12804470A
8175:2019SysEn..44..842P
8118:(1972): 3403–3412.
8015:2014ESRv..138..394B
7943:2022Sci...376...80B
7747:2011PLoSO...621084G
7650:Global Biogeography
7612:2021GPC...20503614S
7571:2007DSRII..54.2388B
7529:2006PPP...231....9H
7492:2004ESRv...66..143B
7452:1996Geo....24..163D
7415:2008Geo....36..251L
7365:2014PalOc..29..308B
7317:2022PPP...60111138L
7261:2014PPP...403..101B
7157:2019PaPa...34.1913C
7100:2005Sci...309..600P
7040:2015AmJS..315..317M
6992:2015PPP...417..432B
6944:2009PalOc..24.2207B
6896:2010PalOc..25.3210S
6788:2019NatSR...9.9357G
6729:2018NatCo...9.2877V
6673:2020PaPa...35.3713H
6616:2010Sci...330..763P
6569:2010PPP...297..670E
6513:2019GPC...174..115S
6465:2007GSAB..119..413J
6365:2003Geo....31.1017B
6314:2021ESRv..21503503S
6206:2009Gbio....7..155S
6159:2008CliPa...4...69K
6146:Climate of the Past
6110:1998GeoRL..25.3517S
6070:1998PPP...144...21S
6031:2001GeoRL..28.3481H
5990:1994Geo....22..881C
5953:1990Geo....18..489C
5896:2018PNAS..115.1174E
5828:2022NatSR..12.8938G
5785:2011CliPa...7..603H
5772:Climate of the Past
5631:2020ESRv..20002961C
5580:2015NZJGG..58..262S
5534:2012NatGe...5..326A
5486:2022Geosp..18..327R
5407:2015JForR..45..293K
5350:2017NatSR...711304Y
5294:10.1038/nature09826
5286:2011Natur.471..349S
5238:2014NatGe...7..748K
5126:2012JG....120..487S
4991:1992Natur.357..320S
4985:(6376): 1129–1131.
4907:2001Sci...292.2310R
4901:(5525): 2310–2313.
4854:2023PaPa...38.4532G
4796:2000Natur.406..695P
4750:2010NatGe...3..866B
4690:2016Sci...352...76G
4624:2018MolPE.127..545L
4566:2020CliPa..16.1387W
4553:Climate of the Past
4494:2018Natur.559..382C
4437:2018NatGe..11..761R
4303:2016IJCG..167...10X
4257:CNRS (2022-03-01).
4228:2022ESRv..22603929L
4121:, pp. 242–245.
4083:2011Tecto..30.3002F
4001:2008Sci...320.1740G
3995:(5884): 1740–1745.
3955:Eocene Biodiversity
3853:1998Tecto..17..780B
3806:2004IGRv...46..833E
3637:2013PNAS..110.9645B
3595:2004GSAB..116..817R
3506:2004JGSoc.161..161H
3432:2010Sci...330..819B
3391:2003PalOc..18.1004S
3350:2012Geo....40..263W
3282:2019GSAB..131...84Z
3226:2017NatCo...8..353K
3180:2012PrGA..123..390K
3130:1978JGSoc.135..481O
2963:2018PNAS..11513288B
2957:(52): 13288–13293.
2708:2005GPC....47...51Z
2145:started to increase
1928:Uintatherium anceps
1690:that result in the
1662:cooling at ~40 Ma.
1648:ocean acidification
1584:Antarctic ice sheet
1415:concentration today
1412:atmospheric methane
1347:Antarctic ice sheet
1085:ocean acidification
1057:for the Eocene and
1021:Scottish geologist
976:and in what is now
809:Upper GSSP ratified
793:43.5328°N 13.6011°E
789: /
759:Upper boundary GSSP
726:Lower GSSP ratified
710:25.5000°N 32.5311°E
706: /
680:Lower boundary GSSP
657:Time span formality
9169:Geology portal
9030:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
8925:Early (470–485 Ma)
8858:Early (393–419 Ma)
8753:Early (247–252 Ma)
8722:Early (174–201 Ma)
8691:Early (100–145 Ma)
8686:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
8340:Paleos Eocene page
8183:10.1111/syen.12360
8064:10.7717/peerj.9092
7048:10.2475/04.2015.02
6842:(5–6): 1280–1296.
6775:Scientific Reports
5815:Scientific Reports
5709:Huber, M. (2009).
5494:10.1130/GES02398.1
5337:Scientific Reports
5044:anthro.palomar.edu
3103:(1, 656): 139–166.
3048:"Palæozoic series"
2866:. Merriam-Webster.
2204:
2170:. You can help by
2070:
2062:Reconstruction of
1998:(most notably the
1939:
1882:. Pollen found in
1741:
1721:
1635:seafloor spreading
1524:Orbital parameters
1199:
881:) is a geological
683:Dababiya section,
647:Stratigraphic unit
637:Chronological unit
624:Time scale(s) used
9204:Geological epochs
9186:
9185:
9084:
9083:
9050:Paleoproterozoic
8969:
8968:
8915:Late (444–458 Ma)
8848:Late (359–383 Ma)
8761:
8760:
8743:Late (201–237 Ma)
8712:Late (145–164 Ma)
8656:
8655:
8577:(present–2.58 Ma)
8565:(present–66.0 Ma)
8520:
8519:
8515:
8514:
7708:(1297): 243–252.
7681:(1297): 243–252.
7423:10.1130/g24584a.1
7151:(12): 1913–1930.
7094:(5734): 600–603.
6610:(6005): 763–764.
6359:(11): 1017–1020.
6118:10.1029/98gl02492
6104:(18): 3517–3520.
6025:(18): 3481–3484.
5723:(7230): 669–671.
5521:Nature Geoscience
5280:(7338): 349–352.
5225:Nature Geoscience
4959:IPCC AR6 WG1 2021
4790:(6797): 695–699.
4737:Nature Geoscience
4488:(7714): 382–386.
4424:Nature Geoscience
4195:978-94-007-0371-1
3972:978-1-4613-5471-0
3862:10.1029/98TC02698
3631:(24): 9645–9650.
3426:(6005): 819–821.
2322:, amber from the
2281:Archaeospheniscus
2188:
2187:
1941:The oldest known
1614:mountain building
1568:greenhouse effect
1371:methane clathrate
1176:Gregory Retallack
816:
815:
597:Usage information
578:
577:
558:
557:
536:
535:
515:
514:
16:(Redirected from
9216:
9180:World portal
9178:
9177:
9167:
9166:
9129:
9093:
9053:
9022:
9019:Mesoproterozoic
8991:
8984:
8983:
8979:
8938:
8907:
8871:
8840:
8814:
8783:
8776:
8775:
8771:
8735:
8704:
8678:
8671:
8670:
8666:
8630:
8604:
8578:
8571:
8570:
8566:
8547:
8540:
8533:
8524:
8523:
8431:
8430:
8422:Paleogene Period
8415:
8408:
8401:
8392:
8391:
8335:PaleoMap Project
8288:
8287:
8285:
8283:
8246:
8240:
8239:
8237:
8235:
8208:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8197:
8152:
8146:
8145:
8135:
8101:
8095:
8094:
8084:
8066:
8040:
8034:
8033:
8031:
8029:
7992:
7986:
7985:
7983:
7981:
7926:
7917:
7911:
7910:
7908:
7906:
7889:
7883:
7882:
7872:
7846:
7840:
7829:
7823:
7816:
7810:
7809:
7797:
7791:
7785:
7779:
7778:
7768:
7758:
7724:
7718:
7717:
7697:
7691:
7690:
7670:
7664:
7663:
7645:
7639:
7638:
7636:
7634:
7589:
7583:
7582:
7556:
7547:
7541:
7540:
7510:
7504:
7503:
7486:(1–2): 143–162.
7473:
7464:
7463:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7393:
7384:
7383:
7381:
7379:
7342:
7336:
7335:
7333:
7331:
7294:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7283:
7238:
7232:
7231:
7229:
7227:
7190:
7184:
7183:
7181:
7179:
7134:
7128:
7127:
7081:
7072:
7071:
7069:
7067:
7058:. Archived from
7017:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7006:
6969:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6958:
6921:
6915:
6914:
6912:
6910:
6873:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6862:
6848:10.1130/B36280.1
6824:
6818:
6817:
6807:
6765:
6759:
6758:
6748:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6697:
6695:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6597:
6588:
6587:
6585:
6583:
6563:(3–4): 670–682.
6546:
6540:
6539:
6537:
6535:
6490:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6479:
6473:10.1130/B25917.1
6459:(3–4): 413–427.
6442:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6428:
6383:
6377:
6376:
6373:10.1130/g19800.1
6346:
6333:
6332:
6330:
6328:
6291:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6277:
6257:(1–2): 190–197.
6240:
6234:
6233:
6186:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6136:
6130:
6129:
6091:
6082:
6081:
6051:
6045:
6044:
6042:
6008:
6002:
6001:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5934:
5928:
5927:
5917:
5907:
5890:(6): 1174–1179.
5872:
5866:
5865:
5847:
5805:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5762:
5751:
5750:
5732:
5706:
5695:
5694:
5685:(3–4): 275–292.
5672:
5666:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5608:
5602:
5601:
5591:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5548:
5542:10.1038/ngeo1427
5511:
5505:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5463:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5452:
5432:
5426:
5425:
5423:
5421:
5386:
5380:
5379:
5369:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5254:
5252:
5246:10.1038/ngeo2240
5215:
5209:
5208:
5206:
5204:
5184:(1–2): 242–249.
5167:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5156:
5103:
5097:
5096:
5079:(1–2): 192–200.
5065:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5055:
5046:. Archived from
5035:
5029:
5028:
5010:
4999:10.1038/357320a0
4972:
4963:
4962:
4956:
4947:
4941:
4940:
4934:
4926:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4834:February 2023).
4830:
4824:
4823:
4804:10.1038/35021000
4777:
4762:
4761:
4758:10.1038/ngeo1014
4731:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4720:
4666:
4660:
4659:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4590:
4577:
4560:(4): 1387–1410.
4543:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4532:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4414:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4366:
4360:
4359:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4282:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4254:
4248:
4247:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4173:
4167:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4128:
4122:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4035:
4029:
4028:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3896:10.1130/B35919.1
3873:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3787:
3781:
3780:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3658:
3648:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3603:10.1130/B25281.1
3589:(7–8): 817–839.
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3491:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3358:10.1130/G32529.1
3327:
3321:
3320:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3290:10.1130/B31813.1
3262:
3256:
3255:
3245:
3203:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3165:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3016:
3010:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2974:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2922:
2916:
2907:
2896:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2811:
2793:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2757:
2748:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2691:
2674:
2671:
2610:
2594:
2578:
2562:
2546:
2530:
2518:
2502:
2486:
2470:
2454:
2438:
2422:
2406:
2390:
2374:
2306:, are abundant.
2183:
2180:
2162:
2155:
1761:Ellesmere Island
1423:amount of oxygen
1253:Laramide Orogeny
1014:
1013:
1004:
1003:
982:geologic periods
980:. As with other
958:extinction event
925:
911:
877:
873:
868:
867:
864:
863:
860:
857:
852:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
829:
804:
803:
801:
800:
799:
798:43.5328; 13.6011
794:
790:
787:
786:
785:
782:
752:Cribrohantkenina
721:
720:
718:
717:
716:
715:25.5000; 32.5311
711:
707:
704:
703:
702:
699:
553:
543:
538:
531:
527:First Antarctic
522:
517:
504:
499:
473:
464:
455:
446:
437:
428:
419:
410:
400:
384:
359:
340:
297:
261:
236:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
131:
116:
107:
44:
30:
29:
21:
9224:
9223:
9219:
9218:
9217:
9215:
9214:
9213:
9189:
9188:
9187:
9182:
9172:
9161:
9153:
9135:
9127:
9120:
9091:
9080:
9051:
9044:
9020:
9013:
8989:
8988:Neoproterozoic
8978:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
8977:
8976:
8975:Proterozoic Eon
8965:
8936:
8929:
8905:
8898:
8869:
8862:
8838:
8831:
8812:
8805:
8781:
8769:
8768:
8757:
8733:
8726:
8702:
8695:
8676:
8664:
8663:
8652:
8628:
8621:
8602:
8595:
8576:
8564:
8563:
8556:
8551:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8495:
8469:
8445:Oligocene Epoch
8435:Paleocene Epoch
8424:
8419:
8331:
8297:
8295:Further reading
8292:
8291:
8281:
8279:
8247:
8243:
8233:
8231:
8209:
8205:
8195:
8193:
8153:
8149:
8102:
8098:
8041:
8037:
8027:
8025:
7993:
7989:
7979:
7977:
7937:(6588): 80–85.
7918:
7914:
7904:
7902:
7901:. 31 March 2022
7891:
7890:
7886:
7847:
7843:
7830:
7826:
7817:
7813:
7798:
7794:
7786:
7782:
7725:
7721:
7698:
7694:
7671:
7667:
7660:
7646:
7642:
7632:
7630:
7590:
7586:
7554:
7548:
7544:
7511:
7507:
7474:
7467:
7434:
7430:
7394:
7387:
7377:
7375:
7343:
7339:
7329:
7327:
7295:
7291:
7281:
7279:
7239:
7235:
7225:
7223:
7191:
7187:
7177:
7175:
7135:
7131:
7082:
7075:
7065:
7063:
7018:
7014:
7004:
7002:
6970:
6966:
6956:
6954:
6922:
6918:
6908:
6906:
6874:
6870:
6860:
6858:
6825:
6821:
6766:
6762:
6707:
6703:
6693:
6691:
6651:
6647:
6598:
6591:
6581:
6579:
6547:
6543:
6533:
6531:
6491:
6487:
6477:
6475:
6443:
6436:
6426:
6424:
6384:
6380:
6347:
6336:
6326:
6324:
6292:
6285:
6275:
6273:
6241:
6237:
6187:
6176:
6137:
6133:
6092:
6085:
6052:
6048:
6009:
6005:
5984:(10): 881–884.
5972:
5968:
5935:
5931:
5873:
5869:
5806:
5802:
5763:
5754:
5730:10.1038/457669a
5707:
5698:
5673:
5669:
5659:
5657:
5609:
5605:
5560:
5556:
5546:
5544:
5512:
5508:
5498:
5496:
5464:
5460:
5450:
5448:
5433:
5429:
5419:
5417:
5387:
5383:
5328:
5324:
5314:
5312:
5264:
5260:
5250:
5248:
5216:
5212:
5202:
5200:
5168:
5164:
5154:
5152:
5104:
5100:
5066:
5062:
5053:
5051:
5036:
5032:
4973:
4966:
4954:
4948:
4944:
4928:
4927:
4888:
4884:
4874:
4872:
4831:
4827:
4778:
4765:
4744:(12): 866–869.
4732:
4728:
4718:
4716:
4684:(6281): 76–80.
4667:
4663:
4602:
4598:
4588:
4586:
4544:
4540:
4530:
4528:
4471:
4467:
4457:
4455:
4431:(10): 761–765.
4415:
4411:
4401:
4399:
4367:
4363:
4329:
4325:
4315:
4313:
4283:
4276:
4267:
4265:
4255:
4251:
4207:
4203:
4196:
4174:
4170:
4166:, pp. 251.
4162:
4158:
4148:
4146:
4129:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4061:
4057:
4050:
4036:
4032:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3951:
3947:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3906:
3874:
3870:
3833:
3829:
3788:
3784:
3777:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3725:
3721:
3676:
3672:
3614:
3610:
3573:
3569:
3552:
3548:
3533:
3529:
3489:
3483:
3479:
3412:
3408:
3369:
3365:
3328:
3324:
3309:
3305:
3263:
3259:
3204:
3197:
3163:
3157:
3153:
3112:
3108:
3093:
3089:
3063:
3059:
3041:
3037:
3017:
3013:
2992:
2988:
2943:
2939:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2881:William Whewell
2875:
2871:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2828:
2824:
2814:
2812:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2755:
2749:
2740:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2625:
2618:
2615:Pseudocrypturus
2611:
2602:
2595:
2586:
2579:
2570:
2563:
2554:
2547:
2538:
2531:
2522:
2519:
2510:
2503:
2494:
2487:
2478:
2471:
2462:
2455:
2446:
2439:
2430:
2423:
2414:
2407:
2398:
2391:
2382:
2375:
2366:
2358:
2336:Bembridge Marls
2312:
2296:
2216:Halcyornithidae
2212:Messelasturidae
2184:
2178:
2175:
2168:needs expansion
2153:
2143:of mammals now
1920:
1904:
1808:Chubut province
1795:northern Europe
1728:Heinrich Harder
1705:
1671:
1665:
1580:
1548:
1526:
1517:
1508:
1492:clumped isotope
1484:
1461:
1355:
1331:
1248:drifted apart.
1191:
1116:
1076:
1071:
1053:introduced the
994:
903:comes from the
875:
871:
854:
833:
824:
823:
797:
795:
791:
788:
783:
780:
778:
776:
775:
774:
714:
712:
708:
705:
700:
697:
695:
693:
692:
691:
579:
574:
573:
571:
554:
550:
547:
541:
532:
526:
520:
511:
502:
495:
494:
490:
489:
485:
484:
480:
479:
475:
474:
469:
466:
465:
460:
457:
456:
451:
448:
447:
442:
439:
438:
433:
430:
429:
424:
421:
420:
415:
412:
411:
409:
405:
402:
401:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
381:
379:
377:
375:
373:
371:
369:
367:
364:
361:
360:
356:
354:
352:
350:
348:
345:
342:
341:
339:
338:
335:
333:
331:
329:
327:
325:
323:
321:
318:
315:
314:
308:
307:
299:
298:
293:
291:
289:
287:
285:
283:
281:
279:
275:
272:
271:
263:
262:
257:
255:
253:
251:
249:
247:
245:
241:
238:
237:
232:
228:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
119:
106:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
39:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9222:
9212:
9211:
9206:
9201:
9184:
9183:
9140:
9137:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9122:
9121:
9119:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9103:
9097:
9095:
9086:
9085:
9082:
9081:
9079:
9078:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9057:
9055:
9046:
9045:
9043:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9026:
9024:
9015:
9014:
9012:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8995:
8993:
8981:
8971:
8970:
8967:
8966:
8964:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8948:
8942:
8940:
8931:
8930:
8928:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8911:
8909:
8900:
8899:
8897:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8875:
8873:
8864:
8863:
8861:
8860:
8855:
8850:
8844:
8842:
8833:
8832:
8830:
8829:
8824:
8818:
8816:
8811:Carboniferous
8807:
8806:
8804:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8787:
8785:
8773:
8763:
8762:
8759:
8758:
8756:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8739:
8737:
8728:
8727:
8725:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8708:
8706:
8697:
8696:
8694:
8693:
8688:
8682:
8680:
8668:
8658:
8657:
8654:
8653:
8651:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8634:
8632:
8629:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
8623:
8622:
8620:
8619:
8614:
8608:
8606:
8603:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
8597:
8596:
8594:
8593:
8588:
8582:
8580:
8568:
8558:
8557:
8550:
8549:
8542:
8535:
8527:
8518:
8517:
8513:
8512:
8510:
8509:
8504:
8498:
8496:
8494:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8478:
8472:
8470:
8468:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8451:
8448:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8429:
8426:
8425:
8418:
8417:
8410:
8403:
8395:
8389:
8388:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
8330:
8329:External links
8327:
8326:
8325:
8308:
8296:
8293:
8290:
8289:
8241:
8203:
8169:(4): 842–861.
8147:
8096:
8035:
7987:
7912:
7884:
7841:
7824:
7811:
7808:. p. 108.
7792:
7790:, p. 118.
7780:
7719:
7692:
7665:
7658:
7640:
7584:
7542:
7505:
7465:
7446:(2): 163–166.
7428:
7409:(3): 251–254.
7385:
7359:(4): 308–327.
7337:
7289:
7233:
7185:
7129:
7073:
7062:on 19 May 2023
7034:(4): 317–336.
7012:
6964:
6916:
6868:
6819:
6760:
6701:
6645:
6589:
6541:
6485:
6434:
6378:
6334:
6283:
6235:
6200:(2): 155–170.
6174:
6131:
6083:
6064:(1–2): 21–35.
6046:
6003:
5966:
5947:(6): 489–492.
5929:
5867:
5800:
5779:(2): 603–633.
5752:
5696:
5667:
5603:
5574:(3): 262–280.
5554:
5528:(5): 326–329.
5506:
5480:(1): 327–349.
5458:
5427:
5401:(3): 293–304.
5381:
5322:
5258:
5232:(1): 748–751.
5210:
5162:
5134:10.1086/666743
5120:(5): 487–505.
5098:
5060:
5030:
4964:
4942:
4882:
4825:
4763:
4726:
4661:
4596:
4538:
4465:
4409:
4361:
4323:
4274:
4249:
4201:
4194:
4168:
4156:
4123:
4111:
4055:
4048:
4030:
3978:
3971:
3945:
3939:10.3133/pp158E
3916:
3868:
3847:(5): 780–801.
3827:
3800:(9): 833–838.
3782:
3775:
3757:
3750:
3719:
3670:
3608:
3567:
3546:
3537:"Eocene Epoch"
3527:
3500:(2): 161–172.
3477:
3406:
3363:
3344:(3): 263–266.
3322:
3303:
3276:(1–2): 84–98.
3257:
3195:
3174:(3): 390–393.
3151:
3124:(5): 481–497.
3106:
3087:
3057:
3035:
3011:
2986:
2937:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2897:
2869:
2849:
2843:
2822:
2802:(3): 379–382.
2779:
2766:(4): 271–286.
2738:
2721:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2640:
2632:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2596:
2589:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2513:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2479:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2415:
2408:
2401:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2383:
2376:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2354:
2326:, France, the
2311:
2308:
2295:
2292:
2248:of the family
2186:
2185:
2165:
2163:
2152:
2149:
2048:Arsinoitherium
2026:southeast Asia
1955:perissodactyls
1919:
1916:
1903:
1900:
1733:Arsinoitherium
1704:
1701:
1680:present levels
1670:
1667:
1630:Oxygen isotope
1626:Southern Ocean
1579:
1576:
1547:
1544:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1513:
1507:
1504:
1482:
1460:
1457:
1430:carbon isotope
1359:carbon dioxide
1354:
1351:
1330:
1327:
1313:collided with
1230:supercontinent
1190:
1187:
1115:
1112:
1108:Grande Coupure
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
993:
990:
978:Chesapeake Bay
962:Grande Coupure
947:carbon isotope
892:in the modern
814:
813:
810:
806:
805:
760:
756:
755:
735:
731:
730:
727:
723:
722:
681:
677:
676:
672:values at the
666:
662:
661:
658:
654:
653:
648:
644:
643:
638:
634:
633:
629:
628:
627:ICS Time Scale
625:
621:
620:
613:
612:Regional usage
609:
608:
603:
602:Celestial body
599:
598:
594:
593:
590:
589:Name formality
586:
585:
581:
580:
576:
575:
560:
559:
556:
555:
546:
544:
534:
533:
525:
523:
513:
512:
507:
505:
496:
492:
491:
487:
486:
482:
481:
477:
476:
468:
467:
459:
458:
450:
449:
441:
440:
432:
431:
423:
422:
414:
413:
404:
403:
395:
394:
388:
387:
363:
362:
344:
343:
317:
316:
310:
309:
301:
300:
274:
273:
265:
264:
240:
239:
227:
226:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
126:
125:
121:
120:
117:
109:
108:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
40:56.0 – 33.9
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9221:
9210:
9207:
9205:
9202:
9200:
9197:
9196:
9194:
9181:
9176:
9170:
9165:
9159:
9156:
9151:
9147:
9143:
9138:
9132:
9130:
9123:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9098:
9096:
9094:
9087:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9058:
9056:
9054:
9047:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9027:
9025:
9023:
9016:
9010:
9007:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8996:
8994:
8992:
8990:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
8985:
8982:
8980:
8972:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8943:
8941:
8939:
8932:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8912:
8910:
8908:
8901:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8877:
8876:
8874:
8872:
8865:
8859:
8856:
8854:
8851:
8849:
8846:
8845:
8843:
8841:
8834:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8819:
8817:
8815:
8808:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8788:
8786:
8784:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8767:Paleozoic Era
8764:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8740:
8738:
8736:
8729:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8709:
8707:
8705:
8698:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8681:
8679:
8677:(66.0–145 Ma)
8672:
8669:
8667:
8665:(66.0–252 Ma)
8659:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8635:
8633:
8631:
8624:
8618:
8615:
8613:
8610:
8609:
8607:
8605:
8598:
8592:
8589:
8587:
8584:
8583:
8581:
8579:
8572:
8569:
8567:
8559:
8555:
8548:
8543:
8541:
8536:
8534:
8529:
8528:
8525:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8499:
8497:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8479:
8477:
8474:
8473:
8471:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8452:
8450:
8449:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8432:
8427:
8423:
8416:
8411:
8409:
8404:
8402:
8397:
8396:
8393:
8387:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8346:
8343:
8341:
8338:
8336:
8333:
8332:
8324:
8323:0-7167-2882-6
8320:
8316:
8313:
8309:
8306:
8303:
8299:
8298:
8278:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8257:
8252:
8245:
8230:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8207:
8192:
8188:
8184:
8180:
8176:
8172:
8168:
8164:
8163:
8158:
8151:
8143:
8139:
8134:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8112:
8107:
8100:
8092:
8088:
8083:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8056:
8052:
8051:
8046:
8039:
8024:
8020:
8016:
8012:
8008:
8004:
8003:
7998:
7991:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7932:
7931:
7925:
7916:
7900:
7899:
7894:
7888:
7880:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7862:
7858:
7857:
7852:
7845:
7838:
7834:
7828:
7821:
7815:
7807:
7803:
7796:
7789:
7784:
7776:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7741:(6): e21084.
7740:
7736:
7735:
7730:
7723:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7696:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7669:
7661:
7659:0-444-88297-9
7655:
7651:
7644:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7609:
7605:
7601:
7600:
7595:
7588:
7580:
7576:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7560:
7553:
7546:
7538:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7523:(1–2): 9–28.
7522:
7518:
7517:
7509:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7480:
7472:
7470:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7445:
7441:
7440:
7432:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7403:
7398:
7392:
7390:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7353:
7348:
7341:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7305:
7300:
7293:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7237:
7222:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7201:
7196:
7189:
7174:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7145:
7140:
7133:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7113:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7088:
7080:
7078:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7028:
7023:
7016:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
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6953:
6949:
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6927:
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6905:
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6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6884:
6879:
6872:
6857:
6853:
6849:
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6841:
6837:
6836:
6831:
6823:
6815:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6797:
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6789:
6785:
6781:
6777:
6776:
6771:
6764:
6756:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6717:
6712:
6705:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6661:
6656:
6649:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6604:
6596:
6594:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6558:
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6552:
6545:
6530:
6526:
6522:
6518:
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6506:
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6496:
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6474:
6470:
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6407:
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6389:
6382:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
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6353:
6345:
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6319:
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6311:
6307:
6303:
6302:
6297:
6290:
6288:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6251:
6246:
6239:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6194:
6185:
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6179:
6169:
6164:
6160:
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6152:
6148:
6147:
6142:
6135:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
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6103:
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5115:
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5094:
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5078:
5074:
5073:
5064:
5050:on 2015-12-25
5049:
5045:
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5009:
5008:2027.42/62963
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3219:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3202:
3200:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3015:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2921:
2912:
2905:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2885:Charles Lyell
2882:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2846:
2844:3-12-539683-2
2840:
2836:
2832:
2831:Jones, Daniel
2826:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2783:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2731:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2670:
2666:
2655:
2654:Wadi El Hitan
2652:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2617:
2616:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2593:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2561:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2517:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2501:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2459:Borealosuchus
2453:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2443:Andrewsarchus
2437:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2421:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2411:Brontotherium
2405:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2395:Hyracotherium
2389:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2361:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2340:Isle of Wight
2337:
2333:
2329:
2328:Fur Formation
2325:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2305:
2301:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2242:Gallinuloides
2239:
2235:
2234:
2233:Masillaraptor
2229:
2228:
2227:Eleutherornis
2223:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2208:psittaciforms
2202:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2182:
2173:
2169:
2166:This section
2164:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2067:
2066:
2065:Andrewsarchus
2060:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:proboscidians
2007:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1858:South America
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1781:North America
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1753:swamp cypress
1750:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1700:
1698:
1697:Drake Passage
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:Middle Eocene
1575:
1571:
1569:
1563:
1559:
1557:
1556:sulfuric acid
1553:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1521:
1512:
1503:
1501:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1286:Mediterranean
1283:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1246:North America
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1228:The northern
1226:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1205:continued to
1204:
1195:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1093:bioindicators
1090:
1086:
1082:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1051:Moritz Hörnes
1048:
1045:proposed the
1044:
1043:John Phillips
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:Charles Lyell
1019:
1017:
1008:
999:
998:Ancient Greek
989:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
924:
919:
915:
910:
906:
905:Ancient Greek
902:
898:
895:
891:
888:
884:
880:
879:
866:
827:
821:
811:
807:
802:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
754:
753:
748:
747:
743:
739:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
690:
686:
682:
678:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
649:
645:
642:
639:
635:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
607:
604:
600:
595:
591:
587:
582:
570:
569:, as of 2021.
568:
561:
552:
545:
540:
539:
530:
524:
519:
518:
510:
506:
501:
500:
472:
463:
454:
445:
436:
427:
418:
408:
399:
391:
383:
358:
337:
313:
306:
305:
296:
295:
270:
269:
260:
259:
235:
234:
132:
127:
122:
115:
110:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
36:
31:
19:
9154:
9090:Archean Eon
9052:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
8937:(485–539 Ma)
8906:(444–485 Ma)
8870:(419–444 Ma)
8839:(359–419 Ma)
8813:(299–359 Ma)
8782:(252–299 Ma)
8770:(252–539 Ma)
8734:(201–252 Ma)
8703:(145–201 Ma)
8662:Mesozoic Era
8642:
8562:Cenozoic Era
8440:Eocene Epoch
8439:
8311:
8301:
8280:. Retrieved
8260:
8254:
8244:
8232:. Retrieved
8220:
8216:
8206:
8194:. Retrieved
8166:
8160:
8150:
8115:
8109:
8099:
8054:
8048:
8038:
8026:. Retrieved
8006:
8000:
7990:
7978:. Retrieved
7934:
7928:
7915:
7903:. Retrieved
7898:Science News
7896:
7887:
7860:
7854:
7844:
7832:
7827:
7819:
7814:
7802:Paleoclimate
7801:
7795:
7783:
7738:
7732:
7722:
7705:
7701:
7695:
7678:
7674:
7668:
7649:
7643:
7631:. Retrieved
7603:
7597:
7587:
7562:
7558:
7545:
7520:
7514:
7508:
7483:
7477:
7443:
7437:
7431:
7406:
7400:
7376:. Retrieved
7356:
7350:
7340:
7328:. Retrieved
7308:
7302:
7292:
7280:. Retrieved
7252:
7246:
7236:
7224:. Retrieved
7204:
7198:
7188:
7176:. Retrieved
7148:
7142:
7132:
7091:
7085:
7064:. Retrieved
7060:the original
7031:
7025:
7015:
7003:. Retrieved
6983:
6977:
6967:
6955:. Retrieved
6935:
6929:
6919:
6907:. Retrieved
6887:
6881:
6871:
6859:. Retrieved
6839:
6833:
6822:
6779:
6773:
6763:
6720:
6714:
6704:
6692:. Retrieved
6664:
6658:
6648:
6607:
6601:
6580:. Retrieved
6560:
6554:
6544:
6532:. Retrieved
6504:
6498:
6488:
6476:. Retrieved
6456:
6450:
6427:24 September
6425:. Retrieved
6397:
6391:
6381:
6356:
6350:
6327:24 September
6325:. Retrieved
6305:
6299:
6274:. Retrieved
6254:
6248:
6238:
6197:
6191:
6153:(1): 69–78.
6150:
6144:
6134:
6101:
6095:
6061:
6055:
6049:
6022:
6016:
6006:
5981:
5975:
5969:
5944:
5938:
5932:
5887:
5881:
5870:
5819:
5813:
5803:
5776:
5770:
5720:
5714:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5660:11 September
5658:. Retrieved
5622:
5616:
5606:
5571:
5567:
5557:
5545:. Retrieved
5525:
5519:
5509:
5497:. Retrieved
5477:
5471:
5461:
5449:. Retrieved
5444:
5440:
5430:
5418:. Retrieved
5398:
5394:
5384:
5344:(1): 11304.
5341:
5335:
5325:
5313:. Retrieved
5277:
5271:
5261:
5249:. Retrieved
5229:
5223:
5213:
5201:. Retrieved
5181:
5175:
5165:
5153:. Retrieved
5117:
5111:
5101:
5076:
5070:
5063:
5052:. Retrieved
5048:the original
5043:
5033:
4982:
4976:
4958:
4945:
4931:cite journal
4898:
4892:
4885:
4875:24 September
4873:. Retrieved
4845:
4839:
4828:
4787:
4781:
4741:
4735:
4729:
4717:. Retrieved
4681:
4675:
4664:
4615:
4609:
4599:
4587:. Retrieved
4557:
4551:
4541:
4531:21 September
4529:. Retrieved
4485:
4479:
4468:
4456:. Retrieved
4428:
4422:
4412:
4400:. Retrieved
4380:
4374:
4364:
4339:
4333:
4326:
4316:24 September
4314:. Retrieved
4294:
4290:
4266:. Retrieved
4263:SciTechDaily
4262:
4252:
4219:
4215:
4204:
4177:
4171:
4159:
4149:24 September
4147:. Retrieved
4145:(1): 117–128
4142:
4136:
4126:
4114:
4102:. Retrieved
4074:
4068:
4058:
4039:
4033:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3954:
3948:
3929:
3919:
3909:11 September
3907:. Retrieved
3887:
3881:
3871:
3844:
3840:
3830:
3797:
3791:
3785:
3766:
3760:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3689:
3683:
3673:
3628:
3622:
3611:
3586:
3580:
3570:
3549:
3540:
3530:
3497:
3493:
3480:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3382:
3376:
3366:
3341:
3335:
3325:
3316:
3306:
3273:
3267:
3260:
3220:(353): 353.
3217:
3211:
3171:
3167:
3154:
3121:
3115:
3109:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3073:
3060:
3051:
3044:Phillips, J.
3038:
3024:
3014:
2995:foraminifera
2989:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2929:
2920:
2910:
2902:
2891:
2879:Letter from
2872:
2861:
2852:
2834:
2825:
2813:. Retrieved
2799:
2795:
2782:
2763:
2759:
2724:
2702:(1): 51–66.
2699:
2695:
2689:
2669:
2637:
2613:
2597:
2581:
2565:
2549:
2535:Leptictidium
2533:
2505:
2489:
2473:
2457:
2441:
2427:Basilosaurus
2425:
2409:
2393:
2379:Moeritherium
2377:
2359:
2347:
2316:Baltic amber
2313:
2297:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2269:Rhynchaeites
2267:
2257:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2205:
2194:
2176:
2172:adding to it
2167:
2134:
2109:Basilosaurus
2107:
2106:
2096:, including
2079:
2073:
2071:
2063:
2053:brontotheres
2046:
2042:Uintatherium
2040:
2038:
1999:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1965:, feet, and
1951:artiodactyls
1940:
1927:
1905:
1874:
1839:
1816:
1801:
1799:
1789:
1757:dawn redwood
1746:
1742:
1731:
1672:
1664:
1655:heterotrophs
1618:
1605:Azolla Event
1596:Arctic Ocean
1588:azolla event
1581:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1549:
1531:eccentricity
1527:
1518:
1509:
1497:
1462:
1453:Homotryblium
1452:
1443:foraminifera
1437:(PETM), the
1427:
1404:
1383:Arctic Ocean
1356:
1353:Early Eocene
1335:Cenozoic Era
1332:
1309:
1305:Balkanatolia
1299:
1290:archipelagos
1278:Tethys Ocean
1275:
1268:
1250:
1227:
1211:
1200:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1140:
1117:
1114:Stratigraphy
1107:
1101:
1097:
1089:foraminifera
1077:
1020:
1015:
1006:
995:
961:
936:
927:
913:
900:
819:
817:
750:
744:
564:
346:
302:
276:
266:
242:
229:
18:Eocene Epoch
9126:Hadean Eon
8904:Ordovician
8675:Cretaceous
8575:Quaternary
8009:: 394–408.
7980:19 November
7788:Briggs 1995
7633:26 December
7397:Lear, C. H.
7282:26 December
7255:: 101–118.
7005:19 November
6986:: 432–444.
6938:(2): 1–16.
6890:(3): 1–11.
6782:(1): 9357.
6723:(1): 2877.
6507:: 115–126.
6190:drawdown".
5822:(1): 8938.
4848:(3): 1–18.
4618:: 545–555.
4510:1874/366626
4458:26 December
4402:25 December
4383:: 163–175.
4104:15 December
4077:(3): 1–22.
3736:: 309–368.
3706:1874/385798
3448:1874/385803
2815:13 December
2643:London Clay
2583:Tritemnodon
2567:Hesperocyon
2551:Peratherium
2324:Paris Basin
2275:Aegialornis
2259:Gigantornis
2141:brain sizes
2090:Entelodonts
1769:subtropical
1717:angiosperms
1688:ocean gyres
1669:Late Eocene
1506:Large lakes
1264:lagerstätte
1174:refined by
1159:Franklinian
1153:fossils of
1151:Puget Group
960:called the
899:. The name
796: /
713: /
9193:Categories
9128:(4–4.6 Ga)
9092:(2.5–4 Ga)
9021:(1–1.6 Ga)
8627:Paleogene
8491:Priabonian
8263:: 104470.
8223:: 102244.
7606:: 103614.
7311:: 111138.
6400:: 117925.
6308:: 103503.
6193:Geobiology
5625:: 102961.
5142:1911/88269
5054:2014-05-13
4268:2023-02-06
4222:: 103929.
3541:Britannica
3385:(1): n/a.
3066:Hörnes, M.
2999:Massignano
2681:References
2650:in Germany
2648:Messel pit
2599:Coryphodon
2334:, and the
2320:Baltic Sea
2310:Arthropods
2250:Songziidae
2238:galliforms
2236:, ancient
2210:, such as
2196:Primobucco
2030:South Asia
1880:rainforest
1876:Antarctica
1825:banks and
1803:Eucalyptus
1791:Palm trees
1610:weathering
1539:precession
1500:proxy data
1473:palm trees
1469:crocodiles
1447:euryhaline
1387:weathering
1218:Antarctica
1203:continents
1143:Jack Wolfe
1128:Priabonian
1074:Boundaries
784:13°36′04″E
781:43°31′58″N
764:Massignano
746:Hantkenina
701:32°31′52″E
698:25°30′00″N
632:Definition
551:extinction
453:Priabonian
124:Chronology
9155:See also:
8935:Cambrian
8868:Silurian
8837:Devonian
8732:Triassic
8701:Jurassic
8486:Bartonian
8465:Thanetian
8460:Selandian
8191:0307-6970
8073:2167-8359
8057:: e9092.
7975:247853831
7959:0036-8075
7879:2296-701X
7628:0921-8181
7277:0031-0182
7207:: 34–42.
7173:210245165
7056:129918182
6856:252033074
6689:216309293
6534:3 January
6529:135265513
6422:0012-821X
6126:128392518
5862:249128273
5747:205044111
5655:0012-8252
5598:130982094
5473:Geosphere
5447:: 154–160
4870:2572-4517
4820:205008176
4640:1055-7903
4589:8 January
4584:236890548
4453:134126659
4342:: 64–73.
4297:: 10–30.
4244:0012-8252
4099:0278-7407
4070:Tectonics
3904:0016-7606
3841:Tectonics
3822:129901811
3522:140576090
3472:206528256
3456:0036-8075
3298:134560025
3146:129095948
3020:Lyell, C.
2507:Hyracodon
2491:Pakicetus
2475:Gastornis
2338:from the
2266:relative
2221:Gastornis
2179:July 2020
2122:sirenians
2118:cetaceans
2102:feliforms
2094:nimravids
2086:bear dogs
2081:Daphoenus
2075:Hyaenodon
2018:Patagonia
1986:ungulates
1884:Prydz Bay
1870:Australia
1850:evergreen
1846:Deciduous
1844:changes.
1812:Argentina
1692:upwelling
1676:alkenones
1644:Himalayas
1639:volcanism
1535:obliquity
1379:crude oil
1343:the poles
1323:Himalayas
1242:Greenland
1214:Australia
1183:Angoonian
1171:Kummerian
1163:Fultonian
1136:Bartonian
1055:Paleogene
992:Etymology
943:Oligocene
939:Paleocene
887:Paleogene
874:-ə-seen,
584:Etymology
549:K-Pg mass
444:Bartonian
417:Thanetian
407:Selandian
8780:Permian
8601:Neogene
8507:Chattian
8502:Rupelian
8481:Lutetian
8476:Ypresian
8315:New York
8142:19570786
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7178:17 March
7124:20277445
7116:15961630
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2926:"Eocene"
2858:"Eocene"
2796:Episodes
2760:Episodes
2656:in Egypt
2631:in Italy
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2098:Dinictis
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1835:savannas
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1295:Atlantic
1234:Laurasia
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1167:Ravenian
1132:Lutetian
1124:Ypresian
1047:Cenozoic
1035:Holocene
1031:Pliocene
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8282:20 July
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