Age of Enlightenment

8198:, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result. 8664:

critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France. More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

8648:, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of 8886:

cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

7145: 5675:, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. Some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide technical expertise. 8615: 8494:

learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated

6768: 7850:, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is 8313: 6535: 8717:

and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.

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performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

7892:: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas." 7195: 24394: 8118: 7536:, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the 8294:, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the 5390: 7922: 5980:, liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with 7456: 8721:

Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to

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ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the

7995: 8348:. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution. Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. 6312:

far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of ," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."

8602:: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance. 8272: 6133: 7603: 8681:

is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

5573: 8040: 6356: 4922: 6472:, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established 33: 6601:

accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.

6879: 6676:, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre. Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny. 3412: 6698:, Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century. German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far. 6605: 21424: 8849:, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists. 8834: 3400: 23121: 22137: 15993: 8634: 6084: 10563:"Recognized in Europe as the author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson quickly became a focal point or lightning rod for revolutionaries in Europe and the Americas. As United States minister to France when revolutionary fervor was rising toward the storming of the Bastille in 1789, Jefferson became an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, even allowing his residence to be used as a meeting place for the rebels led by Lafayette." 1799: 8404: 8606:

ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

8209:, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity. 82: 7858: 6500:, the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life. Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal 8173: 24406: 1723: 3476: 8218: 6211: 5739: 1735: 8263:) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works. 7270: 7823: 4934: 4905: 6230:. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the 23131: 5902: 8502: 8304:

objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

6480: 96: 12093:... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself. 7814:

rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

8332:. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. 6177:." In this view, the revolutions were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. A governance philosophy where the king was never wrong would be in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. 8522:(1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's 6552:

the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of

6504:, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment." In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of 6833:(1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. 8032:

written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's

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journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the

5995:, wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn." Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's 6702:

so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.

11833: 6959:; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule. 8133:. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total. 20893: 5457:, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be 8889:

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even

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Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative

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One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific

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The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation." Kant considered

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In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but

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were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the

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from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, "Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre," Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart,

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and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and

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The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's

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Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual

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France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology.

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represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would

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The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of

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and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution. Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and

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In recent years, scholars have expanded the time span and global perspective of the Enlightenment by examining: (1) how European intellectuals did not work alone and other people helped spread and adapt Enlightenment ideas, (2) how Enlightenment ideas were "a response to cross-border interaction and

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forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage," tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another."

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Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during

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Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at

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In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the

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Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. In the 18th century, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over 70 official scientific

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The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life,

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around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This

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Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the

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The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's

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In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and

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As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur

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In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European

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and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the

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argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal

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and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were

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It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we

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proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This

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The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice—in

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on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute, and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying

8882:"initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe. 8860:

and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality." Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent

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were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class

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Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose

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The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was

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two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained,

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the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude." Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

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have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian,

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which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal).

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The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of

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when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the

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became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. After the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, the relationship between church and the absolutist government was very strong. The early enlightenment emerged in protest to these circumstances, gaining

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German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and

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As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the

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It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this

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The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and

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constitutes a myth. Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the Scientific Revolution was actually applied

6367:

The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a

6330:

The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to Locke. According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people

10886:

containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reflections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system

8815:

issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th

8140:

Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy

7804:

In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.

5619:

Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought.

8720:

Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery.

7917:

Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject

11970:

Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. D'Alembert's introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, along with Immanuel Kant's essay response (the "independent thinkers"), both

8259:

often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social." The idea of taste (

8149:

a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the

7679:

historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that

7159:

In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in

6915:

in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic

6033:

argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never

8881:

exiles. Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to

8877:

model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English

8852:

During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a

8571:

was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular

7658:

saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic

6600:

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became

8824:

From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside,

8748:

who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far

7041:), methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of 10885:

A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole

8803:

In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were

6376:

A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary

7295:

Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment." Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China

6242:, published his "Essay concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In the 6303:, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of 7233:, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King 8144:

The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the

7951:(published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was 8756:

was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the

6188:

from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power."

6338:

and the drafting of the United States Constitution. In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the

13527:

Yale University Press, 1985 p. 437–440. Pope, a Catholic, was a Freemason in 1730, eight years before membership was prohibited by the Catholic Church (1738). Pope's name is on the membership list of the Goat Tavern Lodge (p. 439). Pope's name appears on a 1723 list and a 1730

13282:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pp. 59–65. 8819:

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the

7881:, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the 7895:

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people:

6377:

government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts." Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a

6997:

The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as

8078:, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors." These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling 20187: 9141: 6372:

fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

22273: 7524:, who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century." 7548:

portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a "science" of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton. "Social science" was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It would expose truth and expand human happiness.

7885:. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings. 10519:"Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and intellectual and religious freedom pervaded the American colonial religious landscape, and these values were instrumental in the American Revolution and the creation of a nation without an established religion." 21628: 6642:(The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language. 20233: 8190:

reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits. Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the

7135:

forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy.

20221: 6799:

were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always in the theoretical field. Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the

8104:

was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the

5943:

in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between

5144:. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, 6145:

his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

8816:

century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity."

6112:

and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers

7680:

eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition, and authority."

7959:(1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, 6660:) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath 8671:

of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The society played a large role in spreading

7766:

Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster

7543:

Romantic philosophers argued that the Enlightenment's excessive dependence on reason was a mistake that it perpetuated, disregarding the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

7160:

fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as

20618: 5852:

to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by

7647:

called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness." According to historian

5588:

and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.

8659:(roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the 8484:

in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

7473:

further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment." A major intellectual influence on

5706:. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. The century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological 20860: 8339:

has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and

8063:

the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

7873:. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's 5717:

The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics.

8894:

were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

8327:

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century

7240:

Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King

21623: 6331:

could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

7366:

In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of

6971:

began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows." Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by

6052:, which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from Locke's 8448:

rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's

20209: 7931:

As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience.

5635:

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of

6572:. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in 22342: 7168:. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of 8255:

As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

6034:

imagine that their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767

645: 6276:

advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive

5167:

and the power of religious authorities. The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world, and by an emphasis on the

21779: 21419: 20888: 6280:

and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

5799:

often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by

5668:. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. 8085:

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the

8234:

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include

6465:

continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.

7407:

who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea. The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."

21819: 20006: 20995: 5991:

Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke,

22837: 22212: 5984:

is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the

2978: 6638:

Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the

22224: 5561:(the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by Hutcheson's protégés in 6726:

facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system, monasteries and the legal system. Emperor

20204: 6441:, a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when 3685: 22268: 8498:

was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

7688:

There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of

8335:

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian

21937: 20990: 20623: 20182: 13742:

Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites,"

20905: 7936:, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of 6368:

spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the

24182: 22422: 22398: 22366: 22256: 7355:

singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism." Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer

7180:

which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.

5513:

The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on

22410: 22305: 10022: 8468:

desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the

8380: 21009: 20606: 15677: 7021: 6114: 6088: 9250: 22469: 19974: 8807:

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic,

21738: 20315: 7865:

showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.

7626:

Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took.

7557:

The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term

8512:

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was

22651: 20170: 6924:

free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners, and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of his scientific expedition.

5101:(1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of 5531:

of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the

24071: 22697: 22464: 21882: 19504: 8201:

A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the

8300:

of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

6397:, broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to " to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle." 23168: 20630: 20520: 20228: 20020: 13689: 8445: 8629:

in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett

8551:

published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience,

7469:

Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign."

22679: 21402: 18672: 8938: 7643:"For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar 6268:

and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding

5805: 5312: 8595:

late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

7383:

exchange." By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of

24378: 24373: 22474: 20587: 20438: 20421: 10601: 6347:. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. 9522: 22971: 21537: 7002:

for the formation of revolutionary communities." The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."

5085:

in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason for accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum,

21764: 7073: 20682: 19895: 18662: 9875: 7991:

spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.

7599:(German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late 19th century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment." 7520:, drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform." In 1893, Kemal responded to 6161:

of 1789—both had some intellectual influence from Thomas Jefferson. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "

5952:" and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. 5599:

philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work

5493:

Bayle only partially accepted the philosophy and principles of rationality. He did draw a strict boundary between morality and religion. The rigor of his

22449: 21976: 21587: 21463: 19665: 16334: 8708: 6818:(famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni), who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor centers were 6473: 6325: 5996: 2742: 21028: 6730:, who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France. Similarly, Emperor 23722: 23202: 20973: 18537: 6334:

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the

21045: 8740:

a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters.

8155:

offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers.

6848:

states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty." The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been

6445:

wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism.

5968:

respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the

24097: 22965: 21253: 21033: 14607:

Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794–1715). Editorial DENES.

10962:

to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.")

5773:, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of 5461:

whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative

9091: 8195: 7077: 5885:

visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia;

24172: 22977: 22454: 22347: 22310: 22111: 20900: 8919:. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs. 8804:

commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.

8431:

and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and

8096:"slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself." 7583:=to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like 5557:

principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Much of what is incorporated in the

6911:. The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was promoted under 6029:

Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay

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in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of

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De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,"

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The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras. At the same time, the

7975:(1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment." 7869:

The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of

22504: 22088: 22000: 20308: 18677: 16555: 15057: 14795: 11848: 5992: 4733: 1333: 15168: 7700: 7652:, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture. 7567:

in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question:

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Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece

2767: 2737: 144: 9842: 7249:, Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, 7049:, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the 23161: 21664: 20269: 18047: 10901: 7720:

until the French Revolution. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution or the beginning of the

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was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project.

3442: 2819: 1765: 582: 10207: 7732:," and (3) how the Enlightenment "continued throughout the nineteenth century and beyond." The Enlightenment "was not merely a history of 23755: 23248: 22586: 22192: 21861: 21563: 21014: 20488: 16958: 16545: 5310:

helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other publications of the Enlightenment included Berkeley's

4964: 12186: 8865:, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to " 5434:(1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his 24137: 23436: 22771: 22439: 22393: 22032: 21329: 20581: 20032: 9919: 9087: 7128: 5861:, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as 5848:

The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought

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were reunited and discussed old, actual, or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas.

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centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was

7109: 6947:(parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the 22388: 22383: 22078: 20748: 18617: 9051: 5890: 2772: 1892: 22280: 20011: 11549:

Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere."

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to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

8362:

Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the

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provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge—of which the

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Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.

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Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a

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Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico

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Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle,"

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society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

7443:

was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.

5816:(1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of 23154: 22842: 22317: 21824: 21659: 21473: 21397: 20985: 20086: 17531: 16654: 16107: 14830: 11365: 8970: 8845:

was a main factor in the Enlightenment. Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire,

6787:: in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, 6234:. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. 5430: 3631: 2752: 21839: 20855: 9149: 6299:

with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his

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to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son

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Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the

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Schmidt, James (2003). "Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'".

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and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.

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Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37.

9153: 6804:. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine 5453:, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and 24456: 23394: 23290: 22922: 22766: 22534: 22073: 22042: 21512: 21443: 21159: 21095: 21073: 20754: 19997: 19277: 14768: 14238: 8476:

and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the

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matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.

6018:, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the 5601: 3112: 2973: 2921: 2916: 761: 17: 20025: 6951:, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a 24256: 24154: 24041: 22052: 21830: 21708: 21698: 21488: 21334: 21169: 20371: 20101: 20051: 18793: 17473: 16904: 14993: 14759: 14738: 8825:

spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

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and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

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illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the

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Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a

7736:" and "was the work of historical actors around the world... who invoked the term... for their own specific purposes." 7470: 7222: 6565: 5517:, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a 3152: 3050: 2998: 2936: 2931: 2869: 21407: 13301:

Klein, Lawrence E. (1 January 1996). "Coffeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England".

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However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were

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The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian

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From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook

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was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial

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In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer

5777:. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced 5522: 3775: 3157: 2782: 2537: 1260: 21571: 20554: 9055: 5412:

philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. Descartes' attempt to construct the sciences on a secure

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Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe,"

9526: 8725:, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when 8419:

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The

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The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's

5840:(Considerations on the Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law. 4869: 4726: 3435: 3192: 1758: 713: 575: 549: 52: 21693: 21639: 21500: 20059: 19900: 9107: 7089: 23692: 23616: 23236: 23214: 23134: 22556: 21599: 21581: 21414: 21105: 20074: 19927: 19457: 19075: 18652: 18587: 17632: 17483: 17086: 16951: 16894: 16180: 15888: 15213: 9129: 8513: 7403:. Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual 6561: 6129:

among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

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as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the

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had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was

5730:

penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy.

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emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as

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argues that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier

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Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited."

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On the caoncept of 'felicitas publica' in Eighteenth-Century political economy, in History of economic thought

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more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the

7888:

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the

7100:. The ideas of the Enlightenment influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the 4989:) was the intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe in the 17th and the 18th centuries. 24441: 24431: 24226: 23805: 23780: 23389: 22832: 22800: 22723: 22529: 21556: 21448: 21322: 20443: 20366: 20320: 19015: 17996: 17478: 17387: 16868: 16830: 16706: 16694: 16496: 16460: 15996: 15425: 15072: 14781: 10229: 9276: 9095: 9015: 8598:

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was

8121: 7827: 7257:(1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by 7131:, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The 6719: 6442: 6360: 6249:

Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the

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William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281–82.

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The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:

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potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.

6882: 6844:

made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian

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were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

8074:) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, 7459: 4683: 24231: 23601: 23374: 23094: 22927: 22793: 22685: 22663: 21866: 21834: 21784: 21592: 21542: 21433: 21174: 20936: 20812: 20806: 20787: 19992: 19821: 19704: 19251: 18013: 17524: 17437: 17432: 17048: 16481: 16412: 16356: 15390: 15238: 11538:

The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution

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Bullock, Steven C. (1996). "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry".

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Darnton, Robert (2000). "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris".

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Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy."

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which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of

5889:

closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the

4992:

The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of

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The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy

9728:

The Roots of Enlightenment: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AGE OF REASON IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EUROPE

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in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and

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basis from external authority to internal certainty. In France, many cited the publication of Newton's

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If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.

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in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the

5485:

the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment had already started by the early 18th century, when

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The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany

9063: 8846: 8423:(1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. 8087: 8054:

Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as

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Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

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Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds.

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tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as

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A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy

13817: 11821: 6852:. Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Beccaria, 2424: 24221: 24107: 23820: 22858: 22810: 22805: 21774: 21728: 21577: 21083: 20537: 20510: 20480: 20344: 20291: 20108: 19984: 19879: 19719: 19714: 19572: 19538: 19526: 19521: 19484: 19434: 19292: 19272: 18958: 18903: 18582: 18572: 18161: 18092: 18077: 17558: 17517: 17292: 17121: 16644: 16560: 16368: 16175: 15933: 15835: 15792: 15651: 15532: 14939: 14884: 12165: 11735: 9462:

Bristow, William (29 August 2017). "Enlightenment". In Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.).

8965: 8949: 8796: 8117: 7933: 7925: 7862: 7793: 7042: 7029: 6928: 6921: 6869: 6857: 6529: 6497: 6390: 6109: 6078: 5893:; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787. 5874: 5829: 5750: 5546: 5389: 5318: 5175:, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Kant's essay 4776: 4120: 3882: 3718: 3616: 3606: 3258: 3234: 3202: 3172: 3137: 3132: 3107: 2968: 2886: 2762: 2732: 1957: 1672: 1549: 1343: 1202: 1133: 1020: 978: 725: 539: 492: 457: 205: 185: 121: 22337: 20592: 14655:(1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan 14646:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

14565:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

13128:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

12809:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

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Casini, Paolo (January 1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment".

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the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

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Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in

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Burrows, Simon. (2013) "In Search of Enlightenment: From Mapping Books to Cultural History."

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of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered

8526:(1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [ 8506: 8157: 7921: 7889: 7784: 7772: 7399:" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the 7348: 7296:

remarkably." During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the

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Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831."

11223:

Reading the Scottish Enlightenment Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820

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Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at

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Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia,"

10338:"John Locke > The Influence of John Locke's Works (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 9161: 9125: 9121: 9027: 8928: 8735: 8435:

were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the

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In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the

6307:

belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed

6254: 6227: 6061: 5786: 5625: 5518: 4703: 4603: 4538: 4075: 4002: 3857: 3601: 3551: 3491: 3486: 3367: 3182: 3127: 3117: 3095: 3075: 3070: 3030: 3015: 2993: 2956: 2906: 2864: 2854: 2814: 2334: 2299: 2161: 2006: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1813: 1702: 1657: 1632: 1599: 1303: 1298: 1235: 988: 825: 487: 368: 349: 235: 20840: 15777: 15656: 11910:

Ritchie Robertson, "The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790." (2020) ch. 1.

11872:

State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,

11702:

The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867

8384:(1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The 5809:(1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator. 5624:

were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the

2324: 1798: 8: 24398: 24122: 24112: 24061: 23919: 23905: 23765: 23507: 23270: 22863: 21609: 21023: 20730: 20426: 19638: 19550: 19309: 18943: 18908: 18811: 18712: 18577: 18447: 18237: 18166: 17923: 17896: 17879: 17867: 17689: 17645: 17392: 17322: 17265: 17182: 17008: 16835: 16756: 16607: 16600: 16580: 16528: 16486: 16465: 16329: 16272: 16128: 16082: 16077: 16039: 15726: 15410: 15178: 15147: 14098: 13664: 13475:(2014). "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment". In Bodgan, Henrik; Snoek, Jan A. M. (eds.). 13410:

Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as "William Henley," which must be a lapse of writing.

11687:

Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment.

10632:. Vol. "Preface" The Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures. 10567: 10337: 10137:

Swingewood, Alan (1970). "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment".

8552: 8011: 7882: 7660: 7564: 7436: 7250: 7148: 6917: 6896:, initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire. 6889: 6219: 6154: 6091:, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms. 5878: 5870: 5862: 5592: 5506:

By the mid-18th century the French Enlightenment had found a focus in the project of the

5474: 5348: 5160: 4884: 4851: 4811: 4796: 4080: 3992: 3982: 3952: 3847: 3733: 3700: 3546: 3528: 3518: 3475: 3362: 3010: 2983: 2926: 2874: 2657: 2429: 2369: 2319: 2092: 2011: 1952: 1885: 1855: 1850: 1823: 1782: 1416: 1338: 1293: 1288: 1155: 1145: 1045: 855: 820: 778: 747: 720: 687: 623: 599: 554: 358: 313: 267: 200: 180: 131: 116: 22361: 21931: 21346: 21050: 19658: 15283: 15258: 14428: 11604:

Niccolò Guasti, "Antonio Genovesi's Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment."

10564: 10493:

John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland,"

9079: 8866: 7716:("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of 7503: 7359:

in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.

7246: 6955:; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established 6438: 5113:

in 1804. In reality, historical periods do not have clearly defined start or end dates.

4658: 24491: 24410: 24187: 23956: 23880: 23848: 23667: 23636: 23473: 23461: 23322: 23260: 23089: 23084: 23019: 22902: 22815: 22646: 22322: 21654: 21438: 20503: 20458: 19817: 19773: 19728: 19351: 19297: 19218: 18789: 18432: 18348: 18338: 18171: 18134: 18064: 18003: 17986: 17940: 17850: 17764: 17578: 17498: 17402: 17186: 17138: 17133: 17036: 17026: 16983: 16975: 16565: 16351: 16265: 16233: 16143: 16138: 16133: 15736: 15598: 15588: 15573: 15563: 15517: 15405: 15228: 14949: 14521: 14440: 13810: 13380: 13318: 13092: 11945: 11160: 10524: 10396:

The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regimen of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury

10289: 10154: 9504: 9346: 9201: 8999: 8655:

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the

8415:

organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.

7994: 7380: 7329: 7165: 6968: 6796: 6792: 6665: 6620: 6382: 6378: 6265: 5918: 5707: 5637: 4874: 4816: 4648: 4573: 4345: 4325: 4310: 4160: 4065: 3922: 3902: 3887: 3837: 3817: 3795: 3636: 3571: 3459: 3085: 2988: 2901: 2697: 2632: 2532: 2087: 2067: 1904: 1662: 1622: 1499: 1348: 1313: 1100: 1060: 1015: 935: 890: 870: 657: 472: 378: 338: 333: 318: 308: 301: 252: 247: 225: 163: 23976: 20359: 15708: 14877: 9059: 8559:

which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by

8027:

because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.

7944:

styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

7810: 7724:(1804) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment. 6944: 5933:

theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher

5501: 4435: 2349: 24486: 24471: 24436: 24356: 24261: 24036: 24022: 23996: 23981: 23885: 23870: 23800: 23790: 23659: 23591: 23492: 23456: 23352: 22907: 22761: 22509: 21806: 20817: 20656: 20081: 19840: 19779: 19738: 19555: 19440: 19376: 19287: 19264: 19208: 19116: 18849: 18562: 18464: 18452: 18437: 18417: 18328: 18275: 18247: 18229: 18032: 17908: 17901: 17714: 17662: 17640: 17568: 17377: 17352: 17332: 17312: 17302: 17192: 17174: 17143: 17076: 16993: 16967: 16927: 16808: 16803: 16761: 16716: 16384: 16341: 16314: 16299: 16260: 16223: 15941: 15746: 15741: 15703: 15693: 15542: 15458: 15453: 15395: 15243: 15233: 14998: 14855: 14667: 14608: 14595: 14582: 14444: 14394: 14254: 14223: 14204: 14118: 13957: 13939: 13926: 13545: 13506: 13496: 13166: 13096: 12386: 12354: 12276: 12249: 12222: 11817: 11757: 11705: 11635: 11570: 11458: 11454: 11267: 11227: 11152: 11098: 10862: 10835: 10808: 10781: 10741: 10677: 10650: 10544: 10520: 10448: 10293: 10223: 9732: 9705: 9612: 9605: 9553: 9508: 9496: 9393: 9368: 9270: 9007: 8891: 8637: 8357: 7851: 7759: 7545: 7475: 7400: 7317: 7210: 7169: 7152: 7101: 6853: 6845: 6715: 6653: 6616: 6574: 6340: 6335: 6273: 6158: 5882: 5726:(1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. 5719: 5621: 5558: 5536: 5397: 5336: 5168: 5164: 5125: 5106: 4766: 4678: 4583: 4445: 4375: 4280: 4265: 4032: 3972: 3927: 3912: 3872: 3807: 3586: 3576: 3513: 3404: 2677: 2434: 2364: 2339: 2329: 2309: 2129: 2016: 1947: 1909: 1727: 1594: 1461: 1451: 1396: 1318: 1192: 1177: 1055: 1025: 955: 945: 880: 697: 680: 652: 632: 534: 529: 462: 393: 388: 328: 323: 272: 257: 240: 190: 100: 18707: 15782: 15203: 14733: 14541:

Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding.

9463: 7846:

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the

7057: 5521:

in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the

5393: 5218: 5076: 615: 24246: 24051: 24031: 23951: 23936: 23835: 23737: 23611: 23451: 23409: 23404: 23384: 23367: 23280: 23074: 22781: 22604: 22580: 22541: 22121: 21278: 20668: 20527: 20515: 19807: 19767: 19762: 19587: 19474: 19409: 19236: 19231: 19213: 19071: 18872: 18825: 18323: 18313: 18139: 18087: 17991: 17855: 17744: 17694: 17672: 17667: 17598: 17367: 17282: 17227: 17197: 17148: 17108: 17091: 17081: 17016: 16988: 16793: 16407: 16363: 16092: 16072: 15946: 15578: 15558: 15527: 15218: 15183: 15127: 14534:

The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna

14513: 14432: 14244: 14131: 13488: 13484: 13372: 13310: 13084: 11941: 11747: 11263:

Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism

11144: 10281: 10269: 10146: 9488: 9358: 9075: 8649: 8560: 8375: 8206: 7751: 7690: 7655: 7340: 7305: 7274: 7253:, Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski. The movement went into decline with the 6932: 6893: 6837: 6815: 6788: 6612: 6097: 6048:

Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of

6007: 5981: 5886: 5825: 5554: 5137: 5087: 4926: 4909: 4628: 4608: 4528: 4523: 4465: 4425: 4415: 4380: 4300: 4275: 4245: 4230: 4225: 4200: 4145: 4130: 4037: 4012: 3942: 3897: 3867: 3755: 3743: 3671: 3656: 3596: 3561: 3320: 3313: 2652: 2602: 2567: 2512: 2419: 2404: 2379: 2314: 2284: 2151: 2102: 2077: 2060: 2055: 1989: 1914: 1840: 1828: 1529: 1504: 1456: 1436: 1381: 1358: 1308: 1187: 1090: 1080: 1070: 1035: 925: 875: 865: 860: 373: 289: 20396: 16417: 15661: 14764: 14712:

What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions

14163: 14079: 13596:

Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob,

13073:"The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy" 9687:

The Business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800

8251: 7050: 5532: 4708: 4370: 4100: 2572: 24511: 24304: 24271: 24215: 24209: 24066: 23971: 23875: 23687: 23181: 23146: 22499: 22106: 21680: 21356: 20720: 20542: 20327: 20091: 19917: 19562: 18877: 18697: 18637: 18522: 18370: 18365: 18343: 18263: 18217: 17974: 17928: 17826: 17803: 17786: 17759: 17544: 17407: 17382: 17170: 17153: 16998: 16823: 16743: 16711: 16392: 16087: 15751: 15636: 15512: 15474: 15293: 15137: 15132: 14934: 14840: 14729: 14700: 13951: 12348: 12272:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12270: 12245:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12243: 12221:. Translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 3. 12148: 11852: 11752: 11564: 11533: 11450: 11221: 11052: 10671: 9726: 9213: 9111: 9043: 8564: 8271: 7721: 7537: 7435:" which means Citizen Tipu. In parts of India, an important movement called the " 7419:

was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French)

7313: 7061: 7046: 6986:

and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black

6936: 6908: 6772: 6649: 6430: 6386: 6244: 6132: 6121:

in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model

6066: 6045:

society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract.

6042: 6006:

argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the

5973: 5930: 5910: 5742: 5687: 5649: 5629: 5450: 5417: 5246: 5242: 5214: 5156: 5048: 5040: 5036: 4846: 4841: 4786: 4593: 4553: 4385: 4355: 4340: 4290: 4260: 4195: 4135: 4095: 4017: 4007: 3907: 3651: 3641: 3416: 2712: 2702: 2687: 2607: 2597: 2577: 2469: 2449: 2409: 2384: 2294: 2188: 2176: 2166: 2107: 1967: 1962: 1833: 1739: 1584: 1489: 1446: 1426: 1421: 1411: 1406: 1328: 1123: 383: 20600: 15800: 14746: 14481:

The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment.

14324:

Bronner, Stephen (1995). "The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics".

13598:

Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe

12793:

12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton,

10858:

British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment: Routledge History of Philosophy

8853:

systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland

8753: 8733:

recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published

8318: 8181: 7610: 7602: 7532:

The idea of the Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to

7482:"oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language." 6140:, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 for usurping royal authority. 5508: 5292: 24506: 24367: 24192: 23986: 23961: 23925: 23865: 23858: 23853: 23843: 23697: 23682: 23621: 23497: 23487: 23243: 22880: 22571: 21990: 21618: 21614: 21265: 20883: 20822: 20662: 20133: 19967: 19755: 19743: 19429: 19314: 18990: 18975: 18965: 18867: 18769: 18727: 18647: 18602: 18542: 18507: 18299: 18212: 18117: 18025: 17816: 17650: 17573: 17357: 17347: 17342: 17337: 17317: 17307: 17222: 17165: 17058: 17021: 16397: 16346: 16324: 16319: 16304: 16294: 16287: 15923: 15873: 15731: 15608: 15603: 15593: 15489: 15415: 15324: 15319: 15142: 15117: 15097: 15082: 15067: 15052: 14436: 14377: 14345:

Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind

13993: 13858: 13722:

Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe

13472: 13267:

A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England,

11288:

The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity

11119:

The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment

10696: 10023:"Oxford University Press: Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment: Alan Charles Kors" 9630:

I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment."

8870: 8730: 8726: 8640:

conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light

8599: 8345: 8344:

systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of

8336: 8230:, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world. 7952: 7878: 7806: 7789: 7755: 7644: 7517: 7499: 7491: 7396: 7301: 7226: 7161: 7097: 6940: 6849: 6557: 6505: 6461: 6434: 6426: 6418: 6394: 6283:

Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including

6231: 5854: 5782: 5572: 5550: 5226: 4801: 4693: 4663: 4653: 4578: 4548: 4543: 4533: 4420: 4400: 4360: 4330: 4270: 4210: 4185: 4125: 3812: 3621: 3384: 3357: 3352: 3325: 3281: 2627: 2562: 2414: 2389: 2354: 2304: 2244: 2171: 2072: 2033: 2023: 1897: 1865: 1692: 1677: 1647: 1569: 1065: 910: 900: 830: 815: 810: 467: 23560: 22820: 14294: 13492: 13088: 11704:

Chapter 23, "Scientific Traveller." New York: Cambridge University Press 1991

10540:

Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760–1815

10285: 8039: 7513: 6737:

The ideas of the Enlightenment also appeared in literature and theater works.

5302:). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, 4698: 2617: 2439: 1431: 24425: 24251: 24177: 24143: 24127: 24087: 23770: 23745: 23521: 23431: 23416: 23338: 22960: 22912: 22354: 21980: 20143: 19467: 19448: 19392: 19346: 19334: 19329: 19324: 19178: 19173: 19050: 19043: 18682: 18567: 18482: 18427: 18287: 18207: 18102: 17952: 17945: 17838: 17791: 17684: 17540: 17453: 17252: 16919: 16858: 15951: 15908: 15878: 15858: 15522: 15448: 15375: 15278: 15208: 15122: 15077: 15062: 14959: 14908: 14498:

Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason.

13510: 11761: 11698: 11446: 11436: 11156: 10902:"God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke's Political Thought" 9500: 9372: 9083: 8916: 8904: 8722: 8668: 8573: 8451:

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.

8296: 8176: 8163: 7847: 7729: 7669: 7440: 7424: 7384: 7376: 7368: 7356: 7230: 7065: 6841: 6711: 6538: 6453: 6422: 6296: 6258: 5977: 5945: 5934: 5778: 5762: 5585: 5577: 5262: 5258: 5250: 5222: 5210: 5149: 5121: 5110: 5044: 4826: 4821: 4688: 4638: 4618: 4613: 4588: 4563: 4460: 4365: 4285: 4205: 4180: 4105: 4042: 3877: 3676: 3340: 2662: 2622: 2552: 2522: 2489: 2484: 2464: 2344: 2269: 2181: 2044: 1860: 1682: 1554: 1514: 1386: 1050: 950: 930: 675: 17509: 13907:

Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790

11148: 10272:(2012). "The Politics of Enlightenment: From Peter Gay to Jonathan Israel". 9835:"Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh" 9363: 8644:

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the

6892:, the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French 6695: 6456:, Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon, 6355: 5694:

introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the

5580:, one of the most influential figures of Enlightenment and modern philosophy 5489:

launched the popular and scholarly Enlightenment critique of religion. As a

4110: 24361: 24236: 24092: 24056: 23795: 23717: 23561: 23307: 23302: 23297: 23285: 21078: 20725: 20547: 20390: 20246: 19695: 19653: 19582: 19319: 19204: 19158: 19146: 19089: 19055: 18717: 18517: 18422: 18268: 18242: 18151: 17833: 17821: 17769: 17729: 17724: 17588: 17583: 17412: 17242: 17113: 17031: 16450: 15961: 15956: 15903: 15893: 15868: 15848: 15568: 15537: 15484: 15479: 15263: 15173: 15112: 15092: 14979: 14903: 14558:

Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas.

13969: 12728:

The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator

11617:

Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy."

11206:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

10899: 10116: 9589:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

9492: 9157: 8673: 8473: 7999: 7937: 7704:(1687), which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the 7695: 7521: 7428: 7344: 7297: 7278: 7038: 6811: 6746: 6684: 6673: 6517: 6457: 6308: 6292: 6169:(1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under 6125:

expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before

5985: 5699: 5671:

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and

5486: 5278: 5234: 5172: 5092: 5052: 4568: 4518: 4513: 4498: 4455: 4440: 4410: 4335: 4320: 4295: 4255: 4215: 4190: 4155: 4070: 3374: 2707: 2682: 2612: 2459: 2289: 2279: 2082: 1604: 1544: 1471: 1255: 1030: 940: 419: 363: 32: 9225:

For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian Cowan, Donna T. Andrew.

6878: 6679:

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers

6672:

greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious

4558: 24162: 23991: 23966: 23941: 23914: 23901: 23810: 23712: 23399: 23079: 21361: 21003: 20979: 20349: 20337: 20259: 19835: 19648: 19452: 19188: 19136: 19111: 19094: 19033: 18657: 18405: 18400: 18392: 18377: 18202: 18107: 17918: 17754: 17719: 17699: 17679: 17657: 17622: 17397: 17275: 17260: 17232: 17068: 16585: 16060: 15913: 15698: 15494: 15268: 15107: 14986: 14969: 14964: 14755: 14587: 13541:

The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747

9117: 8912: 8842: 8812: 8808: 8713: 8660: 8385: 8075: 7831: 7780: 7776: 7665: 7416: 7404: 7309: 6723: 6669: 6553: 6469: 6239: 6185: 6023: 5527: 5514: 5413: 5409: 5266: 5205:

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the

5185: 5129: 5001: 4993: 4791: 4673: 4508: 4470: 4450: 4390: 4350: 4315: 4250: 4240: 4220: 4175: 4090: 4060: 4022: 3917: 3760: 3690: 3556: 2692: 2494: 2479: 2454: 2249: 2234: 2141: 1994: 1942: 1687: 1589: 1509: 1265: 960: 915: 885: 840: 735: 434: 22251: 14928: 14103:

The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments

11164: 11132: 10257:

The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing eighteenth-century French thought

8833: 8421:

Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon

8248:

La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain

7957:

A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period

7904:"the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and 7559: 6806: 6604: 5209:. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included 3411: 23946: 23531: 22917: 21924: 21567: 21137: 19799: 19387: 19141: 19099: 19085: 18953: 18938: 18188: 18176: 18146: 18112: 18052: 17734: 17160: 15918: 15898: 15883: 15853: 15102: 15013: 14870: 14845: 14835: 14773: 14750: 14715: 14695: 14685: 14632: 14544: 14525: 14484: 14453:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

14372: 14348: 14318: 14308:

The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation

14178:

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress

14159: 14126: 14045: 14034: 13880:

Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750

13839: 13384: 13322: 12577:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

10959: 10197:

The Illusion of Free Markets, Bernard E. Harcourt, p. 260, notes 11–14.

9965: 9031: 8975: 8878: 8862: 8633: 8371: 8367: 7870: 7797: 7649: 7463: 7282: 6520:, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist. 6513: 6484: 6448: 6083: 6015: 6011: 5906: 5858: 5661: 5425: 5405: 5274: 5254: 5230: 5072: 5013: 4997: 4761: 4668: 4405: 4235: 3937: 3892: 3330: 3296: 3291: 2961: 2474: 2264: 2239: 2146: 1999: 1979: 1790: 1667: 1376: 1197: 1128: 786: 607: 442: 73: 16008: 14249: 11412:(Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography. 10158: 9251:"The Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End: Chapter 3" 8793:

Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.

8403: 7834:

in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of

7229:) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic 7072:. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the 5948:

and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "

21844: 20968: 20845: 20675: 20158: 19489: 19168: 19163: 19126: 19121: 18985: 18928: 18913: 18782: 18622: 18459: 18194: 18156: 17749: 17563: 17207: 16575: 16570: 16422: 14944: 14865: 14659: 14026: 11489:

Owens, Samantha; Reul, Barbara M.; Stockigt, Janice B., eds. (2011).

11312:

Michael Atiyah, "Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment,"

10186:

Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics

9142:

Marie Louise Nicole Élisabeth de La Rochefoucauld, Duchesse d'Anville

8618: 8393: 7857: 7352: 7218: 6987: 6501: 6304: 6170: 5988:, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. 5774: 5711: 5683:

coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

5645: 5562: 5145: 5102: 5075:. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to the publication of 5056: 4756: 4598: 4430: 4140: 3977: 3962: 3852: 3832: 3822: 3467: 3399: 3197: 2399: 1919: 1707: 1697: 1642: 1466: 1401: 1245: 993: 800: 16936: 14517: 14021:

The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture

13376: 13314: 13280:

Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life

12149:"PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses" 11395:

Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism."

8172: 6547:

imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.

81: 24405: 23760: 23514: 23502: 22519: 21262: 19183: 19131: 18612: 18308: 18129: 17957: 17872: 17811: 17774: 17417: 17212: 16550: 16538: 15303: 14898: 14891: 13853:

The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse

13834:

Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780."

13397:

Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780,"

13157:

Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding

13143:

A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier

13126: 13112:

Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630

13072: 12807: 11204: 10308: 10150: 9587: 9047: 8943: 8563:. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by 8217: 7874: 7771:

Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian

7717: 7540:

during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions.

7495: 7395:

During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "

7339:

The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.

7214: 6823: 6277: 6257:, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the 6215: 6200:

not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?

5972:, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the 5817: 5757:," which was expressed historically in works by authors including 5596: 5478: 5282: 5141: 5009: 3335: 3308: 3212: 3003: 2254: 2097: 1534: 1441: 895: 805: 477: 37: 14301:

The Enlightenment Past: Reconstructing 18th-Century French Thought

10773: 10210:. History-world.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013 9552:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 3–4. 8841:

Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of

7788:

after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in

6210: 5877:. Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the 5738: 24017: 23631: 23253: 18970: 18948: 18898: 18802: 18738: 18527: 18382: 18294: 17287: 17098: 16097: 14415:

Golinski, Jan (2011). "Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited".

14086:

European Thought in the 18th Century: From Montesquieu to Lessing

12107:

Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow

11932:

Lough, John (1985). "Reflections on Enlightenment and Lumieres".

11089:

Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in

10418:

Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory

8915:. People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into 8908: 8744:

as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the

8463:

most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.

8441:(1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons. 8374:. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including 7835: 7822: 7676: 7420: 7269: 7037:'s riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the 6819: 6779:

In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were

6742: 6722:'s brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of 6288: 6269: 5672: 5665: 5657: 5653: 5641: 5490: 5117: 5068: 5064: 5005: 4488: 3967: 3947: 2444: 2050: 1984: 1722: 835: 14602:

American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason

12701:"history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th century" 12301:

The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First Crisis.

10618:

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1–72.

8576:

wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled

7092:

was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the

6264:

Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of

24183:

Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary

23626: 23536: 23441: 19403: 18980: 18893: 18547: 14974: 14384:. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991. 13480: 12751:

In particular, see Chapter 6, "Reading, Writing and Publishing"

11491:

Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities

9347:"Enlightenment in Global History: A Historiographical Critique" 9177: 8580:(1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions. 8397: 8022:

a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:

7619: 7334: 7034: 6903:

and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under

6831:

Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto

6780: 5565:: David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the 5060: 4493: 2114: 1734: 424: 14579:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

14237:

Warman, Caroline; et al. (2016), Warman, Caroline (ed.),

12025: 12023: 11632:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

10762:

Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion,

10020:

ed. Alan Charles Kors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

9813: 9811: 9757: 8124:

data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation

6775:, considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment 6648:

broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the

5955:

Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in

4933: 4904: 20038: 19935: 19796: 18918: 18512: 18502: 18497: 17969: 17964: 14860: 14653:

The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles

14371:

1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher

12462:

J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca,

12136:

The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment

11327:

Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends

11094:

The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800

10244:

Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present,

8959: 8501: 8432: 8079: 7801:

even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata.

7615: 7308:; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and 6976:. Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in 6784: 6300: 6284: 5901: 5469: 5458: 4305: 920: 429: 14220:

A Global Enlightenment: Western Progress and Chinese Science

6479: 6148: 5091:("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of 18923: 18642: 14644:

Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E.

14551:

The Dialogues of the Dead of the Early German Enlightenment

12212: 12020: 10704: 10404:

Enlightenment, Britain and the Creation of the Modern World

9808: 9786: 9784: 8790:

Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.

8360:: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. 7830:, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and 7494:

in the 1830s and continued into the late 19th century. The

5620:

There were immediate practical results. The experiments of

5133: 3738: 12173:

Histoire et dictionnaire du temps des Lumières (1715–1789)

11179:"The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment" 10936: 10900:

ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame (4 May 2003).

8388:

edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The

5584:

Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief,

5241:. Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included 5152:, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. 24072:

Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

13997:

The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers.

13946:. London: Allen Lane, 2020; New York: HarperCollins, 2021 13479:. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 8. 12875: 12851: 12072: 12048: 11874:

Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.

11781: 10173:

A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790

9701:

The Dream of Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Philosophy

8528: 5396:, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of 5055:, among others, as well as the rationalist philosophy of 21386: 14093:

From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe

13794:

Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution,"

12275:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. 12248:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–61. 12036: 11883:

Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment,"

9796: 9781: 8150:

Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the

5781:(and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by 22680:

Professionalization and institutionalization of history

18627: 14460:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

14193:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790.

13436: 13434: 12590:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

12466:(New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475. 12122:

Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections

11724:

vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.

11619:

The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought

11049:

A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present,

10078: 8939:

European and American voyages of scientific exploration

7675:

Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and

7439:" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s. 6734:'s rule was primarily marked by relations with France. 5806:

Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth

5313:

A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge

5105:

of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the

14149:

Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794

13944:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790

13871:

The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy

12863: 8761:

The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for

8535:

The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the

8282:

was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.

8036:

arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."

5881:

associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment:

5690:

of science among an increasingly literate population.

24103:

Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

22972:

Heroic theory of invention and scientific development

14315:

The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment

14201:

Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation

12989:

Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83

12904: 12902: 12892: 12890: 11519:

Van Dulmen, Richard; Williams, Anthony, eds. (1992).

11133:"Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century" 10669: 8456:

Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot,

7664:

Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the

7343:

found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of

6026:

to every problem is considered the essential change.

5909:

argued that the authority of government stems from a

21820:

Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe

14592:

Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment

14362:

The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment

13544:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. 13431: 12846:

Making sex: body and gender from the Greeks to Freud

12060: 11382:

Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg."

10924: 10912: 10737:

Spinoza's Modernity: Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Heine

10107:

Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World

9769: 9745: 9550:

European socialism: a concise history with documents

8169:

read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.

8014:" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal 7076:(lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the 6863: 6153:

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the

5628:

enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a

13269:

Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

12409:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12. 12382:

The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment

12326:

The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,

12219:

Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments

12169:

Historians and eighteenth-century Europe, 1715–1789

11722:

Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture,

9414:

The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society

8709:

English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries

8266: 8018:Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of 7796:; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the 7020:) was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister 6935:on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the 6326:

Separation of church and state in the United States

5997:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

5031:The Enlightenment was preceded by and overlaps the 2743:

Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party

23176: 21780:Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia 21638: 19420: 14393:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. 13809: 13783:The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The Struggle 12899: 12887: 12772: 12770: 11720:Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." 11518: 9962:Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832 9604: 5917:. According to Locke, the authority of government 5288:One influential Enlightenment publication was the 22438: 14390:Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution 14044:(1969, 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study 13838:, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 11488: 11314:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 11076:Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., 10200: 8307: 6315: 5545:, a moral philosopher and founding figure of the 24423: 24173:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII 14172:(2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated 12548:Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" 12098: 11897: 11895: 10800: 10616:The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, 10016:James E. McClellan III, "Learned Societies," in 9481:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 9468:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 8578:The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature 8194:narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by 8058:in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male 8020:Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, 6596:Hymnody of continental Europe § Rationalism 6582:from which he removed all supernatural aspects. 5733: 5155:The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were 27:17th- to 18th-century European cultural movement 23004: 19247:Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 12822:Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in 12767: 12268: 12241: 11366:"The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity" 11032:David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, 10508:Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters 10447:. Cambridge University Press. pp. xiv–xv. 8749:different order than any university tutorial." 7854:), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts. 7694:("I think, therefore I am"), which shifted the 7371:interaction." In Japan in particular, the term 7084:. A distinct member of this group was the poet 7060:who spent a considerable amount of his life in 16556:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 14462:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. 14338:British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment 14031:The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism 13915:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 13537: 12526: 12524: 12522: 12508: 12506: 12504: 12490: 12488: 12474: 12472: 12440:'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime" 12313:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 10718:"Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism" 10642: 10536: 10440: 9704:. W. W. Norton & Company. 30 August 2016. 9092:Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes 8351:The first technical dictionary was drafted by 6668:, a poet and historian. The theatre principal 5993:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury 5178:Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 23162: 22828:Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church 22698:Western European colonialism and colonization 21247: 18754: 17539: 17525: 16952: 16024: 14789: 14382:The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution 14268:The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. 14113:Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 13846:Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia 12378: 12184: 11892: 11846:"The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment." 11589: 11044: 11042: 10774:Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). 10676:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–68. 10579:Chartier, 8. See also Alexis de Tocqueville, 8092:Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the 7431:, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen, 6483:One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was 5724:Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books 4958: 3436: 2768:International Alliance of Libertarian Parties 2738:Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe 1759: 755: 576: 21158: 14918: 14889: 14875: 14664:The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology 14184:Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. 13807: 12627:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 21, 23. 12464:A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, 12295:Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), 11776:Modern Russian History & Historiography, 11569:(in Italian). Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa. 11065:The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology 10958:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took 10102: 9430:Princeton: Princeton University Press 2019 1 9257:. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017 8622: 8496:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 8488: 8287: 8275: 8225: 7608:— An engraving from the 1772 edition of the 7281:worked with several Chinese elites, such as 7213:, as the Polish middle class was weaker and 5290: 5193: 21261: 16546:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 14984: 14574:. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971) 14411:(University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp. 13816:. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. 12519: 12501: 12485: 12469: 12213:Theodor W. Adorno; Horkheimer, Max (1947). 11980:Immanuel Kant, "What is Enlightenment?", 1. 11090: 10831:The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters 10715: 10306: 8583: 8066:In France, the established men of letters ( 7912: 6741:was an important representative. In music, 6069:would not go against one's natural rights. 5722:committed the Newtonian system to verse in 5183: 24188:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary 24138:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart 23169: 23155: 21254: 21240: 18761: 18747: 17532: 17518: 16959: 16945: 16031: 16017: 14796: 14782: 14682:The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader 14240:Tolerance: The Beacon of the Enlightenment 14071:(2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars 14051:Greensides F., Hyland P., Gomez O. (ed.). 14004:Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment 13868: 13863:The Literary Underground of the Old Regime 12799: 11689:Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012. 11663:Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971. 11240: 11097:. Oxford, England: OUP. pp. 518–535. 11039: 10495:Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 10406:, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, p. 3 10136: 9802: 9790: 9602: 9411: 9088:Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune 7478:and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, 6931:abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother 6826:, where among others, Pompeo Neri worked. 6523: 5420:applied in philosophic areas leading to a 5200:List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment 4965: 4951: 3443: 3429: 1766: 1752: 762: 748: 583: 569: 21883:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 14360:Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) 14355:Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 14248: 14042:The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom 13920: 13470: 13401:Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 12730:(Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16. 11751: 11421: 11280: 10733: 10096: 9817: 9362: 7982: 7516:, a political activist and member of the 7490:The Enlightenment began to influence the 6615:, a tribute to The Enlightenment and the 6412:Georgian era § English Enlightenment 6149:American Revolution and French Revolution 6072: 5937:ushered in this new debate with his work 5896: 5569:and empiricist traditions of philosophy. 2773:International Federation of Liberal Youth 23102:Historical geographic information system 19868: 14803: 14765:Collection: Art of the Enlightenment Era 14629:The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology 14604:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016) 14414: 13986: 13956:(2nd ed.), Macmillan Education UK, 13855:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005 13163:Continuum International Publishing Group 12680:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 16. 11736:"Six Sermons, written by António Vieira" 11266:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 92. 11259: 10834:. Oxford University Press. p. 100. 10740:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. 10649:. Oxford University Press. p. 179. 10565:Thomas Jefferson. A Revolutionary World. 10075:see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223. 9828: 9826: 9668: 9666: 9547: 8832: 8632: 8613: 8519:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 8500: 8402: 8311: 8270: 8216: 8171: 8116: 8038: 7993: 7920: 7856: 7821: 7601: 7454: 7347:thinking, a 'functional analogue to the 7268: 7193: 7143: 6877: 6766: 6753:were associated with the Enlightenment. 6603: 6533: 6487:, the father of modern economic science. 6478: 6354: 6209: 6131: 6082: 6037:An Essay on the History of Civil Society 5900: 5737: 5679:societies. In reference to this growth, 5571: 5416:foundation was not as successful as his 5388: 646:Classical education in the Eastern world 641:Classical education in the Western world 31: 16038: 14503: 14323: 14217: 14198: 14058: 13808:Janson, H. W.; Janson, Anthony (2003). 13687: 13564: 13366: 12349:Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography 11960:Discours préliminaire de l'Encyclopédie 11474: 11424:Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 11248:How the Scots Invented the Modern World 11209:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 10268: 9855: 9465:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 9461: 8971:Witch trials in the early modern period 8569:A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy 8472:gained popularity, it was published in 8016:Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. 7183: 6592:History of Germany § Enlightenment 6165:" philosophy as delineated by Locke in 2753:Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats 14: 24424: 22742:English historical school of economics 20794:Historical Series of the Bank of Italy 18848: 14572:Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment 14175: 14125:(4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. 13949: 13904: 13895: 13886: 13877: 13600:(Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49. 13440: 13220:vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633–62. 13109: 12881: 12869: 12857: 12353:" University of Chicago Press. p. 138 12066: 12054: 12042: 12014: 11989: 11934:Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 11787: 11219: 10942: 10930: 10918: 10827: 10497:1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp. 83–110 10469:Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 10401: 9775: 9763: 9751: 9724: 9647:Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011,9 9478: 9385: 9344: 9052:Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental 8532:] Rules and Astronomical Tables." 8005: 7817: 7712:. French historians usually place the 7199:Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 1791 7005: 6350: 6345:Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom 5686:Another important development was the 23150: 23058: 23003: 22938:Revisionist school of Islamic studies 22777:Historical reliability of the Gospels 22635: 22162: 21235: 21224: 19867: 19610: 19374: 19013: 18847: 18742: 17513: 16966: 16940: 16012: 15034: 14815: 14777: 14061:The Enlightenment: History of an Idea 13798:Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+. 13300: 13218:Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, 12601:Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, 12171:(Oxford UP, 1979); Jean de Viguerie, 12085:For up to Descartes ... a particular 11931: 11734:Cohen, Thomas M. (15 November 2018). 11733: 11503: 11130: 10881: 10861:. Taylor & Francis. p. 256. 10854: 10670:Ole Peter Grell; Porter, Roy (2000). 10627: 10384:Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 10360:An Intellectual History of Liberalism 10325:The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 10208:"The Enlightenment throughout Europe" 9917: 9876:"Kant's essay What is Enlightenment?" 9832: 9823: 9663: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9328: 9326: 9324: 9322: 9320: 9318: 9316: 9314: 9312: 9310: 9308: 9306: 8772: 8590:Education in the Age of Enlightenment 8541:Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, 8370:along with the physical sciences and 6927:When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, 6057:right to preserve life and property. 5838:Considerazioni sul processo criminale 5745:, father of classical criminal theory 5499:influenced many of the Enlightenment 4734:International socialist organizations 3682:To each according to his contribution 24482:Philosophical schools and traditions 23130: 21225: 20755:More Irish than the Irish themselves 16695:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) 14769:University of Michigan Museum of Art 14369:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 14275: 14142:Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment 13124: 13070: 12805: 12003:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 11562: 11202: 10780:. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. 10393: 10057:See Gillispie, (1980), "Conclusion." 9946:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 9607:The Enlightenment: An Interpretation 9585: 9523:"British Library- The Enlightenment" 9345:Conrad, Sebastian (1 October 2012). 9304: 9302: 9300: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9292: 9290: 9288: 9286: 9150:François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis 8609: 8409:Figurative system of human knowledge 7900:contrasted "opinion" with populace, 7201:, Europe's first modern constitution 6705: 6381:fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the 5602:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 5431:Essay Concerning Human Understanding 24042:Suppression of the Society of Jesus 21825:Functionalism–intentionalism debate 19014: 17474:History of the Mediterranean region 16905:History of the Mediterranean region 16108:International relations (1648–1814) 14760:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 14739:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14658: 13357:(New York: Viking, 2004), 188, 189. 12935:Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–152. 12824:The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, 11838: 11778:2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26 11477:The Literature of Weimar Classicism 10948: 10807:. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. 10178: 10171:D. Daiches, P. Jones and J. Jones, 9725:Rahman, Shoaib (20 November 2023). 9182:Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse 9068:Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville 8179:is best known as the editor of the 7969:Music and Reason in Western Society 7826:A medal minted during the reign of 7237:(second half of the 18th century). 7064:denouncing discriminations against 6014:, the scientific method, religious 5615:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 5496:Dictionnaire Historique et Critique 5198:For a more comprehensive list, see 2793:Liberal South East European Network 24: 23597:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran 22838:Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II 20782:Fourth Italian War of Independence 18768: 14620: 14186:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. 13981: 13921:Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2005). 13278:Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, 13114:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11946:10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x 11316:(Dec 2006) 150#4 pp. 591–606. 10673:Toleration in Enlightenment Europe 10018:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, 9922:. Historyguide.org. Archived from 9731:(Hardcover ed.). Fadew, Inc. 9392:, Getty Publications, p. 29, 9154:Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon 8212: 7332:of Japan enforced a policy called 6578:and Thomas Jefferson in his short 6560:. There was a great emphasis upon 25: 24528: 18723:Western European and Others Group 16662:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 16229:Journalism of Early Modern Europe 14728: 14722: 14692:The Portable Enlightenment Reader 14123:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 14067:Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. 14011:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 13768:Richard Weisberger et al., eds., 12917:Porter, (2003), pp. 249–250. 11661:The Ibero-American Enlightenment. 11648:Journal of Modern Italian Studies 11563:Mori, Massimo (1 February 2015). 11353:Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 11290:(Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117–143. 11078:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment 10975:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 10804:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10777:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10764:1804, Internet History Sourcebook 10581:L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 10480:Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II," 10313:. Nelson Cengage. pp. 34–35. 10246:Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 457 10103:M. Magnusson (10 November 2003), 9283: 9190:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8828: 8427:(1721) was better known than the 8236:René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8205:, condemned by both the King and 8141:rates, particularly among women. 7527: 7485: 7028:from 1756 to 1777. Following the 6864:Bourbon Spain and Spanish America 6810:(1762–1766), founded by brothers 2783:Liberal Network for Latin America 2216:(contributions to liberal theory) 550:Social and political philosophers 24404: 24392: 23723:Fourth Council of Constantinople 23678:Second Council of Constantinople 23129: 23120: 23119: 22636: 22136: 22135: 21977:Palestinian expulsion and flight 20489:5000-year civilization assertion 20065:Nadir of American race relations 17459:Bibliography of European history 17054:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 15992: 15991: 14284:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 13801: 13788: 13775: 13762: 13749: 13736: 13727: 13724:(Oxford University Press, 1991.) 13714: 13681: 13672: 13656: 13647: 13638: 13625: 13616: 13603: 13590: 13577: 13558: 13531: 13517: 13464: 13455: 13446: 13422: 13413: 13404: 13391: 13360: 13347: 13338: 13329: 13294: 13285: 13272: 13259: 13241: 13232: 13223: 13210: 13197: 13188: 13175: 13148: 13135: 13118: 13103: 13064: 13055: 13046: 13037: 13028: 13019: 13010: 13001: 12992: 12983: 12974: 12965: 12956: 12947: 12938: 12929: 12920: 12911: 12838: 12829: 12816: 12783: 12754: 12745: 12733: 12720: 12711: 12693: 12683: 12674: 12665: 12652: 12643: 12630: 12621: 12608: 12595: 12582: 12569: 12560: 12551: 12542: 12533: 12512:Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca, 12456: 12453:(New York: Routledge, 2005), 58. 12443: 12430: 12421: 12412: 12399: 12372: 12363: 12340: 12331: 12318: 12305: 12297:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 12289: 12262: 12235: 12206: 12178: 12159: 12141: 12128: 12113: 12031:A History of Western Philosophy. 12008: 11995: 11983: 11974: 11964: 11952: 11925: 11913: 11904: 11877: 11864: 11826: 11806: 11793: 11768: 11727: 11714: 11692: 11679: 11666: 11653: 11640: 11624: 11611: 11598: 11583: 11556: 11543: 11527: 11512: 11497: 11482: 11468: 11430: 11415: 11402: 11389: 11376: 11358: 11345: 11332: 11319: 11306: 11293: 11253: 11213: 11196: 11171: 11124: 11111: 11083: 11070: 11057: 10984: 10537:Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2007). 10139:The British Journal of Sociology 9920:"Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759–1797" 9845:from the original on 6 June 2011 9833:Denby, David (11 October 2004), 9219: 9020:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 8267:Scientific and literary journals 8112: 7471:Napoleon's expedition into Egypt 7245:and reformers Piotr Switkowski, 6978:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 6585: 6400: 6295:, deism is the simple belief in 5832:wrote important studies such as 5465:which sought a return to faith. 5306:, and a team of 150 others. The 4932: 4920: 4903: 3474: 3410: 3398: 1797: 1733: 1721: 614: 94: 80: 53:Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier 23693:Third Council of Constantinople 23617:First Council of Constantinople 22966:Protestant Ethic and Capitalism 21840:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust 21775:Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising 21582:Causes of the Armenian genocide 19891:Pyramid construction techniques 19458:Comparative historical research 19375: 19076:Library and information science 17484:History of Western civilization 17087:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16895:History of Western civilization 16181:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 14641:(2008) excerpt and text search. 14639:Rameau's Nephew and other Works 14506:Journal of the History of Ideas 14491:The Enlightenment and Community 14222:. University of Chicago Press. 14203:. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. 12449:David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, 12385:. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. 12269:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 12242:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 11475:Richter, Simon J., ed. (2005), 11250:(Crown Publishing Group, 2001). 11026: 11014: 11002: 10990: 10978: 10965: 10893: 10875: 10848: 10821: 10794: 10767: 10754: 10727: 10709: 10690: 10663: 10636: 10621: 10608: 10595: 10586: 10573: 10557: 10530: 10513: 10500: 10487: 10474: 10461: 10434: 10423: 10410: 10387: 10378: 10365: 10352: 10330: 10317: 10300: 10262: 10249: 10236: 10191: 10165: 10130: 10087: 10069: 10060: 10051: 10042: 10010: 10001: 9992: 9983: 9970: 9954: 9938: 9918:Kreis, Steven (13 April 2012). 9911: 9898: 9868: 9849: 9718: 9692: 9679: 9650: 9637: 9624: 9596: 9579: 9566: 9541: 9515: 9146:Philippe Jules François Mancini 9138:Louis François, Prince of Conti 9130:Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle 8702: 8543:published by Voltaire in 1738. 8323:published between 1751 and 1766 8240:Histoire naturelle des insectes 7739: 7045:, became collectively known as 7016:The Enlightenment in Portugal ( 7012:History of Portugal (1640–1777) 6907:, the crown began to implement 6652:movement of proto-Romanticism. 6609:Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses 6359:Europe at the beginning of the 5822:classical school of criminology 5644:and a conglomerate grouping of 5190:('dare to know') can be found. 23932:Dissolution of the monasteries 23198:History of the Catholic Church 22978:Gunpowder and gun transmission 22928:Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 22737:Historical school of economics 22674:Nationalism in the Middle Ages 22112:Gunpowder and gun transmission 21986:Zionism as settler colonialism 20991:Limpieza de sangre controversy 19958:Metropolitan-hinterland thesis 17328:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 17271:Christianity in the modern era 17042:Christianity in late antiquity 16524:Christianity in the modern era 16310:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 14409:The Enlightenment: A Genealogy 14033:(1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 592 pp. 13999:(1932), a famous short classic 13613:(Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287. 13369:The American Historical Review 12791:The Business of Enlightenment, 12369:Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26. 12215:"The Concept of Enlightenment" 12175:(Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995). 11566:Storia della filosofia moderna 11442:Dictionary of German Biography 11260:Harrison, Lawrence E. (2012). 10701:Theologico-Political Treatise, 10630:Reasonableness of Christianity 10583:1850, Book Three, Chapter One. 9592:. University of Chicago Press. 9472: 9455: 9433: 9420: 9405: 9379: 9351:The American Historical Review 9243: 9104:Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 9056:Jean François de Saint-Lambert 8988: 8765:public noise or rumour. These 8308:Encyclopedias and dictionaries 7498:was a period of reform in the 7223:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 7086:Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage 6901:Spanish missions in California 6874:Spanish American Enlightenment 6389:by emancipated slaves against 6322:Separation of church and state 6316:Separation of church and state 5836:(Political Essays, 1783); and 5792:In 1776, Adam Smith published 5595:was one of England's earliest 5361:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 5026:separation of church and state 2157:Separation of church and state 13: 1: 23806:Fourth Council of the Lateran 23781:Second Council of the Lateran 23390:Apostles in the New Testament 22787:Opposition to Papal supremacy 22163: 19975:Indigenous population history 17479:History of the European Union 16869:History of the European Union 16707:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 16497:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 16461:War of the Spanish Succession 14474:The Enlightenment in America. 14467:Science and the Enlightenment 14170:Panorama of the Enlightenment 14063:. Princeton University Press. 14046:excerpt and text search vol 2 14035:excerpt and text search vol 1 13873:. Cambridge University Press. 13125:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 13071:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). 12806:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 11674:Colonial Latin America Review 11203:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 11020: 9611:, W.W. Norton & Company, 9586:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 9389:Panorama of the Enlightenment 9232: 9096:Armand de Vignerot du Plessis 9036:Charles-Jean-François Hénault 9016:Charles Marie de La Condamine 8854: 8425:Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon 8070:) had fused with the elites ( 7828:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 7552: 7090:António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches 6361:War of the Spanish Succession 6343:in Virginia and authored the 6067:lawful captive in time of war 5734:Sociology, economics, and law 5384: 5000:and political ideals such as 3567:Critique of political economy 1525:Critique of political economy 1183:Critique of political economy 56: 23920:Catholic Counter-Reformation 23786:Third Council of the Lateran 23776:First Council of the Lateran 23232:Catholic ecumenical councils 22703:Desacralization of knowledge 20974:Carlism in the Francoist era 20942:Holodomor in modern politics 19611: 16772:Early Netherlandish painting 15035: 14921:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 14553:(Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2022) 13905:Israel, Jonathan I. (2011). 13896:Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). 13887:Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). 13878:Israel, Jonathan I. (2001). 13669:p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988) 13631:Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. 13303:Huntington Library Quarterly 13291:Shapin and Schaffer, 58, 59. 13183:France in the Enlightenment, 13016:Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90 12741:An Early Information Society 12451:Musicology, The Key Concepts 12080:The Age of the World Picture 11753:10.1163/22141332-00504010-11 11676:15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55–79. 11590:D'Onofrio, Federico (2015). 11426:. pp. 217–234, 375–395. 11408:"The German Enlightenment," 11301:The Enlightenment in America 10521:Enlightenment and Revolution 10444:Voltaire: Political Writings 10441:David Williams, ed. (1994). 10307:von Guttner, Darius (2015). 9948:(Renascence Editions, 2000) 9237: 9134:Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 8557:Il Newtonianism per le dame, 8102:Charles Théveneau de Morande 7683: 7462:, considered the founder of 7235:Stanisław August Poniatowski 7070:indigenous peoples in Brazil 6941:A war of national resistance 6883:Spanish Constitution of 1812 6425:, John Locke, Isaac Newton, 6417:such major intellectuals as 5473:ground under the support of 4837:Socialist calculation debate 4807:List of socialist economists 4782:Economic calculation problem 3667:Socialist mode of production 3524:Socialist calculation debate 1575:Periodizations of capitalism 49:Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 7: 24457:History of Europe by period 23095:Historiographic metafiction 23059: 23005:Organizations, publications 22794:Proto-orthodox Christianity 21744:German resistance to Nazism 21600:Persian famine of 1917–1919 21010:Islamic revolution of Spain 20937:Holodomor genocide question 20813:Revisionism of Risorgimento 20807:Rerum italicarum scriptores 20788:Historiae Patriae Monumenta 20555:Self-Strengthening Movement 19705:decolonization of knowledge 17438:Russian invasion of Ukraine 17049:Crisis of the Third Century 16413:Absolute monarchy in France 16357:Lands of the Bohemian Crown 14890: 14291:The Enlightenment in France 14218:Statman, Alexander (2023). 13974:France in the Enlightenment 12514:A History of Western Music, 12379:Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). 12346:Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). " 12104:Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) 11551:Modern Intellectual History 11422:Gagliardo, John G. (1991). 11034:Geography and Enlightenment 10716:Mendelssohn, Moses (1783). 10375:New York: NYU, 1990. Print. 9998:Burns (2003), entry: 7,103. 9198:Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 9180:at the desk reading aloud, 8996:Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset 8922: 8869:," chosen to reflect their 8837:Masonic initiation ceremony 8691:Historiography of the salon 8224:is best remembered for his 7571:"), the German term became 7506:in 1839 and ended with the 6646:Johann Gottfried von Herder 6544:Declaration of Independence 6491: 6192: 6167:Two Treatises of Government 5958:Two Treatises of Government 5891:Declaration of Independence 5843: 1271:Simple commodity production 10: 24533: 23266:History of the Roman Curia 22892:Wissenschaft des Judentums 22869:Criticism of Protestantism 21749:Nazi foreign policy debate 21180:Second colonial occupation 20927:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 20565:Tibetan sovereignty debate 20109:Progressive-era historians 19544:Nationalization of history 19495:Historical-critical method 17494:Military history of Europe 17489:Maritime history of Europe 16879:Military history of Europe 16874:Maritime history of Europe 16767:Dutch and Flemish painting 16678:Science in the Renaissance 14816: 14437:10.1177/007327531104900204 14135:The Catholic Enlightenment 14059:Ferrone, Vincenzo (2017). 13909:. Oxford University Press. 13891:. Oxford University Press. 13882:. Oxford University Press. 13827: 13678:Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70. 13355:Paris: Biography of a City 11920:Oxford English Dictionary, 11121:(2000), pp. 1–12, 482–484. 11008: 10996: 10543:. Greenwood. p. 190. 10084:Burns, (2003), entry: 158. 10039:(accessed on 8 June 2008). 10007:Gillispie, (1980), p. xix. 9674:European History Quarterly 9548:Smaldone, William (2014). 9428:The Secular Enlightenment. 9412:Zafirovski, Milan (2010), 9206:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton 9116:Front row, right to left: 9108:Henri François d'Aguesseau 8955:Modern Greek Enlightenment 8811:, Reformed (Calvinist) or 8776: 8706: 8688: 8587: 8411:," the structure that the 7747:Dialectic of Enlightenment 7187: 7133:Liberal Revolution of 1820 7009: 6957:universal manhood suffrage 6909:serious structural changes 6867: 6760: 6662:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 6589: 6527: 6409: 6405: 6319: 6127:the nation was partitioned 6119:Johann Friedrich Struensee 6076: 5801:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot 5698:and the popularization of 5612: 5608: 5523:United States Constitution 5352:(1762); Cesare Beccaria's 5331:A Treatise of Human Nature 5197: 1580:Perspectives on capitalism 714:Between World War I and II 706:20th-century neoclassicism 24467:History of libertarianism 24387: 24287: 24153: 24080: 24015: 24002:European wars of religion 23899: 23834: 23736: 23658: 23549: 23472: 23332: 23321: 23313:Eastern Catholic Churches 23188: 23114: 23065: 23054: 23010: 22999: 22948: 22752: 22711: 22642: 22631: 22487: 22173: 22169: 22158: 22130: 22099: 22063: 21957: 21911: 21897:Second Sino-Japanese War 21875: 21805: 21757: 21719: 21679: 21555: 21377: 21296: 21272: 21231: 21220: 21196: 21094: 21061: 20952: 20876: 20833: 20774: 20739: 20711: 20702:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 20646: 20573: 20479: 20407: 20121: 20050: 19983: 19945: 19878: 19874: 19863: 19688: 19621: 19617: 19606: 19383: 19370: 19197: 19064: 19026: 19022: 19009: 18886: 18860: 18856: 18843: 18776: 18493:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 18473: 18391: 18228: 18063: 17934:Standard Average European 17802: 17631: 17551: 17464:Genetic history of Europe 17446: 17251: 17067: 17007: 16974: 16917: 16887: 16864:Genetic history of Europe 16851: 16844: 16786: 16736: 16729: 16686: 16670: 16634: 16625: 16613:European wars of religion 16516: 16509: 16474: 16456:Second Hundred Years' War 16433: 16377: 16253: 16246: 16216: 16209: 16168: 16161: 16116: 16053: 16046: 15978: 15932: 15834: 15791: 15770: 15717: 15686: 15670: 15617: 15551: 15503: 15467: 15434: 15353: 15312: 15156: 15045: 15041: 15030: 14935:Methodological skepticism 14826: 14822: 14811: 14680:Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. 14282:Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). 14199:Sarmant, Thierry (2012). 13869:Haakonssen, Knud (2008). 13744:History of European Ideas 13493:10.1163/9789004273122_008 13089:10.1017/s0269889713000045 13061:Phillips, (1991), p. 107. 12944:Headrick, (2000), p. 153. 12926:Headrick, (2000), p. 168. 12908:Headrick, (2000), p. 172. 12896:Headrick, (2000), p. 144. 12778:The Literary Underground, 12762:The Literary Underground, 12660:The Literary Underground, 12638:The Literary Underground, 12616:The Literary Underground, 12603:The Literary Underground, 12299:(1971)., Franco Venturi, 12078:Martin Heidegger (2002) 11958:Jean le Rond d'Alembert, 11860:Retrieved 7 October 2011. 11740:Journal of Jesuit Studies 11606:History of European ideas 11386:20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286. 11091:José Rabasa, ed. (2012). 10801:Wilson and Reill (2004). 10734:Goetschel, Willi (2004). 10286:10.1017/s0018246x12000301 10228:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 10105:"Review of James Buchan, 9645:Democratic Enlightenment. 9443:. Encyclopædia Britannica 9275:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 8994:Back row, left to right: 8779:London Debating Societies 8695:Salons were places where 8684: 8489:Popularization of science 8330:encyclopedic dictionaries 7965:Deconstructive Variations 7460:Jean-François Champollion 7255:Third Partition of Poland 7151:visits Russian scientist 7139: 6508:, physician and chemist; 5814:Of Crimes and Punishments 5710:; a new understanding of 5468:In the mid-18th century, 5379: 5355:On Crimes and Punishments 5239:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 5194:Influential intellectuals 5022:constitutional government 4832:Socialism and LGBT rights 3776:Socialist-oriented market 3724:Socialist planned economy 3627:Material balance planning 3380:Sexually liberal feminism 3287:Bias in American academia 2758:European Democratic Party 2214:List of liberal theorists 297:Middle Eastern philosophy 24447:Enlightenment philosophy 24133:Mary of the Divine Heart 23756:Clash against the empire 23708:Second Council of Nicaea 23602:Old St. Peter's Basilica 22652:Crisis of historiography 21815:Auschwitz bombing debate 21501:Indian Rebellion of 1857 21352:Late Bronze Age collapse 21286:List of military museums 20889:Pre-Revolutionary Russia 20861:Polish People's Republic 20696:Sybel-Ficker controversy 20060:African-American history 20033:Colonial Spanish America 19822:Second Thirty Years' War 18633:Lancaster House Treaties 18123:Christian existentialism 18083:Ancient Roman philosophy 18073:Ancient Greek philosophy 14627:Broadie, Alexander, ed. 14243:, Open Book Publishers, 13913:Melton, James Van Horn. 13746:10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94. 13399:This Historical Journal, 13052:Phillips, (1991), p. 92. 13025:Phillips, (1991), p. 90. 13007:Headrick, (2000), p. 19. 12795:The Literary Underground 12188:The age of Enlightenment 11971:support the later model. 10828:Pagden, Anthony (2013). 10603:A Treatise on Toleration 10430:Of the Original Contract 10093:Thomson, (1786), p. 203. 9766:, pp. vii–viii, 19. 9660:New York: Messner (1955) 9386:Outram, Dorinda (2006), 9064:Jacques-Germain Soufflot 8981: 8584:Schools and universities 8046:The Gentleman's Magazine 7913:Implications in the arts 7792:or the dominance of the 7508:First Constitutional Era 7450: 7410: 7390: 7323: 7264: 7106:José de Azeredo Coutinho 6962: 6920:gave Prussian scientist 6756: 6031:Of the Original Contract 5424:of mind and matter. His 5325:Philosophical Dictionary 3771:Socialist market economy 3696:Workers' self-management 3662:Socialism in one country 3509:Age of the Enlightenment 2039:Labor theory of property 851:Economic interventionism 24399:Vatican City portal 23751:Investiture Controversy 23607:First Council of Nicaea 21765:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 21624:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 21175:Porter–MacKenzie debate 20932:Causes of the Holodomor 20469:Problem of two emperors 20417:Catilinarian conspiracy 19644:Historical significance 19505:Indiscipline of history 19480:Historical anthropology 18411:Equality before the law 17618:Romano-Germanic culture 17469:History of Christianity 16900:History of Christianity 16482:French–Habsburg rivalry 16441:French Wars of Religion 14716:excerpt and text search 14707:(1965) online, excerpts 14696:excerpt and text search 14686:excerpt and text search 14633:excerpt and text search 14545:excerpt and text search 14485:excerpt and text search 14373:excerpt and text search 14349:excerpt and text search 14319:excerpt and text search 14266:Yolton, John W. et al. 14188:(2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp. 14176:Pinker, Steven (2018). 14160:excerpt and text search 14127:excerpt and text search 14107:excerpt and text search 14069:The Enlightenment World 13889:Enlightenment Contested 13688:Diderot, Denis (1769). 13633:The Enlightenment World 13611:The Enlightenment World 13567:Eighteenth-Century Life 13538:J.A. Leo Lemay (2013). 13525:Alexander Pope: A Life, 13477:Handbook of Freemasonry 13110:Hotson, Howard (2007). 13043:Porter, (2003), p. 101. 13034:Porter, (2003), p. 300. 12998:Headrick, (2000), p. 15 12971:Darnton, (1979), p. 37. 12705:Encyclopædia Britannica 12311:James Van Horn Melton, 12217:. In G.S. Noerr (ed.). 12119:Norman K. Swazo (2002) 11814:Acta Poloniae Historica 11659:Aldridge, Alfred Owen. 11504:Kuehn, Manfred (2001). 11370:Encyclopædia Britannica 11149:10.1111/1468-229X.00016 10643:R.B. Bernstein (2003). 10614:Margaret C. Jacob, ed. 10471:(1990) pp. 258–266 10373:Social Contract Theory. 9966:excerpt and text search 9632:Eighteenth-Century Life 9174:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 9166:Claude-Adrien Helvétius 9100:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 9004:Jean-François Marmontel 8934:Early modern philosophy 8678:experimental philosophy 8446:universal encyclopedias 8438:Encyclopædia Britannica 8244:Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 7961:Rose Rosengard Subotnik 7949:Dictionnaire de musique 7940:and Mozart, with their 7628:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 7415:In 18th-century India, 7379:and the rationality of 7328:From 1641 to 1853, the 7114:Cláudio Manoel da Costa 6983:Histoire des deux Indes 6953:constitutional monarchy 6751:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6689:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6619:depicting German poets 6524:Anglo-American colonies 6163:consent of the governed 6022:in particular to apply 5970:consent of the governed 5964:Discourse on Inequality 5923:consent of the governed 5871:Frederick II of Prussia 5850:political modernization 5567:skeptical philosophical 5428:was refined by Locke's 5373:Critique of Pure Reason 5343:Discourse on Inequality 5304:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 5082:Discourse on the Method 4772:Criticism of capitalism 3783:Participatory economics 3617:Labour-time calculation 2748:Arab Liberal Federation 1938:Consent of the governed 1520:Criticism of capitalism 24411:Catholicism portal 24222:Second Vatican Council 24108:Our Lady of La Salette 23915:Protestant Reformation 23902:Protestant Reformation 23821:Second Council of Lyon 23210:Ecclesiastical history 22859:Protestant Reformation 22833:Second Vatican Council 22811:Succession to Muhammad 22806:Criticism of the Quran 22557:Religious perspectives 22291:Klemens von Metternich 21888:"Battle for Australia" 21770:Soviet offensive plans 21739:Broad vs. narrow front 21578:Late Ottoman genocides 20511:Century of humiliation 20292:Goguryeo controversies 20270:2,500-year celebration 19928:Double genocide theory 19715:Historical negationism 19539:Ancestral civilisation 19527:Historical materialism 19485:Historical determinism 19435:History of mentalities 18573:Eastern European Group 18162:Continental philosophy 18093:Judeo-Christian ethics 18078:Hellenistic philosophy 17559:Cradle of civilization 17293:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16645:Renaissance philosophy 16561:Protestant Reformation 16369:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16176:Fall of Constantinople 14985: 14919: 14885:Enlightened absolutism 14876: 14666:. Simon and Schuster. 13836:The Historical Journal 13812:A Basic History of Art 13644:Jacob, pp. 20, 73, 89. 13154:Peter Barrett (2004), 12980:Darnton, (1979), p. 6. 12962:Darnton, (1979), p. 7. 12185:Frost, Martin (2008), 12138:(2008), "Introduction" 12095: 11851:5 October 2011 at the 10971:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10954:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10882:Bayle, Pierre (1741). 10855:Brown, Stuart (2003). 10066:Porter, (2003), p. 90. 10048:Porter, (2003), p. 91. 9493:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006 9194:Françoise de Graffigny 9012:Antoine Léonard Thomas 8966:Renaissance philosophy 8950:Midlands Enlightenment 8946:, Jewish Enlightenment 8898: 8838: 8641: 8630: 8623: 8547:'s translation of the 8509: 8465: 8416: 8324: 8288: 8283: 8276: 8231: 8226: 8186: 8125: 8051: 8029: 8002: 7983:Dissemination of ideas 7928: 7926:George Frideric Handel 7866: 7863:Alexander von Humboldt 7839: 7805:Intellectuals such as 7769: 7623: 7569:What is Enlightenment? 7466: 7292: 7202: 7156: 7096:and being part of the 7043:earthquake engineering 7033:His reconstruction of 7030:1755 Lisbon earthquake 6922:Alexander von Humboldt 6885: 6870:Enlightenment in Spain 6858:Francesco Mario Pagano 6836:Science flourished as 6776: 6635: 6548: 6530:American Enlightenment 6498:Scottish Enlightenment 6488: 6364: 6223: 6202: 6141: 6092: 6079:Enlightened absolutism 6073:Enlightened absolutism 6065:that enslavement of a 5926: 5897:Theories of government 5875:enlightened absolutism 5863:Catherine II of Russia 5830:Francesco Mario Pagano 5753:thinkers developed a " 5751:Scottish Enlightenment 5746: 5581: 5547:Scottish Enlightenment 5401: 5337:The Spirit of the Laws 5334:(1740); Montesquieu's 5319:Letters on the English 5291: 5184: 5163:, in opposition to an 4777:Criticism of socialism 3729:Decentralized planning 3632:Peer‑to‑peer economics 2763:European Liberal Youth 2733:Africa Liberal Network 1958:Economic globalization 1550:Exploitation of labour 1261:Primitive accumulation 520:Aesthetic philosophers 62: 24497:Scientific Revolution 24462:History of liberalism 24118:First Vatican Council 23816:First Council of Lyon 23580:Constantine the Great 23276:Christian monasticism 22983:Torsion mangonel myth 22886:Modern Jewish history 22881:Jesuit historiography 22874:Protestant work ethic 22854:Hesychast controversy 22719:Industrial Revolution 22669:Library of Alexandria 22587:The Lord of the Rings 22237:Constantine the Great 22117:Torsion mangonel myth 22049:Sri Lankan Civil War 21128:Storm over the gentry 21029:Colonies or Provinces 20560:Sprouts of capitalism 19634:Historic preservation 19629:Change and continuity 18693:Three Seas Initiative 18668:Pacific Islands Forum 18533:British–Irish Council 18281:Greek Orthodox Church 17740:Industrial Revolution 17710:Scientific Revolution 17373:Industrial Revolution 16924:History of philosophy 16799:Industrial Revolution 16197:Scientific Revolution 14851:Counter-Enlightenment 14690:Kramnick, Issac, ed. 13987:Reference and surveys 13131:. Aldershot: Ashgate. 12739:See Mackie, Darnton, 12083: 11608:32.4 (2006): 385–405. 11439:, "Seyler, Abel", in 11399:20.3 (2002): 309–331. 11325:Jack Fruchtman, Jr., 11220:Towsey, Mark (2010). 11131:Hirst, Derek (1996). 10523:, Pluralism Project, 10484:(March 1991) 41:21–27 10371:Lessnoff, Michael H. 10310:The French Revolution 9989:Porter (2003), 79–80. 9944:Mary Wollstonecraft, 9364:10.1093/ahr/117.4.999 9210:Georges-Louis Leclerc 9186:Anne-Marie du Boccage 9170:Charles-André van Loo 9072:Anne Claude de Caylus 9024:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8836: 8636: 8625:Académie des sciences 8617: 8514:Bernard de Fontenelle 8507:Bernard de Fontenelle 8504: 8460: 8406: 8315: 8274: 8220: 8175: 8120: 8042: 8024: 7997: 7924: 7890:Industrial Revolution 7860: 7825: 7794:mechanistic worldview 7785:Counter-Enlightenment 7773:Jason Josephson Storm 7764: 7710:universal gravitation 7701:Principia Mathematica 7632:Preliminary Discourse 7605: 7458: 7272: 7205:Enlightenment ideas ( 7197: 7174:Russian Enlightenment 7147: 7118:Tomás Antônio Gonzaga 7082:University of Coimbra 6881: 6802:Parthenopean Republic 6770: 6763:Italian Enlightenment 6739:Joseph von Sonnenfels 6681:Johann Sebastian Bach 6607: 6590:Further information: 6537: 6528:Further information: 6482: 6410:Further information: 6358: 6251:resurrection of Jesus 6238:, one of the English 6213: 6197: 6181:Alexis de Tocqueville 6175:divine right of kings 6135: 6086: 6060:Locke argues against 6043:hunting and gathering 5904: 5795:The Wealth of Nations 5741: 5681:Bernard de Fontenelle 5575: 5463:Counter-Enlightenment 5392: 5367:The Wealth of Nations 5358:(1764); Adam Smith's 5271:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 5207:Scientific Revolution 5098:Principia Mathematica 5033:Scientific Revolution 3405:Liberalism portal 3277:Anti-authoritarianism 2778:Liberal International 1728:Capitalism portal 1540:Culture of capitalism 1495:Capitalist propaganda 1251:Industrial Revolution 1241:Commercial Revolution 101:Philosophy portal 35: 24442:Classical liberalism 24432:Age of Enlightenment 24295:Sexual abuse scandal 24204:Mit brennender Sorge 24047:Age of Enlightenment 23826:Bernard of Clairvaux 23703:Byzantine Iconoclasm 23642:Council of Chalcedon 23422:Council of Jerusalem 23291:Role in civilization 23271:Religious institutes 23203:By country or region 23070:Commemorative plaque 22286:Juan Manuel de Rosas 21734:"Blitzkrieg" concept 21605:Powder keg of Europe 21480:Franco-Prussian War 21150:Winter of Discontent 21133:Suffragette Campaign 20800:Italiani brava gente 20766:Revolutionary period 20588:Frankish Interregnum 20521:"Chineseness" debate 20454:Byzantine succession 20439:Fall of Western Rome 20380:Executed Renaissance 19869:By country or region 19813:Age of Enlightenment 19787:Vaticinium ex eventu 19734:Modernisation theory 19568:Quantitative history 18944:Historical documents 18688:Special Relationship 18098:Christian philosophy 18043:Western Christianity 17705:Age of Enlightenment 17579:Hellenistic Kingdoms 17428:European debt crisis 17423:European integration 17363:Age of Enlightenment 17203:Republic of Florence 16650:Renaissance humanism 16534:Bohemian Reformation 16492:Treaties of Nijmegen 16103:Age of Enlightenment 14805:Age of Enlightenment 14756:Age of Enlightenment 14747:Age of Enlightenment 14710:Schmidt, James, ed. 14701:Manuel, Frank Edward 14600:Winterer, Caroline. 14496:Reid-Maroney, Nina. 14313:Broadie, Alexander. 14306:Broadie, Alexander. 14191:Robertson, Ritchie. 14099:Himmelfarb, Gertrude 13950:Porter, Roy (2001), 13690:"D'Alembert's Dream" 13662:Reinhart Koselleck, 13487:. pp. 100–116. 13428:Andrew, 406–08, 411. 13141:Elizabeth Williams, 12844:See Thomas Laqueur, 11803:37.4 (2010): 360–77. 11685:Bleichmar, Daniela. 11650:10.2 (2005): 142–67. 11621:18.4 (2011): 521–50. 11553:5.2 (2008): 195–223. 10945:, pp. vii–viii. 10628:Locke, John (1695). 10416:Lorraine Y. Landry, 10402:Porter, Roy (2000), 10340:. Plato.stanford.edu 10323:Robert A. Ferguson, 9859:(28 November 2006), 9857:Barroso, José Manuel 9676:22.2 (1992): 247–55. 9643:Israel, Jonathan I. 9162:Charles Pinot Duclos 9126:Claude Joseph Vernet 9028:Jean-Philippe Rameau 8962:, Arab Enlightenment 8929:Atlantic Revolutions 8736:The Spectator (1711) 8657:concours académiques 8098:Le Gazetier cuirassé 7971:) compares Mozart's 7504:Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif 7502:that began with the 7221:) together with the 7217:(nobility) culture ( 7190:Polish Enlightenment 7184:Poland and Lithuania 7125:invasion of Portugal 7110:José da Silva Lisboa 6974:Toussaint Louverture 6949:Constitution of 1812 6937:Bayonne Constitution 6391:French colonial rule 6123:constitution of 1791 6062:indentured servitude 5867:Joseph II of Austria 5787:classical liberalism 5626:Montgolfier brothers 5519:separation of powers 5483:Siècle des Lumières, 5118:scientific academies 4979:Age of Enlightenment 4927:Communism portal 4910:Socialism portal 3602:Industrial democracy 3552:Collective ownership 2209:Age of Enlightenment 2162:Separation of powers 1703:Right-libertarianism 1633:Classical liberalism 1600:Venture philanthropy 1236:Capitalism and Islam 1231:Age of Enlightenment 826:Capital accumulation 667:Age of Enlightenment 637:Classical education 545:Philosophers of mind 18:Enlightenment Period 24123:Papal infallibility 24113:Our Lady of Lourdes 24062:Shimabara Rebellion 23906:Counter-Reformation 22899:Schools of thought 22864:Proto-Protestantism 22733:School of Thoughts 22615:William Shakespeare 22600:Robert Falcon Scott 22505:Friedrich Nietzsche 22343:Cult of personality 22328:Neville Chamberlain 22188:Alexander the Great 22070:Russo-Georgian War 22043:Sovereignty dispute 22022:Iranian Revolution 21852:"Polish death camp" 21829:In relation to the 21538:Myth of English aid 21529:War of the Pacific 21306:Albigensian Crusade 20731:Indigenous Aryanism 20427:Constantinian shift 19963:Residential schools 19720:Historian's fallacy 19639:Historic recurrence 19137:Numismatics (Money) 18909:Archaeological site 18833:theories of history 18713:West Nordic Council 18578:Eastern Partnership 18167:Analytic philosophy 17868:Classical tradition 17690:Early modern period 17646:Classical antiquity 17641:European Bronze Age 17393:Revolutions of 1848 17323:Early modern France 17104:Anglo-Saxon England 17009:Classical antiquity 16836:Revolutions of 1848 16757:Florentine painting 16608:Counter-Reformation 16529:Proto-Protestantism 16487:Peace of Westphalia 16330:Seventeen Provinces 16189:Printing Revolution 16083:Early modern Europe 16078:Early modern period 16040:Early modern Europe 15811:Feijóo y Montenegro 15762:Vorontsova-Dashkova 14549:Suitner, Riccarda. 14465:Hankins, Thomas L. 14429:2011HisSc..49..217G 14336:Brown, Stuart, ed. 14289:Artz, Frederick B. 13720:Margaret C. Jacob, 13702:on 29 November 2014 13665:Critique and Crisis 13371:. 105#1 (1): 1–35. 12418:Outram 2005, p. 13. 12328:(1989), pp. 36, 37. 12029:Russell, Bertrand. 11886:The New York Review 11816:100 (2009): 57–77. 11051:Second Edition, by 10568:Library of Congress 9886:on 17 February 2020 9603:Gay, Peter (1996), 9441:"The Enlightenment" 9426:Jacob, Margaret C. 8553:Francesco Algarotti 8290:Journal des sçavans 8278:Journal des sçavans 8147:bibliothèque bleue, 8138:reading revolution. 8012:Republic of Letters 8006:Republic of Letters 7998:French philosopher 7883:Republic of Letters 7818:Society and culture 7714:Siècle des Lumières 7661:Counter-Reformation 7565:Jean-Baptiste Dubos 7243:Stanislaw II August 7129:evacuated to Brazil 7006:Portugal and Brazil 6570:religious tolerance 6351:National variations 6220:religious tolerance 6214:French philosopher 6155:American Revolution 6136:Denmark's minister 6096:other words, be a " 5879:American Revolution 5640:, was divided into 5593:Mary Wollstonecraft 5576:German philosopher 5475:Madame de Pompadour 5370:(1776); and Kant's 5349:The Social Contract 5340:(1748); Rousseau's 5316:(1710), Voltaire's 5161:religious tolerance 4812:Market abolitionism 4797:Left-libertarianism 3734:Inclusive Democracy 3701:Workplace democracy 3547:Calculation in kind 3529:Socialist economics 3519:Revolutions of 1848 3417:Politics portal 2120:Civil and political 2093:Popular sovereignty 1953:Economic liberalism 1740:Business portal 856:Economic liberalism 846:Competitive markets 624:Classical antiquity 555:Women in philosophy 285:Indigenous American 68:Part of a series on 43:The Orphan of China 24168:Our Lady of Fátima 23957:Ignatius of Loyola 23881:Catherine of Siena 23849:Pope Boniface VIII 23668:Benedict of Nursia 23637:Council of Ephesus 23474:Ante-Nicene period 23427:Split with Judaism 23261:Crusading movement 23090:Historical realism 23085:Historical fiction 23030:History institutes 23020:Historical society 23015:Heritage registers 22903:Biblical criticism 22816:Islamic golden age 22767:Early Christianity 22647:Bears in antiquity 22535:Medieval Christian 22333:Pedro II of Brazil 22281:José de San Martín 22085:Syrian revolution 21997:Malayan Emergency 21972:1948 Palestine war 21705:Spanish Civil War 21655:War guilt question 21464:American Civil War 21444:Invasion of Russia 21420:New Russian School 21204:Colonial Australia 20920:October Revolution 20683:Strukturgeschichte 20619:Location of Alésia 20538:Hua–Yi distinction 20459:Moscow, third Rome 20075:Reconstruction era 19896:Black Egypt Thesis 19818:European Civil War 19774:Translatio imperii 19729:Invented tradition 18850:Historical sources 18172:Post-structuralism 18135:Christian humanism 17765:Universal suffrage 17499:Crusading movement 17403:Russian Revolution 17238:Hundred Years' War 17134:Maritime republics 17037:Early Christianity 17027:Hellenistic period 16984:Paleolithic Europe 16566:Ninety-five Theses 16352:Kingdom of Bohemia 16266:Free imperial city 16234:The General Crisis 14950:Natural philosophy 14563:Tunstall, Kate E. 14489:Redkop, Benjamin. 14417:History of Science 14140:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14119:Kors, Alan Charles 13940:Robertson, Ritchie 13781:Robert R. Palmer, 13759:(1996) pp. 634–635 13587:(1996) pp. 634–635 13238:Caradonna, 653–54. 13229:Caradonna, 634–36. 13077:Science in Context 12884:, pp. 150–51. 12860:, pp. 143–44. 12195:on 10 October 2007 12057:, pp. v–viii. 11790:, pp. 609–32. 10525:Harvard University 10274:Historical Journal 10188:(Routledge, 1992). 9978:Histoire de Paris, 9976:Sarmant, Thierry, 9926:on 11 January 2014 9820:, pp. 99–105. 9634:7.2 (1982): 41–54. 9255:publishinghau5.com 9202:Bernard de Jussieu 9000:Pierre de Marivaux 8839: 8773:Debating societies 8646:Academy of Science 8642: 8631: 8572:scientific works. 8545:Émilie du Châtelet 8510: 8417: 8325: 8316:First page of the 8284: 8232: 8227:Histoire naturelle 8187: 8152:bibliothèque bleue 8131:bibliothèque bleue 8126: 8052: 8003: 7942:Viennese Classical 7929: 7867: 7840: 7730:global integration 7624: 7467: 7437:Bengal Renaissance 7330:Tokugawa shogunate 7316:for criticisms of 7293: 7251:Gracjan Piotrowski 7225:political system ( 7209:) emerged late in 7203: 7166:Peter Simon Pallas 7157: 6969:Haitian Revolution 6886: 6797:Gaetano Filangieri 6793:Ferdinando Galiani 6777: 6745:musicians such as 6666:Friedrich Schiller 6636: 6549: 6489: 6383:Haitian Revolution 6379:plantation economy 6365: 6266:organized religion 6224: 6142: 6115:Pombal in Portugal 6093: 5927: 5747: 5704:Émilie du Châtelet 5638:natural philosophy 5586:individual freedom 5582: 5477:, the mistress of 5422:dualistic doctrine 5402: 5157:individual liberty 4817:Marxist philosophy 3637:Production for use 3607:Input–output model 3572:Economic democracy 2088:Permissive society 2068:Limited government 1500:Capitalist realism 891:Goods and services 871:Fictitious capital 248:Eastern philosophy 63: 24419: 24418: 24379:COVID-19 pandemic 24357:Pope Benedict XVI 24262:Pope John Paul II 24037:Pope Benedict XIV 24023:French Revolution 24007:Thirty Years' War 23997:Robert Bellarmine 23982:John of the Cross 23886:Pope Alexander VI 23871:Council of Vienne 23801:Francis of Assisi 23791:Pope Innocent III 23660:Early Middle Ages 23654: 23653: 23650: 23649: 23592:Arian controversy 23545: 23544: 23493:Apostolic Fathers 23144: 23143: 23110: 23109: 23050: 23049: 22995: 22994: 22991: 22990: 22908:Catholic theology 22762:Avestan geography 22627: 22626: 22623: 22622: 22610:Søren Kierkegaard 22483: 22482: 22394:Warren G. Harding 22154: 22153: 22150: 22149: 21953: 21952: 21831:Armenian genocide 21694:Polish–Soviet War 21689:Burning of Smyrna 21675: 21674: 21665:Reichstag inquiry 21588:Patriotic consent 21459: 21458: 21434:War in the Vendée 21398:French Revolution 21380:century conflicts 21369:Peloponnesian War 21330:Eighty Years' War 21216: 21215: 21212: 21211: 21192: 21191: 21188: 21187: 21121:Westminster Stone 20818:Southern question 20657:Alltagsgeschichte 20607:Legendary Saracen 20309:Early settlements 20117: 20116: 20097:Political history 20082:Consensus history 19859: 19858: 19855: 19854: 19851: 19850: 19841:Continuity thesis 19780:Translatio studii 19666:Theory of history 19602: 19601: 19598: 19597: 19556:Subaltern Studies 19441:Nouvelle histoire 19366: 19365: 19362: 19361: 19278:Medieval churches 19265:Geistesgeschichte 19209:Paleoanthropology 19117:Encyclopaedistics 19005: 19004: 19001: 19000: 18873:Secondary sources 18736: 18735: 18563:Council of Europe 18465:International law 18418:Constitutionalism 18276:Eastern Orthodoxy 17782:Post–Cold War era 17715:Age of Revolution 17569:Greco-Roman world 17507: 17506: 17433:COVID-19 pandemic 17378:French Revolution 17353:Habsburg monarchy 17333:Cossack Hetmanate 17313:Portuguese Empire 17303:Absolute monarchy 17298:Thirty Years' War 17193:Holy Roman Empire 17118:Bulgarian Empire 17077:Early Middle Ages 16994:Bronze Age Europe 16968:History of Europe 16934: 16933: 16928:History of Europe 16913: 16912: 16809:French Revolution 16804:Age of Revolution 16782: 16781: 16762:Venetian painting 16725: 16724: 16717:Leonardo da Vinci 16621: 16620: 16505: 16504: 16446:Thirty Years' War 16385:Habsburg monarchy 16342:Habsburg monarchy 16315:Cossack Hetmanate 16300:Portuguese Empire 16261:Holy Roman Empire 16242: 16241: 16224:Absolute monarchy 16205: 16204: 16157: 16156: 16006: 16005: 15974: 15973: 15970: 15969: 15026: 15025: 15022: 15021: 14999:Scientific method 14856:Critical thinking 14705:The Enlightenment 14648:(Continuum, 2011) 14613:978-84-16473-45-8 14577:Venturi, Franco. 14570:Venturi, Franco. 14567:(Continuum, 2011) 14539:Staloff, Darren. 14400:978-0-87099-451-7 14367:Cassirer, Ernst. 14364:, Edinburgh, 1982 14276:Specialty studies 14260:978-1-78374-203-5 14250:10.11647/OBP.0088 14210:978-2-7558-0330-3 14168:Outram, Dorinda. 14156:The Enlightenment 14154:Outram, Dorinda. 14132:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14111:Jacob, Margaret. 14076:The Enlightenment 14074:Hampson, Norman. 14053:The Enlightenment 14002:Chisick, Harvey. 13963:978-0-333-94505-6 13953:The Enlightenment 13932:978-2-7441-9130-5 13757:Europe: A History 13585:Europe: A History 13551:978-0-8122-0929-7 13502:978-90-04-21833-8 12953:d'Alembert, p. 4. 12707:. 5 October 2023. 12494:Beard and Gloag, 12478:Beard and Gloag, 12407:The Enlightenment 12405:Outram, Dorinda. 12392:978-1-316-19432-4 12324:Jürgen Habermas, 12282:978-0-226-40336-6 12255:978-0-226-40336-6 12228:978-1-85984-154-9 12045:, pp. 49–50. 11922:3rd Edn (revised) 11576:978-88-581-1845-0 11506:Kant: A Biography 11455:Walter de Gruyter 11351:Paul M. Spurlin, 11338:Charles C. Mann, 11273:978-1-4422-1964-9 11104:978-0-19-921917-9 10868:978-0-415-30877-9 10841:978-0-19-966093-3 10814:978-1-4381-1021-9 10787:978-1-4381-1021-9 10747:978-0-299-19083-5 10703:"Preface," 1677, 10683:978-0-521-65196-7 10656:978-0-19-975844-9 10506:Giles MacDonogh, 10454:978-0-521-43727-1 10394:Rand, B. (1900), 10270:De Dijn, Annelien 9960:Bruce P. Lenman, 9906:Kant: A Biography 9738:979-8-8681-1641-4 9559:978-1-4422-0909-1 9529:on 24 August 2023 9122:Sophie d'Houdetot 9008:Joseph-Marie Vien 8917:neo-classical art 8892:George Washington 8638:Antoine Lavoisier 8610:Learned academies 8429:Handlungs-Lexicon 8364:Lexicon Technicum 8358:Lexicon Technicum 7760:Theodor W. Adorno 7744:In the 1947 book 7546:Ritchie Robertson 7476:Islamic modernism 7401:Independence Club 7320:rule in Europe." 7288:Euclid's Elements 7285:, in translating 7170:serfdom in Russia 7153:Mikhail Lomonosov 7149:Empress Elizabeth 7102:Portuguese Empire 7022:Marquis of Pombal 6854:Giambattista Vico 6846:Joseph Schumpeter 6706:Habsburg monarchy 6654:Weimar Classicism 6617:Weimar Classicism 6575:The Age of Reason 6393:in the colony of 6341:Church of England 6336:American colonies 6274:Moses Mendelssohn 6232:Word of God alone 6228:Thirty Years' War 6159:French Revolution 6104:Great of Russia, 6089:Marquis of Pombal 5921:and required the 5883:Benjamin Franklin 5785:was the basis of 5771:William Robertson 5720:Richard Blackmore 5652:, which included 5622:Antoine Lavoisier 5559:scientific method 5543:Francis Hutcheson 5537:French Revolution 5398:modern philosophy 5182:where the phrase 5169:scientific method 5165:absolute monarchy 5107:French Revolution 5024:, and the formal 4987:the Enlightenment 4975: 4974: 4767:Communist society 4739:Socialist parties 3998:Saint-Simonianism 3587:Equal opportunity 3577:Economic planning 3514:French Revolution 3453: 3452: 3292:Bias in the media 2808:Regional variants 2125:Natural and legal 1776: 1775: 1595:Spontaneous order 1565:History of theory 1208:New institutional 1178:Market monetarism 1113:Economic theories 946:Supply and demand 881:Free price system 772: 771: 681:Weimar Classicism 633:Greco-Roman world 593: 592: 401: 400: 16:(Redirected from 24524: 24502:Secular humanism 24409: 24408: 24397: 24396: 24395: 24374:Patriarch Kirill 24247:Pope John Paul I 24052:Anti-clericalism 24032:Pope Innocent XI 23952:Society of Jesus 23937:Council of Trent 23891:Age of Discovery 23836:Late Middle Ages 23738:High Middle Ages 23728:East–West Schism 23612:Pope Sylvester I 23558: 23557: 23547: 23546: 23457:General epistles 23452:Pauline epistles 23385:John the Baptist 23368:Great Commission 23330: 23329: 23281:Catholic culture 23171: 23164: 23157: 23148: 23147: 23133: 23132: 23123: 23122: 23075:Documentary film 23056: 23055: 23035:History journals 23001: 23000: 22974: 22846: 22782:Primacy of Peter 22729:Great Depression 22709: 22708: 22682: 22660: 22633: 22632: 22581:J. R. R. Tolkien 22436: 22435: 22431: 22419: 22407: 22389:Ulysses S. Grant 22384:Thomas Jefferson 22375: 22351: 22314: 22277: 22265: 22233: 22221: 22213:Chiang Ching-kuo 22203:Cato the Younger 22193:Amin al-Husseini 22171: 22170: 22160: 22159: 22139: 22138: 22122:War and genocide 21946: 21932:Résistancialisme 21919:Battle of France 21901:Nanjing Massacre 21755: 21754: 21636: 21635: 21632: 21596: 21546: 21428: 21411: 21384: 21383: 21311:Catharism debate 21297:pre-18th century 21279:Military history 21256: 21249: 21242: 21233: 21232: 21226:By war, conflict 21222: 21221: 21170:Cambridge School 21156: 21155: 21054: 21042: 21018: 20999: 20909: 20897: 20869: 20691: 20669:Historikerstreit 20639: 20627: 20615: 20596: 20582:Cordon sanitaire 20528:New Qing History 20516:Conquest dynasty 20507: 20422:Christianization 20405: 20404: 20324: 20237: 20225: 20213: 20191: 20179: 20171:Byzantine Empire 20026:Iquicha Royalism 20015: 19981: 19980: 19904: 19876: 19875: 19865: 19864: 19808:Age of Discovery 19797:Periodization of 19794: 19793: 19768:Transhistoricity 19763:Thirty-year rule 19674: 19662: 19619: 19618: 19608: 19607: 19588:Great Man theory 19551:People's history 19513: 19418: 19417: 19410:Three-age system 19372: 19371: 19072:Archival science 19024: 19023: 19011: 19010: 18878:Tertiary sources 18858: 18857: 18845: 18844: 18794:by area of study 18763: 18756: 18749: 18740: 18739: 18608:EU Customs Union 18140:Secular humanism 18088:Christian ethics 18038:East–West Schism 18021:Physical culture 17745:Great Divergence 17695:Age of Discovery 17534: 17527: 17520: 17511: 17510: 17368:Great Divergence 17283:Age of Discovery 17228:Late Middle Ages 17198:High Middle Ages 17109:Byzantine Empire 17092:Christianization 17082:Migration Period 17017:Classical Greece 16989:Neolithic Europe 16961: 16954: 16947: 16938: 16937: 16849: 16848: 16794:Great Divergence 16752:Italian painting 16734: 16733: 16632: 16631: 16514: 16513: 16466:Seven Years' War 16408:House of Bourbon 16364:Protestant Union 16335:Economic history 16251: 16250: 16214: 16213: 16166: 16165: 16093:Age of Discovery 16073:High Renaissance 16051: 16050: 16033: 16026: 16019: 16010: 16009: 15995: 15994: 15043: 15042: 15032: 15031: 14990: 14924: 14895: 14881: 14824: 14823: 14813: 14812: 14798: 14791: 14784: 14775: 14774: 14743: 14730:Zalta, Edward N. 14677: 14651:Diderot, Denis. 14637:Diderot, Denis. 14556:Till, Nicholas. 14529: 14448: 14407:Edelstein, Dan. 14404: 14357:13, no. 4: 3–28. 14333: 14299:Brewer, Daniel. 14263: 14252: 14233: 14214: 14181: 14180:. Penguin Books. 14064: 13966: 13936: 13910: 13901: 13892: 13883: 13874: 13844:Burns, William. 13822: 13821: 13815: 13805: 13799: 13792: 13786: 13779: 13773: 13766: 13760: 13753: 13747: 13740: 13734: 13731: 13725: 13718: 13712: 13711: 13709: 13707: 13701: 13695:. Archived from 13694: 13685: 13679: 13676: 13670: 13660: 13654: 13651: 13645: 13642: 13636: 13629: 13623: 13620: 13614: 13607: 13601: 13594: 13588: 13581: 13575: 13574: 13562: 13556: 13555: 13535: 13529: 13521: 13515: 13514: 13485:Brill Publishers 13468: 13462: 13459: 13453: 13450: 13444: 13438: 13429: 13426: 13420: 13417: 13411: 13408: 13402: 13395: 13389: 13388: 13364: 13358: 13351: 13345: 13342: 13336: 13333: 13327: 13326: 13298: 13292: 13289: 13283: 13276: 13270: 13263: 13257: 13256: 13253:royalsociety.org 13249:"Royal Charters" 13245: 13239: 13236: 13230: 13227: 13221: 13214: 13208: 13201: 13195: 13192: 13186: 13179: 13173: 13152: 13146: 13139: 13133: 13132: 13122: 13116: 13115: 13107: 13101: 13100: 13068: 13062: 13059: 13053: 13050: 13044: 13041: 13035: 13032: 13026: 13023: 13017: 13014: 13008: 13005: 12999: 12996: 12990: 12987: 12981: 12978: 12972: 12969: 12963: 12960: 12954: 12951: 12945: 12942: 12936: 12933: 12927: 12924: 12918: 12915: 12909: 12906: 12897: 12894: 12885: 12879: 12873: 12867: 12861: 12855: 12849: 12842: 12836: 12833: 12827: 12820: 12814: 12813: 12803: 12797: 12787: 12781: 12774: 12765: 12758: 12752: 12749: 12743: 12737: 12731: 12724: 12718: 12715: 12709: 12708: 12697: 12691: 12687: 12681: 12678: 12672: 12669: 12663: 12656: 12650: 12647: 12641: 12634: 12628: 12625: 12619: 12612: 12606: 12599: 12593: 12586: 12580: 12573: 12567: 12564: 12558: 12555: 12549: 12546: 12540: 12537: 12531: 12528: 12517: 12510: 12499: 12492: 12483: 12476: 12467: 12460: 12454: 12447: 12441: 12439: 12434: 12428: 12425: 12419: 12416: 12410: 12403: 12397: 12396: 12376: 12370: 12367: 12361: 12344: 12338: 12335: 12329: 12322: 12316: 12309: 12303: 12293: 12287: 12286: 12266: 12260: 12259: 12239: 12233: 12232: 12210: 12204: 12203: 12202: 12200: 12191:, archived from 12182: 12176: 12163: 12157: 12156: 12145: 12139: 12132: 12126: 12117: 12111: 12102: 12096: 12076: 12070: 12064: 12058: 12052: 12046: 12040: 12034: 12033:pp. 492–494 12027: 12018: 12012: 12006: 12001:Ernst Cassirer, 11999: 11993: 11987: 11981: 11978: 11972: 11968: 11962: 11956: 11950: 11949: 11929: 11923: 11917: 11911: 11908: 11902: 11899: 11890: 11881: 11875: 11870:Ronald P. Toby, 11868: 11862: 11861: 11842: 11836: 11830: 11824: 11810: 11804: 11797: 11791: 11785: 11779: 11772: 11766: 11765: 11755: 11731: 11725: 11718: 11712: 11696: 11690: 11683: 11677: 11670: 11664: 11657: 11651: 11644: 11638: 11630:Franco Venturi, 11628: 11622: 11615: 11609: 11602: 11596: 11595: 11587: 11581: 11580: 11560: 11554: 11547: 11541: 11531: 11525: 11524: 11516: 11510: 11509: 11501: 11495: 11494: 11486: 11480: 11479: 11472: 11466: 11434: 11428: 11427: 11419: 11413: 11406: 11400: 11393: 11387: 11380: 11374: 11373: 11362: 11356: 11349: 11343: 11336: 11330: 11323: 11317: 11310: 11304: 11297: 11291: 11284: 11278: 11277: 11257: 11251: 11244: 11238: 11237: 11217: 11211: 11210: 11200: 11194: 11193: 11191: 11189: 11175: 11169: 11168: 11143:(263): 359–383. 11128: 11122: 11115: 11109: 11108: 11087: 11081: 11080:(2003) 1:409–15. 11074: 11068: 11061: 11055: 11046: 11037: 11030: 11024: 11018: 11012: 11006: 11000: 10994: 10988: 10982: 10976: 10969: 10963: 10952: 10946: 10940: 10934: 10928: 10922: 10916: 10910: 10909: 10897: 10891: 10890: 10879: 10873: 10872: 10852: 10846: 10845: 10825: 10819: 10818: 10798: 10792: 10791: 10771: 10765: 10758: 10752: 10751: 10731: 10725: 10724: 10722: 10713: 10707: 10694: 10688: 10687: 10667: 10661: 10660: 10646:Thomas Jefferson 10640: 10634: 10633: 10625: 10619: 10612: 10606: 10599: 10593: 10590: 10584: 10577: 10571: 10561: 10555: 10554: 10534: 10528: 10517: 10511: 10504: 10498: 10491: 10485: 10478: 10472: 10467:Stephen J. Lee, 10465: 10459: 10458: 10438: 10432: 10427: 10421: 10414: 10408: 10407: 10399: 10391: 10385: 10382: 10376: 10369: 10363: 10362:(1994) pp. 20–38 10356: 10350: 10349: 10347: 10345: 10334: 10328: 10321: 10315: 10314: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10266: 10260: 10253: 10247: 10240: 10234: 10233: 10227: 10219: 10217: 10215: 10204: 10198: 10195: 10189: 10182: 10176: 10169: 10163: 10162: 10134: 10128: 10127: 10126: 10124: 10115:, archived from 10100: 10094: 10091: 10085: 10082: 10076: 10073: 10067: 10064: 10058: 10055: 10049: 10046: 10040: 10038: 10036: 10034: 10029:on 30 March 2012 10025:. Archived from 10014: 10008: 10005: 9999: 9996: 9990: 9987: 9981: 9974: 9968: 9958: 9952: 9942: 9936: 9935: 9933: 9931: 9915: 9909: 9902: 9896: 9895: 9893: 9891: 9882:. Archived from 9872: 9866: 9865: 9853: 9847: 9846: 9830: 9821: 9815: 9806: 9800: 9794: 9788: 9779: 9773: 9767: 9761: 9755: 9749: 9743: 9742: 9722: 9716: 9715: 9696: 9690: 9685:Robert Darnton, 9683: 9677: 9670: 9661: 9654: 9648: 9641: 9635: 9628: 9622: 9621: 9610: 9600: 9594: 9593: 9583: 9577: 9570: 9564: 9563: 9545: 9539: 9538: 9536: 9534: 9525:. Archived from 9519: 9513: 9512: 9476: 9470: 9469: 9459: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9448: 9437: 9431: 9424: 9418: 9417: 9409: 9403: 9402: 9383: 9377: 9376: 9366: 9342: 9281: 9280: 9274: 9266: 9264: 9262: 9247: 9226: 9223: 9217: 9080:François Quesnay 9076:Fortunato Felice 9040:Étienne François 8992: 8859: 8856: 8667:In England, the 8628: 8561:Elizabeth Carter 8376:Ephraim Chambers 8293: 8281: 8250:(1746). Outside 8229: 7861:German explorer 7752:Frankfurt School 7691:Cogito, ergo sum 7668:that began with 7656:Bertrand Russell 7579:=to illuminate; 7446: 7434: 7427:, had planted a 7362: 7349:Protestant Ethic 7314:instrumentalized 7247:Antoni Poplawski 7088:. The physician 7074:Arcádia Lusitana 6993: 6933:Joseph Bonaparte 6894:House of Bourbon 6838:Alessandro Volta 6816:Alessandro Verri 6789:Antonio Genovesi 6716:Habsburg monarch 6658:Weimarer Klassik 6613:Theobald von Oer 6580:Jefferson Bible, 6206: 6157:of 1776 and the 6138:Johann Struensee 6098:philosopher-king 6054:Second Treatise, 6008:market mechanism 5982:private property 5887:Thomas Jefferson 5826:criminal justice 5702:by Voltaire and 5555:consequentialist 5549:, described the 5535:and shaping the 5296: 5189: 5088:Cogito, ergo sum 5035:and the work of 4967: 4960: 4953: 4939:Organized Labour 4937: 4936: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4908: 4907: 4852:Workers' council 4489:Gracchi Brothers 4013:Social democracy 3756:Market socialism 3744:Project Cybersyn 3672:Soviet democracy 3657:Social ownership 3612:Internationalism 3592:Free association 3562:Common ownership 3478: 3455: 3454: 3445: 3438: 3431: 3415: 3414: 3403: 3402: 3321:Economic freedom 3314:Radical centrism 2152:Secular humanism 2078:Natural monopoly 2029:Internationalism 1846:Internationalist 1801: 1778: 1777: 1768: 1761: 1754: 1738: 1737: 1726: 1725: 1530:Critique of work 1505:Capitalist state 1188:Critique of work 1071:Regulated market 973:Economic systems 926:Private property 876:Financial market 866:Entrepreneurship 861:Economic surplus 774: 773: 764: 757: 750: 618: 595: 594: 585: 578: 571: 290:Aztec philosophy 169:Ancient Egyptian 151: 150: 103: 99: 98: 97: 84: 65: 64: 61: 58: 47:in the salon of 21: 24532: 24531: 24527: 24526: 24525: 24523: 24522: 24521: 24517:Western culture 24452:Historical eras 24422: 24421: 24420: 24415: 24403: 24393: 24391: 24383: 24305:World Youth Day 24283: 24272:World Youth Day 24216:Pacem in terris 24210:Pope John XXIII 24149: 24076: 24067:Edict of Nantes 24025: 24021: 24011: 23977:Teresa of Ávila 23972:Tridentine Mass 23908: 23904: 23895: 23876:Knights Templar 23830: 23732: 23688:Gregorian chant 23646: 23572: 23569: 23566: 23564: 23553: 23541: 23468: 23337: 23325: 23317: 23184: 23182:Catholic Church 23175: 23145: 23140: 23139: 23106: 23061: 23046: 23006: 22987: 22970: 22953: 22944: 22840: 22748: 22724:Great Recession 22707: 22678: 22654: 22638: 22619: 22510:H. P. Lovecraft 22479: 22441: 22434: 22425: 22413: 22401: 22369: 22345: 22318:Muammar Gaddafi 22308: 22296:Leonid Brezhnev 22271: 22259: 22242:Gregory Palamas 22227: 22225:Chiang Kai Shek 22215: 22175: 22165: 22146: 22145: 22126: 22107:Conflict thesis 22095: 22059: 21949: 21940: 21907: 21871: 21801: 21753: 21715: 21681:Interwar period 21671: 21641: 21634: 21626: 21610:Schlieffen Plan 21590: 21551: 21540: 21455: 21422: 21405: 21390: 21379: 21373: 21357:Dorian invasion 21342:Fall of Babylon 21298: 21292: 21291: 21268: 21260: 21227: 21208: 21184: 21161: 21154: 21116:Kingdom of Alba 21097: 21090: 21057: 21048: 21036: 21034:Spanish decline 21012: 20993: 20948: 20903: 20891: 20872: 20863: 20829: 20770: 20735: 20721:Greater Magadha 20707: 20685: 20642: 20633: 20621: 20609: 20590: 20569: 20543:Four Barbarians 20501: 20475: 20403: 20360:Götaland theory 20328:Lusotropicalism 20318: 20299:North Macedonia 20231: 20219: 20207: 20185: 20173: 20113: 20092:Frontier thesis 20087:Cyclical theory 20070:Neoabolitionism 20046: 20009: 19979: 19941: 19918:Greater Morocco 19898: 19870: 19847: 19798: 19792: 19684: 19668: 19656: 19613: 19594: 19507: 19422: 19416: 19398:Historical eras 19379: 19358: 19193: 19090:Writing systems 19060: 19018: 19016:Fields of study 18997: 18991:Service records 18976:Religious texts 18882: 18868:Primary sources 18852: 18839: 18838: 18772: 18767: 18737: 18732: 18698:UKUSA Agreement 18638:Lublin Triangle 18523:Baltic Assembly 18475: 18469: 18387: 18224: 18059: 17929:Eurolinguistics 17798: 17787:Information age 17760:Interwar period 17627: 17547: 17538: 17508: 17503: 17442: 17408:Interwar period 17383:Napoleonic Wars 17247: 17218:Mongol invasion 17171:Crown of Aragon 17063: 17003: 16999:Iron Age Europe 16970: 16965: 16935: 16930: 16909: 16883: 16840: 16778: 16744:Renaissance art 16721: 16712:Matteo Palmieri 16682: 16666: 16655:Northern Europe 16627: 16617: 16501: 16470: 16429: 16393:House of Stuart 16373: 16238: 16201: 16153: 16124:Northern Europe 16112: 16088:Elizabethan era 16042: 16037: 16007: 16002: 16001: 15988: 15966: 15928: 15830: 15787: 15766: 15713: 15682: 15678:Carvalho e Melo 15666: 15613: 15547: 15499: 15463: 15430: 15349: 15308: 15152: 15037: 15018: 15004:Spanish America 14878:Encyclopédistes 14841:Civil liberties 14818: 14807: 14802: 14734:"Enlightenment" 14725: 14720: 14674: 14623: 14621:Primary sources 14618: 14532:Sorkin, David. 14518:10.2307/3654234 14451:Goodman, Dena. 14401: 14387: 14378:Chartier, Roger 14343:Buchan, James. 14278: 14273: 14270:(1992). 581 pp. 14261: 14236: 14230: 14211: 14158:(1995) 157 pp. 14147:Munck, Thomas. 14013:(2001) 1480 pp. 14009:Delon, Michel. 13994:Becker, Carl L. 13989: 13984: 13982:Further reading 13979: 13964: 13933: 13859:Darnton, Robert 13830: 13825: 13806: 13802: 13793: 13789: 13780: 13776: 13767: 13763: 13754: 13750: 13741: 13737: 13732: 13728: 13719: 13715: 13705: 13703: 13699: 13692: 13686: 13682: 13677: 13673: 13661: 13657: 13652: 13648: 13643: 13639: 13630: 13626: 13621: 13617: 13608: 13604: 13595: 13591: 13583:Norman Davies, 13582: 13578: 13563: 13559: 13552: 13536: 13532: 13522: 13518: 13503: 13473:Jacob, Margaret 13471:Crow, Matthew; 13469: 13465: 13460: 13456: 13452:Andrew, 412–15. 13451: 13447: 13439: 13432: 13427: 13423: 13418: 13414: 13409: 13405: 13396: 13392: 13377:10.2307/2652433 13365: 13361: 13352: 13348: 13343: 13339: 13334: 13330: 13315:10.2307/3817904 13299: 13295: 13290: 13286: 13277: 13273: 13265:Steven Shapin, 13264: 13260: 13247: 13246: 13242: 13237: 13233: 13228: 13224: 13215: 13211: 13202: 13198: 13193: 13189: 13180: 13176: 13153: 13149: 13140: 13136: 13123: 13119: 13108: 13104: 13069: 13065: 13060: 13056: 13051: 13047: 13042: 13038: 13033: 13029: 13024: 13020: 13015: 13011: 13006: 13002: 12997: 12993: 12988: 12984: 12979: 12975: 12970: 12966: 12961: 12957: 12952: 12948: 12943: 12939: 12934: 12930: 12925: 12921: 12916: 12912: 12907: 12900: 12895: 12888: 12880: 12876: 12872:, pp. 142. 12868: 12864: 12856: 12852: 12843: 12839: 12834: 12830: 12821: 12817: 12804: 12800: 12788: 12784: 12775: 12768: 12759: 12755: 12750: 12746: 12738: 12734: 12725: 12721: 12716: 12712: 12699: 12698: 12694: 12688: 12684: 12679: 12675: 12671:Outram, 17, 20. 12670: 12666: 12657: 12653: 12648: 12644: 12635: 12631: 12626: 12622: 12613: 12609: 12600: 12596: 12587: 12583: 12574: 12570: 12565: 12561: 12556: 12552: 12547: 12543: 12538: 12534: 12529: 12520: 12511: 12502: 12493: 12486: 12477: 12470: 12461: 12457: 12448: 12444: 12437: 12435: 12431: 12426: 12422: 12417: 12413: 12404: 12400: 12393: 12377: 12373: 12368: 12364: 12345: 12341: 12336: 12332: 12323: 12319: 12310: 12306: 12294: 12290: 12283: 12267: 12263: 12256: 12240: 12236: 12229: 12211: 12207: 12198: 12196: 12183: 12179: 12166:Anderson, M. S. 12164: 12160: 12147: 12146: 12142: 12133: 12129: 12118: 12114: 12103: 12099: 12077: 12073: 12065: 12061: 12053: 12049: 12041: 12037: 12028: 12021: 12013: 12009: 12000: 11996: 11988: 11984: 11979: 11975: 11969: 11965: 11957: 11953: 11930: 11926: 11918: 11914: 11909: 11905: 11900: 11893: 11882: 11878: 11869: 11865: 11859: 11853:Wayback Machine 11843: 11839: 11831: 11827: 11811: 11807: 11801:Russian History 11798: 11794: 11786: 11782: 11773: 11769: 11732: 11728: 11719: 11715: 11697: 11693: 11684: 11680: 11671: 11667: 11658: 11654: 11645: 11641: 11629: 11625: 11616: 11612: 11603: 11599: 11588: 11584: 11577: 11561: 11557: 11548: 11544: 11534:Thomas P. Saine 11532: 11528: 11517: 11513: 11502: 11498: 11487: 11483: 11473: 11469: 11451:Rudolf Vierhaus 11435: 11431: 11420: 11416: 11407: 11403: 11394: 11390: 11381: 11377: 11364: 11363: 11359: 11350: 11346: 11337: 11333: 11324: 11320: 11311: 11307: 11298: 11294: 11285: 11281: 11274: 11258: 11254: 11245: 11241: 11234: 11218: 11214: 11201: 11197: 11187: 11185: 11177: 11176: 11172: 11129: 11125: 11116: 11112: 11105: 11088: 11084: 11075: 11071: 11063:Peter Gay, ed. 11062: 11058: 11053:Teresa A. Meade 11047: 11040: 11031: 11027: 11019: 11015: 11007: 11003: 10995: 10991: 10983: 10979: 10973:Divided by God. 10970: 10966: 10956:Divided by God. 10953: 10949: 10941: 10937: 10929: 10925: 10917: 10913: 10898: 10894: 10880: 10876: 10869: 10853: 10849: 10842: 10826: 10822: 10815: 10799: 10795: 10788: 10772: 10768: 10759: 10755: 10748: 10732: 10728: 10720: 10714: 10710: 10695: 10691: 10684: 10668: 10664: 10657: 10641: 10637: 10626: 10622: 10613: 10609: 10600: 10596: 10591: 10587: 10578: 10574: 10562: 10558: 10551: 10535: 10531: 10518: 10514: 10505: 10501: 10492: 10488: 10479: 10475: 10466: 10462: 10455: 10439: 10435: 10428: 10424: 10415: 10411: 10392: 10388: 10383: 10379: 10370: 10366: 10358:Pierre Manent, 10357: 10353: 10343: 10341: 10336: 10335: 10331: 10322: 10318: 10305: 10301: 10267: 10263: 10255:Daniel Brewer, 10254: 10250: 10241: 10237: 10221: 10220: 10213: 10211: 10206: 10205: 10201: 10196: 10192: 10183: 10179: 10170: 10166: 10135: 10131: 10122: 10120: 10101: 10097: 10092: 10088: 10083: 10079: 10074: 10070: 10065: 10061: 10056: 10052: 10047: 10043: 10032: 10030: 10021: 10015: 10011: 10006: 10002: 9997: 9993: 9988: 9984: 9975: 9971: 9959: 9955: 9943: 9939: 9929: 9927: 9916: 9912: 9904:Manfred Kuehn, 9903: 9899: 9889: 9887: 9874: 9873: 9869: 9854: 9850: 9831: 9824: 9816: 9809: 9803:Haakonssen 2008 9801: 9797: 9791:Haakonssen 2008 9789: 9782: 9774: 9770: 9762: 9758: 9750: 9746: 9739: 9723: 9719: 9712: 9698: 9697: 9693: 9684: 9680: 9671: 9664: 9656:Sootin, Harry. 9655: 9651: 9642: 9638: 9629: 9625: 9619: 9601: 9597: 9584: 9580: 9571: 9567: 9560: 9546: 9542: 9532: 9530: 9521: 9520: 9516: 9477: 9473: 9460: 9456: 9446: 9444: 9439: 9438: 9434: 9425: 9421: 9410: 9406: 9400: 9384: 9380: 9357:(4): 999–1027. 9343: 9284: 9268: 9267: 9260: 9258: 9249: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9229: 9224: 9220: 9214:Comte de Buffon 9115: 9112:Alexis Clairaut 9060:Edmé Bouchardon 9044:duc de Choiseul 8993: 8989: 8984: 8925: 8901: 8871:original intent 8857: 8831: 8781: 8775: 8763:bruits publics, 8711: 8705: 8693: 8687: 8612: 8592: 8586: 8565:Henry Pemberton 8491: 8396:, brewing, and 8310: 8269: 8215: 8213:Natural history 8115: 8068:gens de lettres 8008: 7985: 7973:Die Zauberflöte 7915: 7820: 7811:Jürgen Habermas 7742: 7722:Napoleonic Wars 7696:epistemological 7686: 7622: 7563:(used first by 7555: 7538:Reign of Terror 7530: 7488: 7480:Rifa al-Tahtawi 7453: 7444: 7432: 7413: 7393: 7360: 7326: 7267: 7192: 7186: 7142: 7123:The Napoleonic 7062:colonial Brazil 7047:Pombaline style 7014: 7008: 6991: 6965: 6945:Cortes de Cádiz 6876: 6868:Main articles: 6866: 6773:Cesare Beccaria 6765: 6759: 6708: 6650:Sturm und Drang 6598: 6588: 6532: 6526: 6494: 6443:Anthony Collins 6431:Joshua Reynolds 6414: 6408: 6403: 6387:slave rebellion 6353: 6328: 6320:Main articles: 6318: 6297:God the Creator 6291:. According to 6245:Jefferson Bible 6236:Anthony Collins 6208: 6205:Voltaire (1763) 6204: 6195: 6151: 6081: 6075: 5974:state of nature 5931:social contract 5911:social contract 5899: 5846: 5749:Hume and other 5743:Cesare Beccaria 5736: 5650:natural history 5630:hot air balloon 5617: 5611: 5502:Encyclopédistes 5455:Christian Wolff 5451:Jonathan Israel 5418:method of doubt 5408:and Descartes' 5387: 5382: 5328:(1764); Hume's 5247:George Berkeley 5243:Cesare Beccaria 5215:Pierre Gassendi 5203: 5196: 5126:literary salons 5049:Pierre Gassendi 5041:Galileo Galilei 5037:Johannes Kepler 4971: 4931: 4921: 4919: 4902: 4895: 4894: 4865: 4857: 4856: 4847:Socialist state 4842:Socialist Party 4787:Economic system 4752: 4744: 4743: 4729: 4719: 4718: 4484: 4476: 4475: 4056: 4048: 4047: 3863:Democratic road 3798: 3788: 3787: 3714: 3706: 3705: 3652:Social dividend 3642:Sharing economy 3542: 3534: 3533: 3504: 3496: 3449: 3409: 3397: 3390: 3389: 3272: 3264: 3263: 3066:North Macedonia 2810: 2800: 2799: 2798: 2797: 2788:Liberal parties 2726: 2718: 2717: 2508: 2500: 2499: 2230: 2220: 2219: 2204: 2194: 2193: 2189:State of nature 2177:Social services 2167:Social contract 2130:To own property 1933: 1925: 1924: 1809: 1772: 1732: 1720: 1713: 1712: 1618: 1610: 1609: 1585:Post-capitalism 1490:Anti-capitalism 1485: 1477: 1476: 1372: 1364: 1363: 1284: 1276: 1275: 1226: 1218: 1217: 1114: 1106: 1105: 1096:State-sponsored 974: 966: 965: 831:Capital markets 796: 768: 589: 560: 559: 525:Epistemologists 515: 514: 503: 502: 439: 415: 414: 403: 402: 148: 147: 136: 95: 93: 92: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 24530: 24520: 24519: 24514: 24509: 24504: 24499: 24494: 24489: 24484: 24479: 24477:Libertarianism 24474: 24469: 24464: 24459: 24454: 24449: 24444: 24439: 24434: 24417: 24416: 24414: 24413: 24401: 24388: 24385: 24384: 24382: 24381: 24376: 24371: 24364: 24359: 24354: 24353: 24352: 24347: 24342: 24337: 24332: 24327: 24322: 24317: 24312: 24302: 24297: 24291: 24289: 24285: 24284: 24282: 24281: 24280: 24279: 24269: 24264: 24259: 24254: 24249: 24244: 24234: 24229: 24224: 24219: 24212: 24207: 24200: 24195: 24193:Lateran Treaty 24190: 24185: 24180: 24175: 24170: 24165: 24159: 24157: 24151: 24150: 24148: 24147: 24140: 24135: 24130: 24125: 24120: 24115: 24110: 24105: 24100: 24095: 24090: 24084: 24082: 24078: 24077: 24075: 24074: 24069: 24064: 24059: 24054: 24049: 24044: 24039: 24034: 24028: 24026: 24018:Baroque period 24016: 24013: 24012: 24010: 24009: 24004: 23999: 23994: 23989: 23987:Peter Canisius 23984: 23979: 23974: 23969: 23964: 23962:Francis Xavier 23959: 23954: 23949: 23944: 23939: 23934: 23929: 23926:Exsurge Domine 23922: 23917: 23911: 23909: 23900: 23897: 23896: 23894: 23893: 23888: 23883: 23878: 23873: 23868: 23866:Pope Clement V 23863: 23862: 23861: 23859:Avignon Papacy 23854:Western Schism 23851: 23846: 23844:Thomas Aquinas 23840: 23838: 23832: 23831: 23829: 23828: 23823: 23818: 23813: 23808: 23803: 23798: 23793: 23788: 23783: 23778: 23773: 23768: 23763: 23758: 23753: 23748: 23742: 23740: 23734: 23733: 23731: 23730: 23725: 23720: 23715: 23710: 23705: 23700: 23698:Saint Boniface 23695: 23690: 23685: 23683:Pope Gregory I 23680: 23675: 23670: 23664: 23662: 23656: 23655: 23652: 23651: 23648: 23647: 23645: 23644: 23639: 23634: 23629: 23624: 23622:Biblical canon 23619: 23614: 23609: 23604: 23599: 23594: 23589: 23588: 23587: 23576: 23574: 23555: 23551:Late antiquity 23543: 23542: 23540: 23539: 23534: 23529: 23524: 23519: 23518: 23517: 23512: 23511: 23510: 23505: 23500: 23498:Pope Clement I 23488:Church Fathers 23485: 23479: 23477: 23470: 23469: 23467: 23466: 23465: 23464: 23459: 23454: 23449: 23444: 23439: 23429: 23424: 23419: 23414: 23413: 23412: 23407: 23402: 23397: 23387: 23382: 23377: 23372: 23371: 23370: 23365: 23360: 23355: 23344: 23342: 23327: 23319: 23318: 23316: 23315: 23310: 23305: 23300: 23295: 23294: 23293: 23288: 23278: 23273: 23268: 23263: 23258: 23257: 23256: 23251: 23249:Biblical canon 23244:Catholic Bible 23241: 23240: 23239: 23229: 23228: 23227: 23217: 23212: 23207: 23206: 23205: 23194: 23192: 23186: 23185: 23174: 23173: 23166: 23159: 23151: 23142: 23141: 23138: 23137: 23127: 23116: 23115: 23112: 23111: 23108: 23107: 23105: 23104: 23099: 23098: 23097: 23092: 23082: 23077: 23072: 23066: 23063: 23062: 23052: 23051: 23048: 23047: 23045: 23044: 23043: 23042: 23032: 23027: 23017: 23011: 23008: 23007: 22997: 22996: 22993: 22992: 22989: 22988: 22986: 22985: 22980: 22975: 22968: 22963: 22957: 22955: 22946: 22945: 22943: 22942: 22941: 22940: 22935: 22930: 22925: 22920: 22915: 22910: 22905: 22897: 22896: 22895: 22883: 22878: 22877: 22876: 22871: 22866: 22856: 22851: 22850: 22849: 22848: 22847: 22825: 22824: 22823: 22818: 22813: 22808: 22798: 22797: 22796: 22791: 22790: 22789: 22779: 22774: 22764: 22758: 22756: 22750: 22749: 22747: 22746: 22745: 22744: 22739: 22731: 22726: 22721: 22715: 22713: 22706: 22705: 22700: 22695: 22688: 22683: 22676: 22671: 22666: 22661: 22649: 22643: 22640: 22639: 22629: 22628: 22625: 22624: 22621: 22620: 22618: 22617: 22612: 22607: 22602: 22597: 22592: 22591: 22590: 22578: 22577: 22576: 22575: 22574: 22569: 22564: 22554: 22549: 22539: 22538: 22537: 22532: 22527: 22517: 22512: 22507: 22502: 22500:Charles Darwin 22497: 22491: 22489: 22485: 22484: 22481: 22480: 22478: 22477: 22472: 22470:United Kingdom 22467: 22462: 22460:Modern Germany 22457: 22452: 22446: 22444: 22433: 22432: 22420: 22408: 22396: 22391: 22386: 22381: 22379:Thomas Aquinas 22376: 22364: 22359: 22358: 22357: 22352: 22335: 22330: 22325: 22320: 22315: 22303: 22298: 22293: 22288: 22283: 22278: 22266: 22254: 22249: 22247:Horatio Nelson 22244: 22239: 22234: 22222: 22210: 22205: 22200: 22195: 22190: 22185: 22179: 22177: 22167: 22166: 22156: 22155: 22152: 22151: 22148: 22147: 22144: 22143: 22132: 22131: 22128: 22127: 22125: 22124: 22119: 22114: 22109: 22103: 22101: 22097: 22096: 22094: 22093: 22092: 22091: 22083: 22082: 22081: 22079:Responsibility 22076: 22067: 22065: 22061: 22060: 22058: 22057: 22056: 22055: 22047: 22046: 22045: 22035: 22030: 22029: 22028: 22020: 22019: 22018: 22010: 22005: 22004: 22003: 21995: 21994: 21993: 21991:New Historians 21988: 21983: 21969: 21963: 21961: 21955: 21954: 21951: 21950: 21948: 21947: 21935: 21928: 21921: 21915: 21913: 21909: 21908: 21906: 21905: 21904: 21903: 21895: 21890: 21885: 21879: 21877: 21873: 21872: 21870: 21869: 21864: 21859: 21857:Responsibility 21854: 21849: 21848: 21847: 21837: 21827: 21822: 21817: 21811: 21809: 21803: 21802: 21800: 21799: 21798: 21797: 21792: 21782: 21777: 21772: 21767: 21761: 21759: 21752: 21751: 21746: 21741: 21736: 21731: 21725: 21723: 21717: 21716: 21714: 21713: 21712: 21711: 21703: 21702: 21701: 21691: 21685: 21683: 21677: 21676: 21673: 21672: 21670: 21669: 21668: 21667: 21662: 21652: 21646: 21644: 21633: 21621: 21615:Spirit of 1914 21612: 21607: 21602: 21597: 21585: 21575: 21572:Fischer thesis 21561: 21559: 21553: 21552: 21550: 21549: 21548: 21547: 21535: 21527: 21526: 21525: 21515: 21513:Paraguayan War 21510: 21509: 21508: 21498: 21493: 21492: 21491: 21486: 21478: 21477: 21476: 21471: 21460: 21457: 21456: 21454: 21453: 21452: 21451: 21446: 21439:Napoleonic era 21436: 21431: 21430: 21429: 21417: 21412: 21403:Pre-revolution 21394: 21392: 21388:Coalition Wars 21381: 21375: 21374: 21372: 21371: 21366: 21365: 21364: 21359: 21349: 21344: 21339: 21338: 21337: 21327: 21326: 21325: 21315: 21314: 21313: 21302: 21300: 21294: 21293: 21290: 21289: 21282: 21274: 21273: 21270: 21269: 21266:historiography 21259: 21258: 21251: 21244: 21236: 21229: 21228: 21218: 21217: 21214: 21213: 21210: 21209: 21207: 21206: 21200: 21198: 21194: 21193: 21190: 21189: 21186: 21185: 21183: 21182: 21177: 21172: 21166: 21164: 21153: 21152: 21147: 21146: 21145: 21135: 21130: 21125: 21124: 21123: 21118: 21108: 21102: 21100: 21092: 21091: 21089: 21088: 21087: 21086: 21084:Decline thesis 21081: 21074:Ottoman Empire 21071: 21065: 21063: 21059: 21058: 21056: 21055: 21043: 21031: 21026: 21021: 21020: 21019: 21000: 20988: 20983: 20976: 20971: 20966: 20956: 20954: 20950: 20949: 20947: 20946: 20945: 20944: 20939: 20934: 20924: 20923: 20922: 20912: 20911: 20910: 20901:Skeptic School 20886: 20884:Anti-Normanism 20880: 20878: 20874: 20873: 20871: 20870: 20858: 20853: 20848: 20843: 20841:Golden Liberty 20837: 20835: 20831: 20830: 20828: 20827: 20826: 20825: 20823:Neo-Bourbonism 20815: 20810: 20803: 20796: 20791: 20784: 20778: 20776: 20772: 20771: 20769: 20768: 20763: 20758: 20751: 20745: 20743: 20737: 20736: 20734: 20733: 20728: 20723: 20717: 20715: 20709: 20708: 20706: 20705: 20698: 20693: 20679: 20672: 20665: 20663:Borussian myth 20660: 20652: 20650: 20644: 20643: 20641: 20640: 20628: 20616: 20604: 20597: 20585: 20577: 20575: 20571: 20570: 20568: 20567: 20562: 20557: 20552: 20551: 20550: 20545: 20535: 20530: 20525: 20524: 20523: 20513: 20508: 20496: 20491: 20485: 20483: 20477: 20476: 20474: 20473: 20472: 20471: 20466: 20461: 20456: 20446: 20441: 20436: 20431: 20430: 20429: 20419: 20413: 20411: 20402: 20401: 20400: 20399: 20394: 20384: 20383: 20382: 20374: 20369: 20364: 20363: 20362: 20354: 20353: 20352: 20342: 20341: 20340: 20332: 20331: 20330: 20313: 20312: 20311: 20301: 20296: 20295: 20294: 20289: 20279: 20274: 20273: 20272: 20264: 20263: 20262: 20252: 20251: 20250: 20240: 20239: 20238: 20226: 20214: 20199: 20194: 20193: 20192: 20168: 20163: 20162: 20161: 20153: 20148: 20147: 20146: 20138: 20137: 20136: 20134:Dealbanisation 20125: 20123: 20119: 20118: 20115: 20114: 20112: 20111: 20106: 20105: 20104: 20094: 20089: 20084: 20079: 20078: 20077: 20072: 20067: 20056: 20054: 20048: 20047: 20045: 20044: 20043: 20042: 20030: 20029: 20028: 20018: 20017: 20016: 20004: 19998:May Revolution 19989: 19987: 19978: 19977: 19972: 19971: 19970: 19968:Staples thesis 19965: 19960: 19949: 19947: 19943: 19942: 19940: 19939: 19932: 19931: 19930: 19922: 19921: 19920: 19912: 19907: 19906: 19905: 19893: 19884: 19882: 19872: 19871: 19861: 19860: 19857: 19856: 19853: 19852: 19849: 19848: 19846: 19845: 19844: 19843: 19833: 19824: 19815: 19810: 19804: 19802: 19800:modern history 19791: 19790: 19783: 19770: 19765: 19760: 19759: 19758: 19746: 19744:Paradigm shift 19741: 19736: 19731: 19726: 19717: 19712: 19707: 19698: 19692: 19690: 19686: 19685: 19683: 19682: 19677: 19676: 19675: 19651: 19646: 19641: 19636: 19631: 19625: 19623: 19615: 19614: 19604: 19603: 19600: 19599: 19596: 19595: 19593: 19592: 19591: 19590: 19580: 19575: 19570: 19565: 19560: 19559: 19558: 19548: 19547: 19546: 19541: 19531: 19530: 19529: 19519: 19514: 19502: 19497: 19492: 19487: 19482: 19477: 19472: 19471: 19470: 19460: 19455: 19446: 19445: 19444: 19437: 19430:Annales school 19426: 19424: 19415: 19414: 19413: 19412: 19407: 19400: 19390: 19384: 19381: 19380: 19368: 19367: 19364: 19363: 19360: 19359: 19357: 19356: 19355: 19354: 19349: 19344: 19343: 19342: 19332: 19327: 19322: 19317: 19312: 19302: 19301: 19300: 19295: 19293:Constitutional 19285: 19280: 19275: 19270: 19269: 19268: 19256: 19255: 19254: 19249: 19244: 19239: 19229: 19216: 19211: 19201: 19199: 19195: 19194: 19192: 19191: 19186: 19181: 19176: 19171: 19169:Postage stamps 19166: 19161: 19156: 19155: 19154: 19144: 19139: 19134: 19129: 19124: 19119: 19114: 19109: 19108: 19107: 19097: 19092: 19083: 19068: 19066: 19062: 19061: 19059: 19058: 19053: 19048: 19047: 19046: 19036: 19030: 19028: 19020: 19019: 19007: 19006: 19003: 19002: 18999: 18998: 18996: 18995: 18994: 18993: 18983: 18978: 18973: 18968: 18966:Oral tradition 18963: 18962: 18961: 18951: 18946: 18941: 18936: 18931: 18926: 18921: 18916: 18911: 18906: 18901: 18896: 18890: 18888: 18884: 18883: 18881: 18880: 18875: 18870: 18864: 18862: 18854: 18853: 18841: 18840: 18837: 18836: 18829: 18822: 18815: 18807: 18806: 18799: 18798: 18797: 18778: 18777: 18774: 18773: 18770:Historiography 18766: 18765: 18758: 18751: 18743: 18734: 18733: 18731: 18730: 18728:Westernization 18725: 18720: 18715: 18710: 18708:Visegrád Group 18705: 18700: 18695: 18690: 18685: 18680: 18675: 18670: 18665: 18660: 18655: 18650: 18648:Nordic Council 18645: 18640: 18635: 18630: 18625: 18620: 18615: 18610: 18605: 18600: 18595: 18590: 18585: 18580: 18575: 18570: 18565: 18560: 18555: 18550: 18545: 18543:Bucharest Nine 18540: 18535: 18530: 18525: 18520: 18515: 18510: 18508:Arctic Council 18505: 18500: 18495: 18490: 18485: 18479: 18477: 18471: 18470: 18468: 18467: 18462: 18457: 18456: 18455: 18450: 18445: 18440: 18435: 18430: 18420: 18415: 18414: 18413: 18403: 18397: 18395: 18389: 18388: 18386: 18385: 18380: 18375: 18374: 18373: 18368: 18363: 18358: 18353: 18352: 18351: 18346: 18341: 18336: 18326: 18321: 18316: 18306: 18305: 18304: 18303: 18302: 18292: 18291: 18290: 18285: 18284: 18283: 18273: 18272: 18271: 18261: 18260: 18259: 18234: 18232: 18226: 18225: 18223: 18222: 18221: 18220: 18210: 18205: 18200: 18199: 18198: 18186: 18185: 18184: 18174: 18169: 18164: 18159: 18154: 18149: 18144: 18143: 18142: 18137: 18127: 18126: 18125: 18118:Existentialism 18115: 18110: 18105: 18100: 18095: 18090: 18085: 18080: 18075: 18069: 18067: 18061: 18060: 18058: 18057: 18056: 18055: 18050: 18045: 18040: 18030: 18029: 18028: 18018: 18017: 18016: 18011: 18001: 18000: 17999: 17989: 17984: 17983: 17982: 17977: 17972: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17950: 17949: 17948: 17938: 17937: 17936: 17931: 17921: 17916: 17911: 17906: 17905: 17904: 17894: 17889: 17888: 17887: 17877: 17876: 17875: 17865: 17864: 17863: 17853: 17848: 17847: 17846: 17836: 17831: 17830: 17829: 17824: 17819: 17808: 17806: 17800: 17799: 17797: 17796: 17795: 17794: 17789: 17779: 17778: 17777: 17772: 17767: 17762: 17757: 17752: 17747: 17742: 17737: 17732: 17727: 17722: 17717: 17712: 17707: 17702: 17697: 17692: 17682: 17677: 17676: 17675: 17670: 17665: 17655: 17654: 17653: 17651:Late antiquity 17643: 17637: 17635: 17629: 17628: 17626: 17625: 17620: 17615: 17610: 17605: 17604: 17603: 17602: 17601: 17596: 17586: 17581: 17576: 17566: 17561: 17555: 17553: 17549: 17548: 17537: 17536: 17529: 17522: 17514: 17505: 17504: 17502: 17501: 17496: 17491: 17486: 17481: 17476: 17471: 17466: 17461: 17456: 17450: 17448: 17444: 17443: 17441: 17440: 17435: 17430: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17405: 17400: 17395: 17390: 17385: 17380: 17375: 17370: 17365: 17360: 17358:Russian Empire 17355: 17350: 17348:British Empire 17345: 17343:Dutch Republic 17340: 17338:Swedish Empire 17335: 17330: 17325: 17320: 17318:Spanish Empire 17315: 17310: 17308:Ottoman Empire 17305: 17300: 17295: 17290: 17285: 17280: 17279: 17278: 17268: 17263: 17257: 17255: 17249: 17248: 17246: 17245: 17240: 17235: 17230: 17225: 17223:Serbian Empire 17220: 17215: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17195: 17190: 17168: 17163: 17158: 17157: 17156: 17151: 17146: 17141: 17131: 17130: 17129: 17124: 17116: 17111: 17106: 17101: 17096: 17095: 17094: 17084: 17079: 17073: 17071: 17065: 17064: 17062: 17061: 17059:Late antiquity 17056: 17051: 17046: 17045: 17044: 17034: 17029: 17024: 17022:Roman Republic 17019: 17013: 17011: 17005: 17004: 17002: 17001: 16996: 16991: 16986: 16980: 16978: 16972: 16971: 16964: 16963: 16956: 16949: 16941: 16932: 16931: 16918: 16915: 16914: 16911: 16910: 16908: 16907: 16902: 16897: 16891: 16889: 16885: 16884: 16882: 16881: 16876: 16871: 16866: 16861: 16855: 16853: 16846: 16842: 16841: 16839: 16838: 16833: 16828: 16827: 16826: 16821: 16814:Coalition Wars 16811: 16806: 16801: 16796: 16790: 16788: 16784: 16783: 16780: 16779: 16777: 16776: 16775: 16774: 16769: 16764: 16759: 16754: 16746: 16740: 16738: 16731: 16727: 16726: 16723: 16722: 16720: 16719: 16714: 16709: 16704: 16698: 16690: 16688: 16684: 16683: 16681: 16680: 16674: 16672: 16668: 16667: 16665: 16664: 16659: 16658: 16657: 16647: 16642: 16638: 16636: 16629: 16623: 16622: 16619: 16618: 16616: 16615: 16610: 16605: 16604: 16603: 16598: 16593: 16588: 16583: 16578: 16573: 16568: 16558: 16553: 16548: 16543: 16542: 16541: 16531: 16526: 16520: 16518: 16511: 16507: 16506: 16503: 16502: 16500: 16499: 16494: 16489: 16484: 16478: 16476: 16472: 16471: 16469: 16468: 16463: 16458: 16453: 16448: 16443: 16437: 16435: 16431: 16430: 16428: 16427: 16426: 16425: 16420: 16415: 16410: 16402: 16401: 16400: 16398:House of Tudor 16395: 16387: 16381: 16379: 16375: 16374: 16372: 16371: 16366: 16361: 16360: 16359: 16349: 16347:Russian Empire 16344: 16339: 16338: 16337: 16332: 16325:Dutch Republic 16322: 16320:Swedish Empire 16317: 16312: 16307: 16305:Spanish Empire 16302: 16297: 16295:Ottoman Empire 16292: 16291: 16290: 16288:British Empire 16280: 16275: 16270: 16269: 16268: 16257: 16255: 16248: 16244: 16243: 16240: 16239: 16237: 16236: 16231: 16226: 16220: 16218: 16211: 16210:Social history 16207: 16206: 16203: 16202: 16200: 16199: 16194: 16191: 16186: 16185:Technological: 16183: 16178: 16172: 16170: 16163: 16159: 16158: 16155: 16154: 16152: 16151: 16146: 16141: 16136: 16131: 16126: 16120: 16118: 16114: 16113: 16111: 16110: 16105: 16100: 16095: 16090: 16085: 16080: 16075: 16070: 16069: 16068: 16057: 16055: 16048: 16044: 16043: 16036: 16035: 16028: 16021: 16013: 16004: 16003: 16000: 15999: 15981: 15980: 15979: 15976: 15975: 15972: 15971: 15968: 15967: 15965: 15964: 15959: 15954: 15949: 15944: 15938: 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14708: 14698: 14688: 14678: 14672: 14662:, ed. (1973). 14656: 14649: 14642: 14635: 14624: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14616: 14605: 14598: 14585: 14575: 14568: 14561: 14554: 14547: 14543:2005. 419 pp. 14537: 14530: 14512:(3): 421–443. 14501: 14494: 14487: 14483:2000. 608 pp. 14477: 14472:May, Henry F. 14470: 14463: 14458:Hesse, Carla. 14456: 14449: 14423:(2): 217–231. 14412: 14405: 14399: 14385: 14375: 14365: 14358: 14351: 14341: 14334: 14321: 14311: 14304: 14297: 14287: 14279: 14277: 14274: 14272: 14271: 14264: 14259: 14234: 14229:978-0226825762 14228: 14215: 14209: 14196: 14189: 14182: 14173: 14166: 14152: 14145: 14138: 14129: 14116: 14109: 14096: 14091:Hesmyr, Atle. 14089: 14084:Hazard, Paul. 14082: 14072: 14065: 14056: 14049: 14038: 14024: 14014: 14007: 14000: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13977: 13967: 13962: 13947: 13937: 13931: 13918: 13911: 13902: 13893: 13884: 13875: 13866: 13856: 13851:Cowan, Brian, 13849: 13842: 13831: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13823: 13800: 13787: 13774: 13761: 13748: 13735: 13726: 13713: 13680: 13671: 13655: 13653:Jacob, 145–47. 13646: 13637: 13624: 13615: 13602: 13589: 13576: 13557: 13550: 13530: 13523:Maynard Mack, 13516: 13501: 13463: 13454: 13445: 13430: 13421: 13412: 13403: 13390: 13359: 13346: 13344:Cowan, 90, 91. 13337: 13328: 13293: 13284: 13271: 13258: 13240: 13231: 13222: 13209: 13203:Caradonna JL. 13196: 13194:Roche, 515–16. 13187: 13174: 13147: 13134: 13117: 13102: 13083:(2): 215–245. 13063: 13054: 13045: 13036: 13027: 13018: 13009: 13000: 12991: 12982: 12973: 12964: 12955: 12946: 12937: 12928: 12919: 12910: 12898: 12886: 12874: 12862: 12850: 12837: 12835:Spary, 289–93. 12828: 12815: 12798: 12782: 12766: 12753: 12744: 12732: 12719: 12710: 12692: 12682: 12673: 12664: 12651: 12642: 12629: 12620: 12607: 12594: 12581: 12575:Dena Goodman, 12568: 12559: 12550: 12541: 12532: 12518: 12500: 12484: 12468: 12455: 12442: 12429: 12420: 12411: 12398: 12391: 12371: 12362: 12339: 12330: 12317: 12304: 12288: 12281: 12261: 12254: 12234: 12227: 12205: 12177: 12158: 12140: 12127: 12125:pp. 97–99 12112: 12097: 12071: 12059: 12047: 12035: 12019: 12007: 11994: 11982: 11973: 11963: 11951: 11924: 11912: 11903: 11891: 11876: 11863: 11844:Jerzy Snopek, 11837: 11825: 11805: 11792: 11780: 11767: 11746:(4): 692–695. 11726: 11713: 11699:Brading, D. A. 11691: 11678: 11665: 11652: 11639: 11623: 11610: 11597: 11582: 11575: 11555: 11542: 11526: 11511: 11496: 11481: 11467: 11429: 11414: 11410:German History 11401: 11397:German History 11388: 11384:German History 11375: 11357: 11344: 11331: 11318: 11305: 11299:Henry F. May, 11292: 11279: 11272: 11252: 11239: 11232: 11212: 11195: 11170: 11123: 11110: 11103: 11082: 11069: 11056: 11038: 11025: 11021:Cogliano, 2003 11013: 11001: 10989: 10977: 10964: 10947: 10935: 10923: 10921:, pp. 11. 10911: 10892: 10889:. p. 778. 10874: 10867: 10847: 10840: 10820: 10813: 10793: 10786: 10766: 10760:Thomas Paine, 10753: 10746: 10726: 10708: 10697:Baruch Spinoza 10689: 10682: 10662: 10655: 10635: 10620: 10607: 10594: 10585: 10572: 10556: 10549: 10529: 10512: 10499: 10486: 10473: 10460: 10453: 10433: 10422: 10409: 10386: 10377: 10364: 10351: 10329: 10316: 10299: 10280:(3): 785–805. 10261: 10248: 10242:Roland Sarti, 10235: 10199: 10190: 10177: 10164: 10151:10.2307/588406 10145:(2): 164–180. 10129: 10119:on 6 June 2011 10095: 10086: 10077: 10068: 10059: 10050: 10041: 10009: 10000: 9991: 9982: 9969: 9953: 9937: 9910: 9897: 9867: 9848: 9839:The New Yorker 9822: 9818:Petitfils 2005 9807: 9795: 9780: 9768: 9756: 9744: 9737: 9717: 9710: 9691: 9678: 9662: 9649: 9636: 9623: 9617: 9595: 9578: 9565: 9558: 9540: 9514: 9471: 9454: 9432: 9419: 9404: 9399:978-0892368617 9398: 9378: 9282: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9228: 9227: 9218: 8986: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8924: 8921: 8900: 8897: 8830: 8829:Masonic lodges 8827: 8801: 8800: 8794: 8791: 8788: 8777:Main article: 8774: 8771: 8731:Richard Steele 8727:Joseph Addison 8707:Main article: 8704: 8701: 8689:Main article: 8686: 8683: 8611: 8608: 8600:associationism 8588:Main article: 8585: 8582: 8505:A portrait of 8490: 8487: 8346:egalitarianism 8337:Charles Porset 8309: 8306: 8268: 8265: 8222:Georges Buffon 8214: 8211: 8114: 8111: 8043:Front page of 8007: 8004: 7984: 7981: 7953:Charles Burney 7914: 7911: 7879:self-awareness 7819: 7816: 7807:Robert Darnton 7790:disenchantment 7756:Max Horkheimer 7741: 7738: 7706:laws of motion 7685: 7682: 7645:Ernst Cassirer 7636:l'Encyclopédie 7607: 7595:(Spanish) and 7581:sich aufklären 7554: 7551: 7529: 7528:Historiography 7526: 7518:Young Ottomans 7500:Ottoman Empire 7492:Ottoman Empire 7487: 7486:Ottoman Empire 7484: 7452: 7449: 7412: 7409: 7397:hermit kingdom 7392: 7389: 7325: 7322: 7266: 7263: 7227:Golden Liberty 7188:Main article: 7185: 7182: 7178:prosveshchenie 7162:Leonhard Euler 7141: 7138: 7066:New Christians 7058:António Vieira 7010:Main article: 7007: 7004: 6964: 6961: 6913:comercio libre 6865: 6862: 6850:Franco Venturi 6822:, Veneto, and 6761:Main article: 6758: 6755: 6707: 6704: 6587: 6584: 6558:Matthew Tindal 6525: 6522: 6510:James Anderson 6506:William Cullen 6493: 6490: 6462:Samuel Johnson 6435:Jonathan Swift 6427:Alexander Pope 6419:Joseph Addison 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6395:Saint-Domingue 6352: 6349: 6317: 6314: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6173:known as the " 6150: 6147: 6077:Main article: 6074: 6071: 6050:natural rights 5950:representative 5915:natural rights 5898: 5895: 5855:Robert Darnton 5845: 5842: 5834:Saggi politici 5783:Dugald Stewart 5755:science of man 5735: 5732: 5688:popularization 5613:Main article: 5610: 5607: 5394:René Descartes 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5227:Baruch Spinoza 5219:René Descartes 5195: 5192: 5122:Masonic lodges 5077:René Descartes 4973: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4947: 4944: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4929: 4917: 4897: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4866: 4863: 4862: 4859: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4802:Libertarianism 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4753: 4751:Related topics 4750: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 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3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3539: 3536: 3535: 3532: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3479: 3471: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3425: 3422: 3421: 3420: 3419: 3407: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3385:Utilitarianism 3382: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3358:Libertarianism 3355: 3353:Land value tax 3350: 3349: 3348: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3326:Egalitarianism 3323: 3318: 3317: 3316: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3282:Anti-communism 3279: 3273: 3271:Related topics 3270: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3245: 3244: 3239: 3238: 3237: 3227: 3225:Arizona School 3217: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3193:United Kingdom 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3103: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 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2252: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2231: 2226: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2218: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2179: 2172:Social justice 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2138: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2073:Market economy 2070: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2058: 2048: 2041: 2036: 2034:Invisible hand 2031: 2026: 2024:Harm principle 2021: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2004: 2003: 2002: 1997: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1970: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1934: 1931: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1901: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1837: 1836: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1794: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1774: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1763: 1756: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1730: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1693:Ordoliberalism 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1570:Market economy 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1484:Related topics 1483: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1354:State monopoly 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1126: 1121: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 975: 972: 971: 968: 967: 964: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 911:Liberalization 908: 903: 901:Invisible hand 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 816:Businessperson 813: 811:Business cycle 808: 803: 797: 794: 793: 790: 789: 783: 782: 770: 769: 767: 766: 759: 752: 744: 741: 740: 739: 738: 733: 728: 723: 717: 716: 708: 707: 703: 702: 701: 700: 695: 690: 684: 683: 678: 670: 669: 663: 662: 661: 660: 655: 650: 649: 648: 643: 635: 627: 626: 620: 619: 611: 610: 604: 603: 591: 590: 588: 587: 580: 573: 565: 562: 561: 558: 557: 552: 547: 542: 540:Metaphysicians 537: 532: 527: 522: 516: 510: 509: 508: 505: 504: 501: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 468:Metaphilosophy 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 438: 437: 432: 427: 422: 416: 410: 409: 408: 405: 404: 399: 398: 397: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 353: 352: 346: 345: 344: 343: 342: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 306: 305: 304: 294: 293: 292: 282: 281: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 245: 244: 243: 238: 233: 220: 219: 213: 212: 211: 210: 209: 208: 203: 193: 188: 183: 178: 177: 176: 171: 158: 157: 149: 143: 142: 141: 138: 137: 135: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 89: 86: 85: 77: 76: 70: 69: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 24529: 24518: 24515: 24513: 24510: 24508: 24505: 24503: 24500: 24498: 24495: 24493: 24490: 24488: 24485: 24483: 24480: 24478: 24475: 24473: 24470: 24468: 24465: 24463: 24460: 24458: 24455: 24453: 24450: 24448: 24445: 24443: 24440: 24438: 24435: 24433: 24430: 24429: 24427: 24412: 24407: 24402: 24400: 24390: 24389: 24386: 24380: 24377: 24375: 24372: 24370: 24369: 24365: 24363: 24360: 24358: 24355: 24351: 24348: 24346: 24343: 24341: 24338: 24336: 24333: 24331: 24328: 24326: 24323: 24321: 24318: 24316: 24313: 24311: 24308: 24307: 24306: 24303: 24301: 24298: 24296: 24293: 24292: 24290: 24286: 24278: 24275: 24274: 24273: 24270: 24268: 24265: 24263: 24260: 24258: 24255: 24253: 24252:Mother Teresa 24250: 24248: 24245: 24242: 24238: 24235: 24233: 24230: 24228: 24225: 24223: 24220: 24218: 24217: 24213: 24211: 24208: 24206: 24205: 24201: 24199: 24196: 24194: 24191: 24189: 24186: 24184: 24181: 24179: 24178:Pope Pius XII 24176: 24174: 24171: 24169: 24166: 24164: 24161: 24160: 24158: 24156: 24152: 24146: 24145: 24144:Rerum novarum 24141: 24139: 24136: 24134: 24131: 24129: 24128:Pope Leo XIII 24126: 24124: 24121: 24119: 24116: 24114: 24111: 24109: 24106: 24104: 24101: 24099: 24098:United States 24096: 24094: 24091: 24089: 24088:Pope Pius VII 24086: 24085: 24083: 24079: 24073: 24070: 24068: 24065: 24063: 24060: 24058: 24055: 24053: 24050: 24048: 24045: 24043: 24040: 24038: 24035: 24033: 24030: 24029: 24027: 24024: 24019: 24014: 24008: 24005: 24003: 24000: 23998: 23995: 23993: 23990: 23988: 23985: 23983: 23980: 23978: 23975: 23973: 23970: 23968: 23965: 23963: 23960: 23958: 23955: 23953: 23950: 23948: 23945: 23943: 23940: 23938: 23935: 23933: 23930: 23928: 23927: 23923: 23921: 23918: 23916: 23913: 23912: 23910: 23907: 23903: 23898: 23892: 23889: 23887: 23884: 23882: 23879: 23877: 23874: 23872: 23869: 23867: 23864: 23860: 23857: 23856: 23855: 23852: 23850: 23847: 23845: 23842: 23841: 23839: 23837: 23833: 23827: 23824: 23822: 23819: 23817: 23814: 23812: 23809: 23807: 23804: 23802: 23799: 23797: 23794: 23792: 23789: 23787: 23784: 23782: 23779: 23777: 23774: 23772: 23771:Scholasticism 23769: 23767: 23764: 23762: 23759: 23757: 23754: 23752: 23749: 23747: 23746:Pope Urban II 23744: 23743: 23741: 23739: 23735: 23729: 23726: 23724: 23721: 23719: 23716: 23714: 23711: 23709: 23706: 23704: 23701: 23699: 23696: 23694: 23691: 23689: 23686: 23684: 23681: 23679: 23676: 23674: 23671: 23669: 23666: 23665: 23663: 23661: 23657: 23643: 23640: 23638: 23635: 23633: 23630: 23628: 23625: 23623: 23620: 23618: 23615: 23613: 23610: 23608: 23605: 23603: 23600: 23598: 23595: 23593: 23590: 23586: 23583: 23582: 23581: 23578: 23577: 23575: 23571: 23563: 23559: 23556: 23552: 23548: 23538: 23535: 23533: 23530: 23528: 23525: 23523: 23522:Justin Martyr 23520: 23516: 23513: 23509: 23506: 23504: 23501: 23499: 23496: 23495: 23494: 23491: 23490: 23489: 23486: 23484: 23481: 23480: 23478: 23475: 23471: 23463: 23460: 23458: 23455: 23453: 23450: 23448: 23445: 23443: 23440: 23438: 23435: 23434: 23433: 23432:New Testament 23430: 23428: 23425: 23423: 23420: 23418: 23415: 23411: 23408: 23406: 23403: 23401: 23398: 23396: 23395:Commissioning 23393: 23392: 23391: 23388: 23386: 23383: 23381: 23378: 23376: 23373: 23369: 23366: 23364: 23361: 23359: 23356: 23354: 23351: 23350: 23349: 23346: 23345: 23343: 23340: 23339:Apostolic Age 23335: 23331: 23328: 23324: 23320: 23314: 23311: 23309: 23306: 23304: 23301: 23299: 23296: 23292: 23289: 23287: 23284: 23283: 23282: 23279: 23277: 23274: 23272: 23269: 23267: 23264: 23262: 23259: 23255: 23252: 23250: 23247: 23246: 23245: 23242: 23238: 23235: 23234: 23233: 23230: 23226: 23225:Papal primacy 23223: 23222: 23221: 23218: 23216: 23213: 23211: 23208: 23204: 23201: 23200: 23199: 23196: 23195: 23193: 23191: 23187: 23183: 23179: 23172: 23167: 23165: 23160: 23158: 23153: 23152: 23149: 23136: 23128: 23126: 23118: 23117: 23113: 23103: 23100: 23096: 23093: 23091: 23088: 23087: 23086: 23083: 23081: 23078: 23076: 23073: 23071: 23068: 23067: 23064: 23057: 23053: 23041: 23038: 23037: 23036: 23033: 23031: 23028: 23025: 23021: 23018: 23016: 23013: 23012: 23009: 23002: 22998: 22984: 22981: 22979: 22976: 22973: 22969: 22967: 22964: 22962: 22961:Merton thesis 22959: 22958: 22956: 22951: 22947: 22939: 22936: 22934: 22931: 22929: 22926: 22924: 22921: 22919: 22916: 22914: 22913:Panbabylonism 22911: 22909: 22906: 22904: 22901: 22900: 22898: 22894: 22893: 22889: 22888: 22887: 22884: 22882: 22879: 22875: 22872: 22870: 22867: 22865: 22862: 22861: 22860: 22857: 22855: 22852: 22844: 22839: 22836: 22835: 22834: 22831: 22830: 22829: 22826: 22822: 22819: 22817: 22814: 22812: 22809: 22807: 22804: 22803: 22802: 22799: 22795: 22792: 22788: 22785: 22784: 22783: 22780: 22778: 22775: 22773: 22770: 22769: 22768: 22765: 22763: 22760: 22759: 22757: 22755: 22751: 22743: 22740: 22738: 22735: 22734: 22732: 22730: 22727: 22725: 22722: 22720: 22717: 22716: 22714: 22710: 22704: 22701: 22699: 22696: 22694: 22693: 22689: 22687: 22684: 22681: 22677: 22675: 22672: 22670: 22667: 22665: 22662: 22658: 22653: 22650: 22648: 22645: 22644: 22641: 22634: 22630: 22616: 22613: 22611: 22608: 22606: 22603: 22601: 22598: 22596: 22593: 22589: 22588: 22584: 22583: 22582: 22579: 22573: 22570: 22568: 22565: 22563: 22560: 22559: 22558: 22555: 22553: 22550: 22548: 22545: 22544: 22543: 22540: 22536: 22533: 22531: 22528: 22526: 22523: 22522: 22521: 22518: 22516: 22513: 22511: 22508: 22506: 22503: 22501: 22498: 22496: 22493: 22492: 22490: 22486: 22476: 22475:United States 22473: 22471: 22468: 22466: 22463: 22461: 22458: 22456: 22453: 22451: 22448: 22447: 22445: 22443: 22437: 22429: 22424: 22421: 22417: 22412: 22409: 22405: 22400: 22397: 22395: 22392: 22390: 22387: 22385: 22382: 22380: 22377: 22373: 22368: 22365: 22363: 22360: 22356: 22355:Bolivarianism 22353: 22349: 22344: 22341: 22340: 22339: 22338:Simon Bolivar 22336: 22334: 22331: 22329: 22326: 22324: 22321: 22319: 22316: 22312: 22307: 22304: 22302: 22299: 22297: 22294: 22292: 22289: 22287: 22284: 22282: 22279: 22275: 22270: 22269:Joseph Stalin 22267: 22263: 22258: 22255: 22253: 22250: 22248: 22245: 22243: 22240: 22238: 22235: 22231: 22226: 22223: 22219: 22214: 22211: 22209: 22206: 22204: 22201: 22199: 22196: 22194: 22191: 22189: 22186: 22184: 22181: 22180: 22178: 22172: 22168: 22161: 22157: 22142: 22134: 22133: 22129: 22123: 22120: 22118: 22115: 22113: 22110: 22108: 22105: 22104: 22102: 22098: 22090: 22087: 22086: 22084: 22080: 22077: 22075: 22072: 22071: 22069: 22068: 22066: 22064:Post-Cold War 22062: 22054: 22051: 22050: 22048: 22044: 22041: 22040: 22039: 22038:Falklands War 22036: 22034: 22033:Iran–Iraq War 22031: 22027: 22024: 22023: 22021: 22017: 22014: 22013: 22011: 22009: 22006: 22002: 21999: 21998: 21996: 21992: 21989: 21987: 21984: 21982: 21981:Ongoing Nakba 21978: 21975: 21974: 21973: 21970: 21968: 21965: 21964: 21962: 21960: 21956: 21944: 21939: 21936: 21934: 21933: 21929: 21927: 21926: 21922: 21920: 21917: 21916: 21914: 21912:Western Front 21910: 21902: 21899: 21898: 21896: 21894: 21893:Bengal famine 21891: 21889: 21886: 21884: 21881: 21880: 21878: 21874: 21868: 21865: 21863: 21860: 21858: 21855: 21853: 21850: 21846: 21843: 21842: 21841: 21838: 21836: 21832: 21828: 21826: 21823: 21821: 21818: 21816: 21813: 21812: 21810: 21808: 21807:The Holocaust 21804: 21796: 21793: 21791: 21788: 21787: 21786: 21783: 21781: 21778: 21776: 21773: 21771: 21768: 21766: 21763: 21762: 21760: 21758:Eastern Front 21756: 21750: 21747: 21745: 21742: 21740: 21737: 21735: 21732: 21730: 21727: 21726: 21724: 21722: 21718: 21710: 21707: 21706: 21704: 21700: 21697: 21696: 21695: 21692: 21690: 21687: 21686: 21684: 21682: 21678: 21666: 21663: 21661: 21658: 21657: 21656: 21653: 21651: 21648: 21647: 21645: 21643: 21637: 21630: 21625: 21622: 21620: 21616: 21613: 21611: 21608: 21606: 21603: 21601: 21598: 21594: 21589: 21586: 21583: 21579: 21576: 21573: 21569: 21565: 21562: 21560: 21558: 21554: 21544: 21539: 21536: 21534: 21531: 21530: 21528: 21524: 21521: 21520: 21519: 21516: 21514: 21511: 21507: 21504: 21503: 21502: 21499: 21497: 21494: 21490: 21489:Paris Commune 21487: 21485: 21482: 21481: 21479: 21475: 21474:Turning point 21472: 21470: 21467: 21466: 21465: 21462: 21461: 21450: 21447: 21445: 21442: 21441: 21440: 21437: 21435: 21432: 21426: 21421: 21418: 21416: 21413: 21409: 21404: 21401: 21400: 21399: 21396: 21395: 21393: 21389: 21385: 21382: 21378:18th and 19th 21376: 21370: 21367: 21363: 21360: 21358: 21355: 21354: 21353: 21350: 21348: 21345: 21343: 21340: 21336: 21333: 21332: 21331: 21328: 21324: 21323:Islamic views 21321: 21320: 21319: 21316: 21312: 21309: 21308: 21307: 21304: 21303: 21301: 21295: 21288: 21287: 21283: 21281: 21280: 21276: 21275: 21271: 21267: 21264: 21257: 21252: 21250: 21245: 21243: 21238: 21237: 21234: 21230: 21223: 21219: 21205: 21202: 21201: 21199: 21195: 21181: 21178: 21176: 21173: 21171: 21168: 21167: 21165: 21163: 21157: 21151: 21148: 21144: 21141: 21140: 21139: 21136: 21134: 21131: 21129: 21126: 21122: 21119: 21117: 21114: 21113: 21112: 21109: 21107: 21104: 21103: 21101: 21099: 21093: 21085: 21082: 21080: 21077: 21076: 21075: 21072: 21070: 21067: 21066: 21064: 21060: 21052: 21047: 21046:Ser de España 21044: 21040: 21035: 21032: 21030: 21027: 21025: 21022: 21016: 21011: 21008: 21007: 21006: 21005: 21001: 20997: 20992: 20989: 20987: 20984: 20982: 20981: 20977: 20975: 20972: 20970: 20967: 20965: 20961: 20958: 20957: 20955: 20951: 20943: 20940: 20938: 20935: 20933: 20930: 20929: 20928: 20925: 20921: 20918: 20917: 20916: 20913: 20907: 20902: 20899: 20898: 20895: 20890: 20887: 20885: 20882: 20881: 20879: 20875: 20867: 20862: 20859: 20857: 20854: 20852: 20849: 20847: 20844: 20842: 20839: 20838: 20836: 20832: 20824: 20821: 20820: 20819: 20816: 20814: 20811: 20809: 20808: 20804: 20802: 20801: 20797: 20795: 20792: 20790: 20789: 20785: 20783: 20780: 20779: 20777: 20773: 20767: 20764: 20762: 20759: 20756: 20752: 20750: 20747: 20746: 20744: 20742: 20738: 20732: 20729: 20727: 20724: 20722: 20719: 20718: 20716: 20714: 20710: 20704: 20703: 20699: 20697: 20694: 20692: 20689: 20684: 20680: 20678: 20677: 20673: 20671: 20670: 20666: 20664: 20661: 20659: 20658: 20654: 20653: 20651: 20649: 20645: 20637: 20632: 20629: 20625: 20620: 20617: 20613: 20608: 20605: 20603: 20602: 20598: 20594: 20589: 20586: 20584: 20583: 20579: 20578: 20576: 20572: 20566: 20563: 20561: 20558: 20556: 20553: 20549: 20546: 20544: 20541: 20540: 20539: 20536: 20534: 20531: 20529: 20526: 20522: 20519: 20518: 20517: 20514: 20512: 20509: 20505: 20500: 20497: 20495: 20492: 20490: 20487: 20486: 20484: 20482: 20478: 20470: 20467: 20465: 20464:Ottoman claim 20462: 20460: 20457: 20455: 20452: 20451: 20450: 20447: 20445: 20444:Prosopography 20442: 20440: 20437: 20435: 20432: 20428: 20425: 20424: 20423: 20420: 20418: 20415: 20414: 20412: 20410: 20406: 20398: 20397:Trưng sisters 20395: 20393: 20392: 20388: 20387: 20385: 20381: 20378: 20377: 20375: 20373: 20370: 20368: 20365: 20361: 20358: 20357: 20355: 20351: 20348: 20347: 20346: 20343: 20339: 20336: 20335: 20333: 20329: 20326: 20325: 20322: 20317: 20314: 20310: 20307: 20306: 20305: 20302: 20300: 20297: 20293: 20290: 20288: 20285: 20284: 20283: 20280: 20278: 20275: 20271: 20268: 20267: 20265: 20261: 20258: 20257: 20256: 20253: 20249: 20248: 20244: 20243: 20241: 20235: 20230: 20227: 20223: 20218: 20215: 20211: 20206: 20203: 20202: 20200: 20198: 20195: 20189: 20184: 20181: 20180: 20177: 20172: 20169: 20167: 20164: 20160: 20157: 20156: 20154: 20152: 20149: 20145: 20144:Habsburg myth 20142: 20141: 20139: 20135: 20132: 20131: 20130: 20127: 20126: 20124: 20120: 20110: 20107: 20103: 20100: 20099: 20098: 20095: 20093: 20090: 20088: 20085: 20083: 20080: 20076: 20073: 20071: 20068: 20066: 20063: 20062: 20061: 20058: 20057: 20055: 20053: 20052:United States 20049: 20041: 20040: 20036: 20035: 20034: 20031: 20027: 20024: 20023: 20022: 20019: 20013: 20008: 20005: 20003: 19999: 19996: 19995: 19994: 19991: 19990: 19988: 19986: 19985:Latin America 19982: 19976: 19973: 19969: 19966: 19964: 19961: 19959: 19956: 19955: 19954: 19951: 19950: 19948: 19944: 19938: 19937: 19933: 19929: 19926: 19925: 19923: 19919: 19916: 19915: 19913: 19911: 19908: 19902: 19897: 19894: 19892: 19889: 19888: 19886: 19885: 19883: 19881: 19877: 19873: 19866: 19862: 19842: 19839: 19838: 19837: 19834: 19832: 19828: 19825: 19823: 19819: 19816: 19814: 19811: 19809: 19806: 19805: 19803: 19801: 19795: 19789: 19788: 19784: 19782: 19781: 19776: 19775: 19771: 19769: 19766: 19764: 19761: 19757: 19754: 19753: 19752: 19751: 19747: 19745: 19742: 19740: 19737: 19735: 19732: 19730: 19727: 19725: 19721: 19718: 19716: 19713: 19711: 19708: 19706: 19702: 19699: 19697: 19694: 19693: 19691: 19687: 19681: 19678: 19672: 19667: 19664: 19663: 19660: 19655: 19652: 19650: 19647: 19645: 19642: 19640: 19637: 19635: 19632: 19630: 19627: 19626: 19624: 19620: 19616: 19609: 19605: 19589: 19586: 19585: 19584: 19581: 19579: 19578:Transnational 19576: 19574: 19571: 19569: 19566: 19564: 19561: 19557: 19554: 19553: 19552: 19549: 19545: 19542: 19540: 19537: 19536: 19535: 19532: 19528: 19525: 19524: 19523: 19520: 19518: 19515: 19511: 19506: 19503: 19501: 19498: 19496: 19493: 19491: 19488: 19486: 19483: 19481: 19478: 19476: 19473: 19469: 19468:Decoloniality 19466: 19465: 19464: 19461: 19459: 19456: 19454: 19450: 19449:Historiometry 19447: 19443: 19442: 19438: 19436: 19433: 19432: 19431: 19428: 19427: 19425: 19419: 19411: 19408: 19406: 19405: 19401: 19399: 19396: 19395: 19394: 19393:Periodization 19391: 19389: 19386: 19385: 19382: 19378: 19373: 19369: 19353: 19350: 19348: 19345: 19341: 19338: 19337: 19336: 19333: 19331: 19328: 19326: 19323: 19321: 19318: 19316: 19313: 19311: 19308: 19307: 19306: 19303: 19299: 19296: 19294: 19291: 19290: 19289: 19286: 19284: 19281: 19279: 19276: 19274: 19271: 19267: 19266: 19262: 19261: 19260: 19257: 19253: 19250: 19248: 19245: 19243: 19240: 19238: 19235: 19234: 19233: 19230: 19228: 19224: 19220: 19217: 19215: 19212: 19210: 19206: 19203: 19202: 19200: 19196: 19190: 19187: 19185: 19182: 19180: 19179:Sigillography 19177: 19175: 19174:Prosopography 19172: 19170: 19167: 19165: 19162: 19160: 19157: 19153: 19150: 19149: 19148: 19145: 19143: 19140: 19138: 19135: 19133: 19130: 19128: 19125: 19123: 19120: 19118: 19115: 19113: 19110: 19106: 19103: 19102: 19101: 19098: 19096: 19093: 19091: 19087: 19084: 19081: 19077: 19073: 19070: 19069: 19067: 19063: 19057: 19054: 19052: 19051:Local history 19049: 19045: 19044:Human history 19042: 19041: 19040: 19039:World history 19037: 19035: 19032: 19031: 19029: 19025: 19021: 19017: 19012: 19008: 18992: 18989: 18988: 18987: 18984: 18982: 18979: 18977: 18974: 18972: 18969: 18967: 18964: 18960: 18957: 18956: 18955: 18952: 18950: 18947: 18945: 18942: 18940: 18937: 18935: 18932: 18930: 18927: 18925: 18922: 18920: 18917: 18915: 18912: 18910: 18907: 18905: 18902: 18900: 18897: 18895: 18892: 18891: 18889: 18885: 18879: 18876: 18874: 18871: 18869: 18866: 18865: 18863: 18859: 18855: 18851: 18846: 18842: 18835: 18834: 18830: 18828: 18827: 18823: 18821: 18820: 18816: 18814: 18813: 18809: 18808: 18805: 18804: 18800: 18796: 18795: 18791: 18787: 18786: 18785: 18784: 18780: 18779: 18775: 18771: 18764: 18759: 18757: 18752: 18750: 18745: 18744: 18741: 18729: 18726: 18724: 18721: 18719: 18716: 18714: 18711: 18709: 18706: 18704: 18701: 18699: 18696: 18694: 18691: 18689: 18686: 18684: 18681: 18679: 18676: 18674: 18673:PROSUR/PROSUL 18671: 18669: 18666: 18664: 18661: 18659: 18656: 18654: 18651: 18649: 18646: 18644: 18641: 18639: 18636: 18634: 18631: 18629: 18626: 18624: 18621: 18619: 18616: 18614: 18611: 18609: 18606: 18604: 18601: 18599: 18596: 18594: 18591: 18589: 18586: 18584: 18581: 18579: 18576: 18574: 18571: 18569: 18568:Craiova Group 18566: 18564: 18561: 18559: 18556: 18554: 18551: 18549: 18546: 18544: 18541: 18539: 18536: 18534: 18531: 18529: 18526: 18524: 18521: 18519: 18516: 18514: 18511: 18509: 18506: 18504: 18501: 18499: 18496: 18494: 18491: 18489: 18486: 18484: 18483:ABCANZ Armies 18481: 18480: 18478: 18472: 18466: 18463: 18461: 18458: 18454: 18451: 18449: 18446: 18444: 18441: 18439: 18436: 18434: 18431: 18429: 18426: 18425: 18424: 18421: 18419: 18416: 18412: 18409: 18408: 18407: 18404: 18402: 18399: 18398: 18396: 18394: 18390: 18384: 18381: 18379: 18376: 18372: 18369: 18367: 18364: 18362: 18359: 18357: 18354: 18350: 18347: 18345: 18342: 18340: 18337: 18335: 18332: 18331: 18330: 18327: 18325: 18322: 18320: 18317: 18315: 18312: 18311: 18310: 18307: 18301: 18298: 18297: 18296: 18293: 18289: 18288:Protestantism 18286: 18282: 18279: 18278: 18277: 18274: 18270: 18267: 18266: 18265: 18262: 18258: 18254: 18251: 18250: 18249: 18246: 18245: 18244: 18241: 18240: 18239: 18236: 18235: 18233: 18231: 18227: 18219: 18216: 18215: 18214: 18211: 18209: 18208:Sovereigntism 18206: 18204: 18201: 18197: 18196: 18192: 18191: 18190: 18187: 18183: 18180: 18179: 18178: 18175: 18173: 18170: 18168: 18165: 18163: 18160: 18158: 18155: 18153: 18150: 18148: 18145: 18141: 18138: 18136: 18133: 18132: 18131: 18128: 18124: 18121: 18120: 18119: 18116: 18114: 18111: 18109: 18106: 18104: 18103:Scholasticism 18101: 18099: 18096: 18094: 18091: 18089: 18086: 18084: 18081: 18079: 18076: 18074: 18071: 18070: 18068: 18066: 18062: 18054: 18051: 18049: 18046: 18044: 18041: 18039: 18036: 18035: 18034: 18031: 18027: 18024: 18023: 18022: 18019: 18015: 18012: 18010: 18007: 18006: 18005: 18002: 17998: 17995: 17994: 17993: 17990: 17988: 17985: 17981: 17978: 17976: 17973: 17971: 17968: 17967: 17966: 17963: 17959: 17956: 17955: 17954: 17951: 17947: 17944: 17943: 17942: 17939: 17935: 17932: 17930: 17927: 17926: 17925: 17922: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17910: 17907: 17903: 17900: 17899: 17898: 17895: 17893: 17890: 17886: 17883: 17882: 17881: 17878: 17874: 17871: 17870: 17869: 17866: 17862: 17859: 17858: 17857: 17854: 17852: 17849: 17845: 17842: 17841: 17840: 17837: 17835: 17832: 17828: 17825: 17823: 17820: 17818: 17815: 17814: 17813: 17810: 17809: 17807: 17805: 17801: 17793: 17792:War on terror 17790: 17788: 17785: 17784: 17783: 17780: 17776: 17773: 17771: 17768: 17766: 17763: 17761: 17758: 17756: 17753: 17751: 17748: 17746: 17743: 17741: 17738: 17736: 17733: 17731: 17728: 17726: 17723: 17721: 17718: 17716: 17713: 17711: 17708: 17706: 17703: 17701: 17698: 17696: 17693: 17691: 17688: 17687: 17686: 17685:Modern period 17683: 17681: 17678: 17674: 17671: 17669: 17666: 17664: 17661: 17660: 17659: 17656: 17652: 17649: 17648: 17647: 17644: 17642: 17639: 17638: 17636: 17634: 17630: 17624: 17621: 17619: 17616: 17614: 17611: 17609: 17606: 17600: 17597: 17595: 17592: 17591: 17590: 17587: 17585: 17582: 17580: 17577: 17575: 17572: 17571: 17570: 17567: 17565: 17562: 17560: 17557: 17556: 17554: 17550: 17546: 17542: 17541:Western world 17535: 17530: 17528: 17523: 17521: 17516: 17515: 17512: 17500: 17497: 17495: 17492: 17490: 17487: 17485: 17482: 17480: 17477: 17475: 17472: 17470: 17467: 17465: 17462: 17460: 17457: 17455: 17454:Art of Europe 17452: 17451: 17449: 17445: 17439: 17436: 17434: 17431: 17429: 17426: 17424: 17421: 17419: 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17404: 17401: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17389: 17386: 17384: 17381: 17379: 17376: 17374: 17371: 17369: 17366: 17364: 17361: 17359: 17356: 17354: 17351: 17349: 17346: 17344: 17341: 17339: 17336: 17334: 17331: 17329: 17326: 17324: 17321: 17319: 17316: 17314: 17311: 17309: 17306: 17304: 17301: 17299: 17296: 17294: 17291: 17289: 17286: 17284: 17281: 17277: 17274: 17273: 17272: 17269: 17267: 17264: 17262: 17259: 17258: 17256: 17254: 17253:Modern period 17250: 17244: 17241: 17239: 17236: 17234: 17231: 17229: 17226: 17224: 17221: 17219: 17216: 17214: 17211: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17194: 17191: 17188: 17184: 17180: 17176: 17172: 17169: 17167: 17164: 17162: 17159: 17155: 17152: 17150: 17147: 17145: 17142: 17140: 17137: 17136: 17135: 17132: 17128: 17125: 17123: 17120: 17119: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17107: 17105: 17102: 17100: 17097: 17093: 17090: 17089: 17088: 17085: 17083: 17080: 17078: 17075: 17074: 17072: 17070: 17066: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17050: 17047: 17043: 17040: 17039: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17028: 17025: 17023: 17020: 17018: 17015: 17014: 17012: 17010: 17006: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16985: 16982: 16981: 16979: 16977: 16973: 16969: 16962: 16957: 16955: 16950: 16948: 16943: 16942: 16939: 16929: 16925: 16921: 16920:Human history 16916: 16906: 16903: 16901: 16898: 16896: 16893: 16892: 16890: 16886: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16867: 16865: 16862: 16860: 16859:Art of Europe 16857: 16856: 16854: 16850: 16847: 16843: 16837: 16834: 16832: 16829: 16825: 16822: 16820: 16819:Revolutionary 16817: 16816: 16815: 16812: 16810: 16807: 16805: 16802: 16800: 16797: 16795: 16792: 16791: 16789: 16787:End of period 16785: 16773: 16770: 16768: 16765: 16763: 16760: 16758: 16755: 16753: 16750: 16749: 16747: 16745: 16742: 16741: 16739: 16735: 16732: 16728: 16718: 16715: 16713: 16710: 16708: 16705: 16702: 16699: 16697: 16696: 16692: 16691: 16689: 16685: 16679: 16676: 16675: 16673: 16669: 16663: 16660: 16656: 16653: 16652: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16640: 16639: 16637: 16633: 16630: 16624: 16614: 16611: 16609: 16606: 16602: 16599: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16589: 16587: 16584: 16582: 16579: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16567: 16564: 16563: 16562: 16559: 16557: 16554: 16552: 16549: 16547: 16544: 16540: 16537: 16536: 16535: 16532: 16530: 16527: 16525: 16522: 16521: 16519: 16515: 16512: 16508: 16498: 16495: 16493: 16490: 16488: 16485: 16483: 16480: 16479: 16477: 16473: 16467: 16464: 16462: 16459: 16457: 16454: 16452: 16449: 16447: 16444: 16442: 16439: 16438: 16436: 16432: 16424: 16421: 16419: 16418:Ancien Régime 16416: 16414: 16411: 16409: 16406: 16405: 16403: 16399: 16396: 16394: 16391: 16390: 16388: 16386: 16383: 16382: 16380: 16376: 16370: 16367: 16365: 16362: 16358: 16355: 16354: 16353: 16350: 16348: 16345: 16343: 16340: 16336: 16333: 16331: 16328: 16327: 16326: 16323: 16321: 16318: 16316: 16313: 16311: 16308: 16306: 16303: 16301: 16298: 16296: 16293: 16289: 16286: 16285: 16284: 16281: 16279: 16276: 16274: 16271: 16267: 16264: 16263: 16262: 16259: 16258: 16256: 16252: 16249: 16245: 16235: 16232: 16230: 16227: 16225: 16222: 16221: 16219: 16215: 16212: 16208: 16198: 16195: 16193:Intellectual: 16192: 16190: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16173: 16171: 16167: 16164: 16160: 16150: 16149:Low Countries 16147: 16145: 16142: 16140: 16137: 16135: 16132: 16130: 16127: 16125: 16122: 16121: 16119: 16115: 16109: 16106: 16104: 16101: 16099: 16096: 16094: 16091: 16089: 16086: 16084: 16081: 16079: 16076: 16074: 16071: 16067: 16064: 16063: 16062: 16059: 16058: 16056: 16052: 16049: 16045: 16041: 16034: 16029: 16027: 16022: 16020: 16015: 16014: 16011: 15998: 15990: 15989: 15987: 15985: 15977: 15963: 15960: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15950: 15948: 15945: 15943: 15940: 15939: 15937: 15935: 15934:United States 15931: 15925: 15922: 15920: 15917: 15915: 15912: 15910: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15895: 15892: 15890: 15887: 15885: 15882: 15880: 15877: 15875: 15872: 15870: 15867: 15865: 15862: 15860: 15857: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15845: 15842: 15841: 15839: 15837: 15833: 15827: 15824: 15822: 15819: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15802: 15799: 15798: 15796: 15794: 15790: 15784: 15781: 15779: 15776: 15775: 15773: 15769: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15753: 15750: 15748: 15745: 15743: 15740: 15738: 15735: 15733: 15730: 15728: 15725: 15724: 15722: 15720: 15716: 15710: 15707: 15705: 15702: 15700: 15697: 15695: 15694:Budai-Deleanu 15692: 15691: 15689: 15685: 15679: 15676: 15675: 15673: 15669: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15635: 15633: 15630: 15628: 15625: 15624: 15622: 15620: 15616: 15610: 15607: 15605: 15602: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15580: 15577: 15575: 15572: 15570: 15567: 15565: 15562: 15560: 15557: 15556: 15554: 15550: 15544: 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15167: 15165: 15162: 15161: 15159: 15155: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15136: 15134: 15131: 15129: 15126: 15124: 15121: 15119: 15116: 15114: 15111: 15109: 15106: 15104: 15101: 15099: 15096: 15094: 15091: 15089: 15086: 15084: 15081: 15079: 15076: 15074: 15071: 15069: 15066: 15064: 15061: 15059: 15058:Ashley-Cooper 15056: 15054: 15051: 15050: 15048: 15044: 15040: 15033: 15029: 15015: 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14997: 14995: 14992: 14989: 14988: 14983: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14968: 14966: 14963: 14961: 14960:Progressivism 14958: 14956: 14953: 14951: 14948: 14946: 14943: 14941: 14938: 14936: 14933: 14931: 14930: 14926: 14923: 14922: 14917: 14915: 14912: 14910: 14909:Individualism 14907: 14905: 14902: 14900: 14897: 14894: 14893: 14888: 14886: 14883: 14880: 14879: 14874: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14864: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14854: 14852: 14849: 14847: 14844: 14842: 14839: 14837: 14834: 14832: 14829: 14828: 14825: 14821: 14814: 14810: 14806: 14799: 14794: 14792: 14787: 14785: 14780: 14779: 14776: 14770: 14766: 14763: 14761: 14757: 14754: 14752: 14748: 14745: 14741: 14740: 14735: 14731: 14727: 14726: 14717: 14713: 14709: 14706: 14702: 14699: 14697: 14693: 14689: 14687: 14683: 14679: 14675: 14669: 14665: 14661: 14657: 14654: 14650: 14647: 14643: 14640: 14636: 14634: 14630: 14626: 14625: 14614: 14610: 14606: 14603: 14599: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14586: 14584: 14580: 14576: 14573: 14569: 14566: 14562: 14560:1993. 384 pp. 14559: 14555: 14552: 14548: 14546: 14542: 14538: 14535: 14531: 14527: 14523: 14519: 14515: 14511: 14507: 14502: 14500:2001. 199 pp. 14499: 14495: 14492: 14488: 14486: 14482: 14479:Porter, Roy. 14478: 14476:1976. 419 pp. 14475: 14471: 14468: 14464: 14461: 14457: 14454: 14450: 14446: 14442: 14438: 14434: 14430: 14426: 14422: 14418: 14413: 14410: 14406: 14402: 14396: 14392: 14391: 14386: 14383: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14370: 14366: 14363: 14359: 14356: 14352: 14350: 14346: 14342: 14339: 14335: 14331: 14327: 14322: 14320: 14316: 14312: 14309: 14305: 14302: 14298: 14296: 14292: 14288: 14285: 14281: 14280: 14269: 14265: 14262: 14256: 14251: 14246: 14242: 14241: 14235: 14231: 14225: 14221: 14216: 14212: 14206: 14202: 14197: 14194: 14190: 14187: 14183: 14179: 14174: 14171: 14167: 14165: 14161: 14157: 14153: 14150: 14146: 14143: 14139: 14136: 14133: 14130: 14128: 14124: 14120: 14117: 14114: 14110: 14108: 14104: 14100: 14097: 14094: 14090: 14087: 14083: 14081: 14077: 14073: 14070: 14066: 14062: 14057: 14054: 14050: 14047: 14043: 14039: 14036: 14032: 14028: 14025: 14022: 14018: 14015: 14012: 14008: 14005: 14001: 13998: 13995: 13992: 13991: 13975: 13971: 13970:Roche, Daniel 13968: 13965: 13959: 13955: 13954: 13948: 13945: 13941: 13938: 13934: 13928: 13924: 13919: 13916: 13912: 13908: 13903: 13899: 13894: 13890: 13885: 13881: 13876: 13872: 13867: 13864: 13860: 13857: 13854: 13850: 13847: 13843: 13841: 13837: 13833: 13832: 13819: 13814: 13813: 13804: 13797: 13796:The Historian 13791: 13784: 13778: 13771: 13765: 13758: 13752: 13745: 13739: 13730: 13723: 13717: 13698: 13691: 13684: 13675: 13668: 13666: 13659: 13650: 13641: 13634: 13628: 13619: 13612: 13606: 13599: 13593: 13586: 13580: 13572: 13568: 13561: 13553: 13547: 13543: 13542: 13534: 13526: 13520: 13512: 13508: 13504: 13498: 13494: 13490: 13486: 13482: 13478: 13474: 13467: 13458: 13449: 13442: 13437: 13435: 13425: 13416: 13407: 13400: 13394: 13386: 13382: 13378: 13374: 13370: 13363: 13356: 13353:Colin Jones, 13350: 13341: 13332: 13324: 13320: 13316: 13312: 13308: 13304: 13297: 13288: 13281: 13275: 13268: 13262: 13254: 13250: 13244: 13235: 13226: 13219: 13213: 13206: 13200: 13191: 13184: 13181:Daniel Roche, 13178: 13172: 13171:0-567-08969-X 13168: 13164: 13160: 13158: 13151: 13144: 13138: 13130: 13129: 13121: 13113: 13106: 13098: 13094: 13090: 13086: 13082: 13078: 13074: 13067: 13058: 13049: 13040: 13031: 13022: 13013: 13004: 12995: 12986: 12977: 12968: 12959: 12950: 12941: 12932: 12923: 12914: 12905: 12903: 12893: 12891: 12883: 12878: 12871: 12866: 12859: 12854: 12847: 12841: 12832: 12825: 12819: 12811: 12810: 12802: 12796: 12792: 12786: 12779: 12773: 12771: 12763: 12760:See Darnton, 12757: 12748: 12742: 12736: 12729: 12726:Erin Mackie, 12723: 12717:Outram, 27–29 12714: 12706: 12702: 12696: 12686: 12677: 12668: 12661: 12655: 12646: 12639: 12633: 12624: 12617: 12611: 12604: 12598: 12591: 12588:Carla Hesse, 12585: 12578: 12572: 12563: 12554: 12545: 12539:Chartier, 26. 12536: 12527: 12525: 12523: 12515: 12509: 12507: 12505: 12497: 12491: 12489: 12481: 12475: 12473: 12465: 12459: 12452: 12446: 12433: 12427:Chartier, 27. 12424: 12415: 12408: 12402: 12394: 12388: 12384: 12383: 12375: 12366: 12360: 12359:0-226-73149-9 12356: 12352: 12350: 12343: 12334: 12327: 12321: 12315:(2001), p. 4. 12314: 12308: 12302: 12298: 12292: 12284: 12278: 12274: 12273: 12265: 12257: 12251: 12247: 12246: 12238: 12230: 12224: 12220: 12216: 12209: 12194: 12190: 12189: 12181: 12174: 12170: 12167: 12162: 12154: 12150: 12144: 12137: 12134:Shank, J. B. 12131: 12124: 12123: 12116: 12109: 12108: 12101: 12094: 12092: 12088: 12081: 12075: 12069:, pp. 3. 12068: 12063: 12056: 12051: 12044: 12039: 12032: 12026: 12024: 12016: 12011: 12005:(1951), p. vi 12004: 11998: 11991: 11986: 11977: 11967: 11961: 11955: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11928: 11921: 11916: 11907: 11898: 11896: 11889: 11888:April 3, 2014 11887: 11880: 11873: 11867: 11858: 11855:(PDF 122 KB) 11854: 11850: 11847: 11841: 11835: 11829: 11823: 11819: 11815: 11809: 11802: 11796: 11789: 11784: 11777: 11771: 11763: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11745: 11741: 11737: 11730: 11723: 11717: 11711: 11710:0-521-39130-X 11707: 11703: 11700: 11695: 11688: 11682: 11675: 11669: 11662: 11656: 11649: 11643: 11637: 11633: 11627: 11620: 11614: 11607: 11601: 11593: 11586: 11578: 11572: 11568: 11567: 11559: 11552: 11546: 11539: 11535: 11530: 11522: 11515: 11507: 11500: 11492: 11485: 11478: 11471: 11464: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11447:Walther Killy 11444: 11443: 11438: 11437:Wilhelm Kosch 11433: 11425: 11418: 11411: 11405: 11398: 11392: 11385: 11379: 11371: 11367: 11361: 11354: 11348: 11341: 11335: 11328: 11322: 11315: 11309: 11302: 11296: 11289: 11286:J. Repcheck, 11283: 11275: 11269: 11265: 11264: 11256: 11249: 11243: 11235: 11233:9789004193512 11229: 11225: 11224: 11216: 11208: 11207: 11199: 11184: 11180: 11174: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11154: 11150: 11146: 11142: 11138: 11134: 11127: 11120: 11114: 11106: 11100: 11096: 11095: 11086: 11079: 11073: 11066: 11060: 11054: 11050: 11045: 11043: 11035: 11029: 11022: 11017: 11010: 11005: 10998: 10993: 10986: 10985:Ferling, 2000 10981: 10974: 10968: 10961: 10957: 10951: 10944: 10939: 10933:, p. 19. 10932: 10927: 10920: 10915: 10907: 10903: 10896: 10888: 10887: 10878: 10870: 10864: 10860: 10859: 10851: 10843: 10837: 10833: 10832: 10824: 10816: 10810: 10806: 10805: 10797: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10778: 10770: 10763: 10757: 10749: 10743: 10739: 10738: 10730: 10719: 10712: 10706: 10705:gutenberg.com 10702: 10698: 10693: 10685: 10679: 10675: 10674: 10666: 10658: 10652: 10648: 10647: 10639: 10631: 10624: 10617: 10611: 10605: 10604: 10598: 10592:Chartier, 13. 10589: 10582: 10576: 10569: 10566: 10560: 10552: 10550:9780313049514 10546: 10542: 10541: 10533: 10526: 10522: 10516: 10510:(2001) p. 341 10509: 10503: 10496: 10490: 10483: 10482:History Today 10477: 10470: 10464: 10456: 10450: 10446: 10445: 10437: 10431: 10426: 10419: 10413: 10405: 10398:, p. 353 10397: 10390: 10381: 10374: 10368: 10361: 10355: 10339: 10333: 10326: 10320: 10312: 10311: 10303: 10295: 10291: 10287: 10283: 10279: 10275: 10271: 10265: 10258: 10252: 10245: 10239: 10231: 10225: 10209: 10203: 10194: 10187: 10181: 10174: 10168: 10160: 10156: 10152: 10148: 10144: 10140: 10133: 10118: 10114: 10113:New Statesman 10110: 10108: 10099: 10090: 10081: 10072: 10063: 10054: 10045: 10028: 10024: 10019: 10013: 10004: 9995: 9986: 9979: 9973: 9967: 9963: 9957: 9951: 9947: 9941: 9925: 9921: 9914: 9907: 9901: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9871: 9864: 9863: 9858: 9852: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9829: 9827: 9819: 9814: 9812: 9805:, p. 34. 9804: 9799: 9793:, p. 33. 9792: 9787: 9785: 9778:, p. 11. 9777: 9772: 9765: 9760: 9754:, p. 15. 9753: 9748: 9740: 9734: 9730: 9729: 9721: 9713: 9711:9781631492082 9707: 9703: 9702: 9695: 9688: 9682: 9675: 9669: 9667: 9659: 9658:Isaac Newton. 9653: 9646: 9640: 9633: 9627: 9620: 9618:0-393-00870-3 9614: 9609: 9608: 9599: 9591: 9590: 9582: 9575: 9572:Eugen Weber, 9569: 9561: 9555: 9551: 9544: 9528: 9524: 9518: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9475: 9467: 9466: 9458: 9442: 9436: 9429: 9423: 9416:, p. 144 9415: 9408: 9401: 9395: 9391: 9390: 9382: 9374: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9356: 9352: 9348: 9341: 9339: 9337: 9335: 9333: 9331: 9329: 9327: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9311: 9309: 9307: 9305: 9303: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9291: 9289: 9287: 9278: 9272: 9256: 9252: 9246: 9242: 9222: 9215: 9211: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9084:Denis Diderot 9081: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8991: 8987: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8920: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8905:Classical art 8896: 8893: 8887: 8883: 8880: 8874: 8872: 8868: 8864: 8850: 8848: 8844: 8835: 8826: 8823: 8817: 8814: 8810: 8805: 8798: 8795: 8792: 8789: 8786: 8785: 8784: 8780: 8770: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8759:Encyclopédie. 8755: 8750: 8747: 8741: 8739: 8737: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8718: 8715: 8710: 8700: 8698: 8692: 8682: 8679: 8675: 8670: 8669:Royal Society 8665: 8662: 8658: 8653: 8651: 8647: 8639: 8635: 8627: 8626: 8621:visiting the 8620: 8616: 8607: 8603: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8581: 8579: 8575: 8574:Sarah Trimmer 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8533: 8531: 8530: 8525: 8521: 8520: 8515: 8508: 8503: 8499: 8497: 8486: 8483: 8479: 8475: 8471: 8464: 8459: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8440: 8439: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8414: 8410: 8405: 8401: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8382: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8359: 8355:and entitled 8354: 8349: 8347: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8331: 8322: 8320: 8314: 8305: 8301: 8299: 8298: 8297:lingua franca 8292: 8291: 8280: 8279: 8273: 8264: 8262: 8256: 8253: 8252:Ancien Régime 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8228: 8223: 8219: 8210: 8208: 8204: 8199: 8197: 8193: 8185: 8183: 8178: 8177:Denis Diderot 8174: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8164:The Spectator 8160: 8159: 8153: 8148: 8142: 8139: 8134: 8132: 8123: 8119: 8113:Book industry 8110: 8108: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8089: 8083: 8081: 8077: 8073: 8069: 8064: 8061: 8057: 8049: 8047: 8041: 8037: 8035: 8028: 8023: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8001: 7996: 7992: 7990: 7980: 7976: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7950: 7945: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7910: 7907: 7903: 7899: 7893: 7891: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7864: 7859: 7855: 7853: 7849: 7848:public sphere 7844: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7824: 7815: 7812: 7808: 7802: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7768: 7763: 7761: 7757: 7754:philosophers 7753: 7750: 7748: 7737: 7735: 7731: 7725: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7702: 7697: 7693: 7692: 7681: 7678: 7673: 7671: 7670:Martin Luther 7667: 7662: 7657: 7653: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7612: 7604: 7600: 7598: 7594: 7591:o (Italian), 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7562: 7561: 7550: 7547: 7541: 7539: 7535: 7525: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7483: 7481: 7477: 7472: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7448: 7442: 7441:Ram Mohan Roy 7438: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7418: 7408: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7388: 7386: 7385:globalization 7382: 7378: 7377:laissez-faire 7374: 7370: 7364: 7358: 7357:Tsuda Mamichi 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7341:Robert Bellah 7338: 7336: 7331: 7321: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7291:into Chinese. 7290: 7289: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7271: 7262: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7238: 7236: 7232: 7231:republicanism 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7191: 7181: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7137: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7121: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7098:Russian court 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7054: 7052: 7051:Távora affair 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7013: 7003: 7001: 6995: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6979: 6975: 6970: 6960: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6943:erupted. The 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6929:Ferdinand VII 6925: 6923: 6919: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6897: 6895: 6891: 6884: 6880: 6875: 6871: 6861: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6842:Luigi Galvani 6839: 6834: 6832: 6827: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6712:Maria Theresa 6710:The reign of 6703: 6699: 6697: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6597: 6593: 6586:German states 6583: 6581: 6577: 6576: 6571: 6567: 6566:republicanism 6563: 6559: 6555: 6546: 6545: 6540: 6539:John Trumbull 6536: 6531: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6486: 6481: 6477: 6475: 6474:coffee houses 6471: 6468:According to 6466: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6423:Edward Gibbon 6420: 6413: 6401:Great Britain 6398: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6374: 6371: 6362: 6357: 6348: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6323: 6313: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6281: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6262: 6260: 6259:New Testament 6256: 6252: 6248: 6246: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6221: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6201: 6190: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6146: 6139: 6134: 6130: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6107: 6101: 6099: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6070: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6055: 6051: 6046: 6044: 6040: 6038: 6032: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6000: 5998: 5994: 5989: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5978:right to life 5975: 5971: 5967: 5965: 5960: 5959: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5946:civil society 5942: 5941: 5936: 5935:Thomas Hobbes 5932: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5894: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5851: 5841: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5824:by promoting 5823: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5808: 5807: 5803:'s drafts of 5802: 5798: 5796: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5779:James Madison 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5763:Adam Ferguson 5760: 5759:James Burnett 5756: 5752: 5744: 5740: 5731: 5729: 5728:James Thomson 5725: 5721: 5715: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5684: 5682: 5676: 5674: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5616: 5606: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5579: 5578:Immanuel Kant 5574: 5570: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5510: 5505: 5503: 5498: 5497: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5481:. Called the 5480: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5449:According to 5447: 5445: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5368: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5295: 5294: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5263:Lord Monboddo 5260: 5259:Immanuel Kant 5256: 5252: 5251:Denis Diderot 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5223:Thomas Hobbes 5220: 5216: 5212: 5211:Francis Bacon 5208: 5201: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5151: 5150:neoclassicism 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5134:printed books 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5112: 5111:Immanuel Kant 5108: 5104: 5100: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5045:Francis Bacon 5042: 5038: 5034: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4988: 4984: 4983:Age of Reason 4980: 4968: 4963: 4961: 4956: 4954: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4928: 4918: 4915: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4870:Related lists 4868: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4827:Progressivism 4825: 4823: 4822:Nanosocialism 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4728: 4727:Organizations 4723: 4722: 4715: 4714:Ocasio-Cortez 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4634:van der Lubbe 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4171:Chernyshevsky 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4055:Intellectuals 4052: 4051: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3988:Revolutionary 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3923:Laissez-faire 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3828:Authoritarian 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3797: 3792: 3791: 3784: 3781: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3726: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3677:Strike action 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3582:Equal liberty 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3446: 3441: 3439: 3434: 3432: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3395: 3394: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3360: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3342: 3341:Individualism 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3221: 3220:United States 3218: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3102: 3099: 3098: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3005: 3002: 3001: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2878: 2877: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2820:Latin America 2818: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2809: 2804: 2803: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2725:Organizations 2722: 2721: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2229: 2224: 2223: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2203: 2198: 2197: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2182:Welfare state 2180: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2046: 2045:Laissez-faire 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1683:Neoliberalism 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1628:Authoritarian 1626: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1614: 1613: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1555:Globalization 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1515:Crisis theory 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1371:Intellectuals 1368: 1367: 1360: 1359:Technological 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1280: 1279: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1151:Institutional 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1011: 1010:Laissez-faire 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 984:Authoritarian 982: 980: 977: 976: 970: 969: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 951:Surplus value 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 932: 931:Privatization 929: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 798: 792: 791: 788: 785: 784: 780: 776: 775: 765: 760: 758: 753: 751: 746: 745: 743: 742: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 718: 715: 712: 711: 710: 709: 705: 704: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 685: 682: 679: 677: 676:Neoclassicism 674: 673: 672: 671: 668: 665: 664: 659: 656: 654: 651: 647: 644: 642: 639: 638: 636: 634: 631: 630: 629: 628: 625: 622: 621: 617: 613: 612: 609: 606: 605: 601: 597: 596: 586: 581: 579: 574: 572: 567: 566: 564: 563: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 517: 513: 507: 506: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 483:Phenomenology 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 440: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 417: 413: 407: 406: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 355: 354: 351: 348: 347: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 310: 307: 303: 300: 299: 298: 295: 291: 288: 287: 286: 283: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 250: 249: 246: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 227: 224: 223: 222: 221: 218: 215: 214: 207: 204: 202: 199: 198: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 175: 174:Ancient Greek 172: 170: 167: 166: 165: 162: 161: 160: 159: 156: 153: 152: 146: 140: 139: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 102: 91: 90: 88: 87: 83: 79: 78: 75: 72: 71: 67: 66: 54: 50: 46: 44: 39: 34: 30: 19: 24366: 24362:Pope Francis 24288:21st century 24237:Pope Paul VI 24214: 24202: 24155:20th century 24142: 24093:Pope Pius IX 24081:19th century 24057:Pope Pius VI 24046: 23924: 23796:Latin Empire 23766:Universities 23718:Pope Leo III 23585:Christianity 23570:state church 23562:Great Church 23363:Resurrection 23326:(30–325/476) 23323:Early Church 23308:Latin Church 23303:Papal States 23298:Vatican City 22890: 22692:The Simpsons 22690: 22637:Other topics 22585: 22562:Christianity 22552:Resurrection 22183:Adolf Hitler 22012:Six-Day War 22008:Algerian War 21979: / 21938:Vichy France 21930: 21923: 21833: / 21721:World War II 21617: / 21284: 21277: 21079:Ghaza thesis 21002: 20978: 20964:White legend 20962: / 20960:Black legend 20915:Soviet Union 20805: 20798: 20786: 20749:Great Famine 20726:Indocentrism 20700: 20681: 20674: 20667: 20655: 20601:Grand Siècle 20599: 20580: 20548:Sinocentrism 20409:Ancient Rome 20389: 20247:Aryan Kartli 20245: 20037: 20000: / 19934: 19831:19th century 19829: / 19820: / 19812: 19785: 19778: 19777: / 19772: 19748: 19722: / 19696:Black legend 19654:Historiology 19451: / 19439: 19402: 19340:Quantitative 19263: 19259:Intellectual 19225: / 19221: / 19207: / 19205:Anthropology 19159:Phaleristics 19152:preservation 19147:Oral history 19088: / 19074: / 19056:Microhistory 18831: 18824: 18817: 18810: 18801: 18792: / 18788: 18781: 18718:Western Bloc 18518:AUSCANNZUKUS 18474:Contemporary 18423:Human rights 18269:Latin Church 18243:Christianity 18193: 18152:Conservatism 17997:contemporary 17834:Architecture 17770:World War II 17730:Emancipation 17725:Abolitionism 17704: 17613:Romanization 17608:Roman legacy 17589:Roman Empire 17413:World War II 17362: 17266:Early modern 17243:Kalmar Union 17114:Papal States 17032:Roman Empire 16700: 16693: 16451:Cabinet wars 16102: 15982: 15727:Catherine II 15179:Beaumarchais 15009:Universality 14980:Reductionism 14927: 14904:Human rights 14804: 14737: 14711: 14704: 14691: 14681: 14663: 14652: 14645: 14638: 14628: 14601: 14591: 14588:Wills, Garry 14578: 14571: 14564: 14557: 14550: 14540: 14533: 14509: 14505: 14497: 14490: 14480: 14473: 14466: 14459: 14452: 14420: 14416: 14408: 14389: 14381: 14368: 14361: 14354: 14344: 14337: 14329: 14326:New Politics 14325: 14314: 14307: 14300: 14290: 14283: 14267: 14239: 14219: 14200: 14192: 14185: 14177: 14169: 14155: 14148: 14141: 14134: 14122: 14112: 14102: 14092: 14085: 14075: 14068: 14060: 14052: 14041: 14040:Gay, Peter. 14030: 14020: 14017:Dupré, Louis 14010: 14003: 13996: 13973: 13952: 13943: 13922: 13914: 13906: 13900:. Princeton. 13897: 13888: 13879: 13870: 13862: 13852: 13845: 13835: 13811: 13803: 13795: 13790: 13785:(1970) p. 53 13782: 13777: 13769: 13764: 13756: 13751: 13743: 13738: 13729: 13721: 13716: 13704:. Retrieved 13697:the original 13683: 13674: 13663: 13658: 13649: 13640: 13632: 13627: 13618: 13610: 13605: 13597: 13592: 13584: 13579: 13570: 13566: 13560: 13540: 13533: 13524: 13519: 13476: 13466: 13461:Andrew, 422. 13457: 13448: 13443:, p. 4. 13424: 13419:Andrew, 408. 13415: 13406: 13398: 13393: 13368: 13362: 13354: 13349: 13340: 13331: 13309:(1): 31–51. 13306: 13302: 13296: 13287: 13279: 13274: 13266: 13261: 13252: 13243: 13234: 13225: 13217: 13212: 13204: 13199: 13190: 13185:(1998), 420. 13182: 13177: 13155: 13150: 13145:(2003) p. 50 13142: 13137: 13127: 13120: 13111: 13105: 13080: 13076: 13066: 13057: 13048: 13039: 13030: 13021: 13012: 13003: 12994: 12985: 12976: 12967: 12958: 12949: 12940: 12931: 12922: 12913: 12877: 12865: 12853: 12845: 12840: 12831: 12823: 12818: 12808: 12801: 12794: 12790: 12785: 12777: 12761: 12756: 12747: 12740: 12735: 12727: 12722: 12713: 12704: 12695: 12685: 12676: 12667: 12659: 12654: 12645: 12637: 12632: 12623: 12615: 12610: 12602: 12597: 12589: 12584: 12576: 12571: 12562: 12553: 12544: 12535: 12513: 12495: 12479: 12463: 12458: 12450: 12445: 12436:Mona Ozouf, 12432: 12423: 12414: 12406: 12401: 12381: 12374: 12365: 12347: 12342: 12333: 12325: 12320: 12312: 12307: 12300: 12296: 12291: 12271: 12264: 12244: 12237: 12218: 12208: 12197:, retrieved 12193:the original 12187: 12180: 12172: 12168: 12161: 12153:oyc.yale.edu 12152: 12143: 12135: 12130: 12121: 12115: 12106: 12100: 12090: 12086: 12084: 12079: 12074: 12062: 12050: 12038: 12030: 12017:, p. 70 12010: 12002: 11997: 11985: 11976: 11966: 11959: 11954: 11937: 11933: 11927: 11919: 11915: 11906: 11901:Thomas, 2014 11885: 11879: 11871: 11866: 11856: 11840: 11828: 11813: 11808: 11800: 11795: 11783: 11775: 11770: 11743: 11739: 11729: 11721: 11716: 11701: 11694: 11686: 11681: 11673: 11668: 11660: 11655: 11647: 11642: 11631: 11626: 11618: 11613: 11605: 11600: 11591: 11585: 11565: 11558: 11550: 11545: 11537: 11529: 11520: 11514: 11505: 11499: 11490: 11484: 11476: 11470: 11440: 11432: 11423: 11417: 11409: 11404: 11396: 11391: 11383: 11378: 11369: 11360: 11352: 11347: 11339: 11334: 11326: 11321: 11313: 11308: 11300: 11295: 11287: 11282: 11262: 11255: 11247: 11242: 11222: 11215: 11205: 11198: 11186:. Retrieved 11182: 11173: 11140: 11136: 11126: 11118: 11117:Roy Porter, 11113: 11093: 11085: 11077: 11072: 11067:(1973) p. 14 11064: 11059: 11048: 11033: 11028: 11016: 11004: 10992: 10980: 10972: 10967: 10955: 10950: 10938: 10926: 10914: 10905: 10895: 10884: 10877: 10857: 10850: 10830: 10823: 10803: 10796: 10776: 10769: 10761: 10756: 10736: 10729: 10711: 10700: 10692: 10672: 10665: 10645: 10638: 10629: 10623: 10615: 10610: 10602: 10597: 10588: 10580: 10575: 10559: 10539: 10532: 10515: 10507: 10502: 10494: 10489: 10481: 10476: 10468: 10463: 10443: 10436: 10429: 10425: 10417: 10412: 10403: 10395: 10389: 10380: 10372: 10367: 10359: 10354: 10342:. Retrieved 10332: 10324: 10319: 10309: 10302: 10277: 10273: 10264: 10259:(2008), p. 1 10256: 10251: 10243: 10238: 10212:. Retrieved 10202: 10193: 10185: 10180: 10172: 10167: 10142: 10138: 10132: 10121:, retrieved 10117:the original 10112: 10106: 10098: 10089: 10080: 10071: 10062: 10053: 10044: 10031:. Retrieved 10027:the original 10017: 10012: 10003: 9994: 9985: 9977: 9972: 9961: 9956: 9945: 9940: 9928:. Retrieved 9924:the original 9913: 9905: 9900: 9888:. Retrieved 9884:the original 9879: 9870: 9861: 9851: 9838: 9798: 9771: 9759: 9747: 9727: 9720: 9700: 9694: 9686: 9681: 9673: 9657: 9652: 9644: 9639: 9631: 9626: 9606: 9598: 9588: 9581: 9573: 9568: 9549: 9543: 9531:. Retrieved 9527:the original 9517: 9487:(1): 35–52. 9484: 9480: 9474: 9464: 9457: 9445:. Retrieved 9435: 9427: 9422: 9413: 9407: 9388: 9381: 9354: 9350: 9259:. Retrieved 9254: 9245: 9221: 9158:Alexis Piron 9046:, a bust of 8990: 8902: 8888: 8884: 8875: 8851: 8840: 8821: 8818: 8806: 8802: 8782: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8754:Café Procope 8751: 8745: 8742: 8734: 8719: 8714:Coffeehouses 8712: 8703:Coffeehouses 8696: 8694: 8674:Robert Boyle 8666: 8656: 8654: 8643: 8604: 8597: 8593: 8577: 8568: 8556: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8534: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8511: 8495: 8492: 8482:Encyclopédie 8481: 8478:Encyclopédie 8477: 8470:Encyclopédie 8469: 8466: 8461: 8455: 8450: 8443: 8436: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8418: 8413:Encyclopédie 8412: 8389: 8379: 8363: 8356: 8350: 8342:hierarchical 8334: 8326: 8319:Encyclopédie 8317: 8302: 8295: 8285: 8260: 8257: 8247: 8239: 8233: 8203:Encyclopédie 8202: 8200: 8192:Encyclopédie 8191: 8188: 8182:Encyclopédie 8180: 8162: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8143: 8137: 8135: 8127: 8106: 8097: 8093: 8086: 8084: 8071: 8067: 8065: 8060:philosophes. 8059: 8055: 8053: 8050:January 1731 8044: 8034:Encyclopédie 8033: 8030: 8025: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8000:Pierre Bayle 7988: 7986: 7977: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7956: 7948: 7946: 7930: 7916: 7894: 7887: 7868: 7845: 7841: 7803: 7770: 7765: 7745: 7743: 7740:Modern study 7726: 7713: 7699: 7689: 7687: 7674: 7654: 7640:Encyclopédie 7639: 7635: 7631: 7625: 7611:Encyclopédie 7609: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7585:les Lumières 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7558: 7556: 7542: 7534:Keith Thomas 7531: 7522:Ernest Renan 7512: 7489: 7468: 7429:liberty tree 7425:Seringapatam 7414: 7394: 7372: 7365: 7333: 7327: 7312:society—and 7310:meritocratic 7294: 7286: 7279:Matteo Ricci 7239: 7206: 7204: 7177: 7158: 7122: 7094:Encyclopédie 7093: 7078:Nova Arcádia 7055: 7039:Lisbon Baixa 7017: 7015: 6996: 6981: 6966: 6926: 6912: 6898: 6887: 6835: 6830: 6828: 6805: 6778: 6747:Joseph Haydn 6736: 6714:, the first 6709: 6700: 6693: 6685:Joseph Haydn 6678: 6674:German opera 6657: 6644: 6639: 6637: 6608: 6599: 6579: 6573: 6550: 6542: 6518:Joseph Black 6495: 6467: 6458:Edmund Burke 6447: 6439:Freethinking 6415: 6375: 6369: 6366: 6333: 6329: 6309:Pierre Bayle 6293:Thomas Paine 6287:and talk of 6282: 6263: 6243: 6240:freethinkers 6225: 6203: 6198: 6179: 6166: 6152: 6143: 6102: 6094: 6059: 6053: 6047: 6035: 6030: 6028: 6019: 6003: 6001: 5990: 5986:general will 5962: 5956: 5954: 5938: 5928: 5905:Philosopher 5847: 5837: 5833: 5813: 5811: 5804: 5793: 5791: 5748: 5723: 5716: 5700:Newtonianism 5696:Encyclopédie 5695: 5691: 5685: 5677: 5670: 5634: 5618: 5600: 5591: 5583: 5541: 5526: 5525:. While the 5509:Encyclopédie 5507: 5500: 5494: 5487:Pierre Bayle 5482: 5467: 5448: 5441: 5436: 5429: 5414:metaphysical 5403: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5308:Encyclopédie 5307: 5300:Encyclopedia 5299: 5293:Encyclopédie 5289: 5287: 5279:Hugo Grotius 5235:Pierre Bayle 5204: 5176: 5173:reductionism 5154: 5130:coffeehouses 5115: 5096: 5093:Isaac Newton 5086: 5080: 5053:Isaac Newton 5030: 4991: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4976: 3883:Evolutionary 3803:21st-century 3597:Freed market 3508: 3375:Pirate Party 3235:Jeffersonian 3143:South Africa 2633:Lloyd George 2228:Philosophers 2208: 2135:To bear arms 2083:Open society 2043: 1819:Conservative 1605:Wage slavery 1545:Evergreening 1256:Mercantilism 1230: 1203:Neoclassical 1031:Mercantilist 1008: 941:Rent seeking 906:Visible hand 666: 512:Philosophers 420:Epistemology 241:South Africa 196:Contemporary 145:Philosophies 51:in 1755, by 41: 40:'s tragedy, 29: 24368:Laudato si' 24163:Pope Pius X 23992:Philip Neri 23967:Pope Pius V 23942:Thomas More 23811:Inquisition 23713:Charlemagne 23673:Monasticism 23483:Persecution 23375:Holy Spirit 23358:Crucifixion 23237:First seven 23080:Hagiography 22841: [ 22801:Early Islam 22655: [ 22547:Historicity 22525:Historicity 22515:Jane Austen 22495:The Beatles 22465:Netherlands 22426: [ 22423:Zhuge Liang 22414: [ 22402: [ 22399:Yuan Shikai 22370: [ 22367:Sun Yat Tse 22346: [ 22309: [ 22272: [ 22260: [ 22257:Jiang Zemin 22228: [ 22216: [ 22208:Che Guevara 21941: [ 21876:Pacific War 21660:Article 231 21650:Reparations 21627: [ 21591: [ 21568:Color books 21557:World War I 21541: [ 21518:War of 1812 21423: [ 21406: [ 21391:(1792–1815) 21362:Sea Peoples 21347:Gallic Wars 21049: [ 21037: [ 21024:Revisionist 21013: [ 21004:Reconquista 20994: [ 20986:Inquisition 20980:Convivencia 20904: [ 20892: [ 20864: [ 20761:Revisionism 20686: [ 20634: [ 20622: [ 20610: [ 20591: [ 20533:Golden ages 20502: [ 20499:Wunu School 20494:Archaeology 20367:Switzerland 20350:Kosovo Myth 20338:Great Union 20319: [ 20304:Philippines 20287:Nationalist 20260:Ages of Man 20232: [ 20220: [ 20208: [ 20186: [ 20174: [ 20010: [ 20007:Revisionist 19899: [ 19836:Renaissance 19701:Coloniality 19669: [ 19657: [ 19649:Historicity 19573:Revisionist 19563:Pop history 19534:Nationalist 19508: [ 19453:Cliometrics 19421:Approaches, 19377:Methodology 19273:Linguistics 19223:Environment 19189:Vexillology 19112:Diplomatics 19095:Chorography 19034:Big History 18986:War diaries 18959:Illuminated 18954:Manuscripts 18939:Hieroglyphs 18819:historicity 18658:Open Balkan 18476:integration 18406:Rule of law 18401:Natural law 18378:Agnosticism 18356:Hellenistic 18334:Anglo-Saxon 18264:Catholicism 18203:Atlanticism 18108:Rationalism 17914:Immigration 17897:Esotericism 17755:World War I 17720:Romanticism 17700:Reformation 17680:Renaissance 17658:Middle Ages 17623:Christendom 17552:Foundations 17398:World War I 17388:Nationalism 17276:Reformation 17261:Renaissance 17233:Black Death 17166:Kievan Rus' 17069:Middle Ages 16831:Nationalism 16641:Philosophy: 16596:Switzerland 16586:Lutheranism 16061:Renaissance 15984:Romanticism 15806:Charles III 15647:Poniatowski 15584:Leeuwenhoek 15564:de la Court 15552:Netherlands 15396:Mendelssohn 15391:Lichtenberg 15269:Montesquieu 14987:Sapere aude 14970:Rationalism 14965:Rationality 14955:Objectivity 13733:Roche, 437. 13706:17 November 13622:Roche, 436. 13441:Israel 2001 12882:Israel 2001 12870:Israel 2001 12858:Israel 2001 12649:Outram, 22. 12592:(2001), 42. 12579:(1994), 53. 12566:Goodman, 3. 12557:Outram, 23. 12530:Outram, 21. 12496:Musicology, 12480:Musicology, 12067:Israel 2001 12055:Israel 2006 12043:Israel 2010 12015:Porter 2001 11992:, p. 1 11990:Porter 2001 11940:(1): 1–15. 11788:Israel 2011 11246:A. Herman, 11188:18 December 11009:Hayes, 2008 10997:Mayer, 1994 10943:Israel 2010 10931:Israel 2010 10919:Israel 2011 10420:(2000) p. 7 9880:mnstate.edu 9776:Israel 2010 9764:Israel 2010 9752:Israel 2006 9447:16 November 9118:Montesquieu 8913:Herculaneum 8867:enlightened 8858: 1600 8843:Freemasonry 8822:status quo. 8797:John Henley 8697:philosophes 8661:Middle Ages 8390:Cyclopaedia 8381:Cyclopaedia 8353:John Harris 8207:Clement XII 8196:Malesherbes 8107:philosophes 8076:Grub Street 8056:salonnières 7989:philosophes 7967:(subtitled 7832:Protestants 7781:Romanticism 7777:Renaissance 7767:triumphant. 7593:ilustración 7514:Namik Kemal 7417:Tipu Sultan 7259:Romanticism 7024:under King 6905:Charles III 6724:Josephinism 6670:Abel Seyler 6554:John Toland 6470:Derek Hirst 6370:philosophes 6218:argued for 6186:bourgeoisie 6024:rationality 6020:philosophes 6004:philosophes 5919:was limited 5767:John Millar 5692:Philosophes 5660:, geology, 5551:utilitarian 5528:philosophes 5515:natural law 5440:(1670) and 5410:rationalist 5400:and science 5364:(1759) and 5346:(1754) and 5322:(1733) and 5267:Montesquieu 5186:sapere aude 5002:natural law 4994:rationalism 4914:WikiProject 4792:French Left 4584:Spiridonova 4483:Politicians 4396:Castoriadis 4076:Saint-Simon 4028:Third World 4023:Syndicalism 3958:Nationalist 3933:Libertarian 3898:Free-market 3761:Lange model 3749:Soviet-type 3719:Communalism 3691:Vanguardism 3647:Spontaneism 3557:Cooperative 3503:Development 3203:Gladstonian 3163:Switzerland 3148:South Korea 3091:Philippines 3051:New Zealand 3046:Netherlands 2703:Verhofstadt 2698:Balcerowicz 2507:Politicians 2435:Collingwood 2375:Tocqueville 2250:Montesquieu 2142:Rule of law 1943:Due process 1688:Objectivism 1673:Libertarian 1590:Speculation 1510:Consumerism 1344:Progressive 1283:Development 1266:Physiocracy 1213:Supply-side 1021:Libertarian 999:Free-market 979:Anglo-Saxon 961:Wage labour 916:Marginalism 886:Free market 841:Corporation 435:Metaphysics 350:By religion 206:Continental 186:Renaissance 60: 1812 36:Reading of 24426:Categories 24241:coronation 23947:Pope Leo X 23532:Tertullian 23462:Revelation 23437:Background 23135:Multimedia 22954:Technology 22918:Urreligion 22821:Kharijites 22772:Background 22440:Historical 22411:Zhou Enlai 22306:Mao Zedong 22301:Louis Riel 22074:Background 21925:Guilty Men 21867:Uniqueness 21790:Background 21785:Winter War 21709:Background 21642:Versailles 21496:Great Game 21143:Ricardians 21138:Tudor myth 20856:Partitions 20449:Succession 19739:Narratives 19724:Presentism 19680:Philosophy 19500:Humanistic 19388:Case study 19320:Indigenous 19298:Diplomatic 19242:Capitalism 19142:Onomastics 19100:Chronology 18929:Facsimiles 18914:Chronicles 18812:historians 18783:Historians 18678:Rio Treaty 18189:Relativism 18147:Liberalism 18113:Empiricism 18065:Philosophy 18053:Secularism 18004:Philosophy 17941:Literature 17735:Capitalism 17161:Viking Age 16976:Prehistory 16824:Napoleonic 16748:Painting: 16635:Philosophy 16117:By country 15826:Villarroel 15821:Jovellanos 15757:Radishchev 15704:Micu-Klein 15642:Niemcewicz 15609:Swammerdam 15599:Nieuwentyt 15589:Mandeville 15444:Farmakidis 15330:Burlamaqui 15239:La Mettrie 15214:Fontenelle 15169:d'Argenson 15164:d'Alembert 15088:Harrington 15014:Utopianism 14914:Liberalism 14871:Empiricism 14846:Classicism 14836:Capitalism 14751:PhilPapers 14673:0671217070 14660:Gay, Peter 14027:Gay, Peter 13925:. Perrin. 13335:Klein, 35. 12812:. Ashgate. 12337:Melton, 8. 12199:18 January 12091:sub-iectum 12087:sub-iectum 12082:quotation: 11857:Poland.pl. 11463:3110966298 11453:, Vol. 9, 11183:SparkNotes 10960:John Locke 10400:quoted in 10344:14 January 10033:16 October 9930:14 January 9890:4 November 9233:References 9032:La Clairon 8976:Illuminism 8863:Illuminati 8723:Noah's Ark 8555:published 8549:Principia, 8372:navigation 8368:arithmetic 8072:les grands 8010:The term " 7906:d'Alembert 7871:capitalism 7798:humanities 7779:and later 7650:Roy Porter 7597:Aufklärung 7589:illuminism 7587:(French), 7553:Definition 7464:Egyptology 7405:Yu Kilchun 7318:absolutist 7283:Xu Guangqi 7207:oświecenie 7104:, such as 7018:Iluminismo 6918:Charles IV 6890:Charles II 6771:Statue of 6732:Francis II 6728:Leopold II 6696:Königsberg 6694:In remote 6640:Aufklärung 6514:agronomist 6485:Adam Smith 6449:Roy Porter 6270:Judaic law 6106:Leopold II 6012:capitalism 5907:John Locke 5859:Roy Porter 5662:mineralogy 5533:Old Regime 5426:skepticism 5406:empiricism 5385:Philosophy 5275:Adam Smith 5255:David Hume 5231:John Locke 5073:John Locke 5018:fraternity 5014:toleration 4998:empiricism 4981:(also the 4885:Socialists 4880:By country 4762:Capitalism 4644:Mitterrand 4609:Gerhardsen 4554:Liebknecht 4539:Markievicz 4466:Varoufakis 4416:Fotopoulos 4086:Saint-Just 4081:Buonarroti 4066:Campanella 4003:Scientific 3938:Marhaenism 3893:Fourierism 3878:Ecological 3858:Democratic 3331:Empiricism 3302:Democratic 3297:Capitalism 3208:Manchester 3041:Montenegro 3026:Luxembourg 2962:Venizelism 2892:Costa Rica 2147:Secularism 1980:Federalism 1932:Principles 1791:Liberalism 1668:Liberalism 1653:Humanistic 1638:Democratic 1617:Ideologies 1452:Schumpeter 1198:Monetarist 1129:Chartalism 1076:Regulatory 1051:Neoliberal 1004:Humanistic 787:Capitalism 736:Philosophy 608:Classicism 443:Aesthetics 132:Categories 74:Philosophy 24492:Reasoning 24257:Communism 24227:Ecumenism 23573:(380–451) 23565:(180–451) 23554:(313–476) 23476:(100–325) 22923:Perennial 22712:Economics 22664:Feudalism 22450:Australia 22198:Aurangzeb 22174:Political 22164:By person 21845:Pius Wars 21640:Treaty of 21299:conflicts 21106:Poor Laws 20969:Hispanism 20846:Sarmatism 20676:Sonderweg 20434:Expansion 20159:Litvinism 19993:Argentina 19827:Long 18th 19710:Dark Ages 19490:Historism 19288:Political 19227:Geography 19164:Philology 19127:Genealogy 19122:Epigraphy 19065:By source 18904:Artifacts 18623:Five Eyes 18618:EU–UK TCA 18460:Democracy 18349:Old Norse 18238:Abrahamic 18195:Peritrope 18177:Tolerance 18157:Socialism 17987:Mythology 17975:Classical 17924:Languages 17902:Astrology 17750:Modernism 17564:Old World 17208:Feudalism 17179:Catalonia 16626:Academic 16576:Huguenots 16571:Calvinism 16517:Overviews 16475:Diplomacy 16423:Louis XIV 16254:Countries 16169:Political 16047:Overviews 15947:Jefferson 15889:Hutcheson 15778:Obradović 15747:Lomonosov 15742:Kheraskov 15652:Śniadecki 15416:Weishaupt 15411:Thomasius 15401:Pufendorf 15244:Lavoisier 15229:d'Holbach 15224:Helvétius 15204:Descartes 15199:Condorcet 15194:Condillac 15128:Priestley 14945:Modernity 14866:Democracy 14767:from the 14455:. 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Brill. 11157:0018-2648 10294:145439970 9509:145282986 9501:0035-9149 9373:0002-8762 9238:Citations 8746:virtuosi, 8650:mesmerism 8619:Louis XIV 8537:Principia 8524:Astronomy 8394:engraving 7902:Marmontel 7898:Condorcet 7734:diffusion 7684:Time span 7577:aufklären 7573:Aufklärun 7510:in 1876. 7353:Max Weber 7345:Confucian 7300:emperors 7219:Sarmatism 6988:Spartacus 6720:Joseph II 6502:Calvinist 6255:his death 6171:feudalism 6016:tolerance 5940:Leviathan 5913:based on 5775:modernity 5712:magnetism 5673:academies 5646:chemistry 5632:in 1783. 5563:Edinburgh 5437:Tractatus 5146:socialism 5142:pamphlets 5103:Louis XIV 5057:Descartes 4757:Anarchism 4679:Gorbachev 4529:Malatesta 4524:Bernstein 4301:Pankhurst 4281:Pannekoek 4271:Luxemburg 4226:Plekhanov 4201:Carpenter 4196:Kropotkin 3993:Ricardian 3983:Religious 3978:Reformism 3963:Nkrumaism 3953:Municipal 3853:Communism 3848:Christian 3833:Blanquism 3823:Anarchism 3766:Mutualism 3468:Socialism 3346:Anarchist 3254:Venezuela 3230:Classical 3198:Cobdenism 3101:Cracovian 3056:Nicaragua 3021:Lithuania 2880:Hong Kong 2835:Australia 2673:Roosevelt 2643:Ståhlberg 2638:Venizelos 2593:Sarmiento 2583:Gladstone 2543:Lamartine 2513:Jefferson 2365:Martineau 2315:De Gouges 2300:Condorcet 2285:Priestley 1948:Democracy 1920:Third Way 1881:Christian 1876:Religious 1814:Classical 1708:Third Way 1698:Privatism 1658:Inclusive 1643:Dirigisme 1437:von Mises 1324:Illiberal 1304:Corporate 1299:Community 1246:Feudalism 1156:Keynesian 1146:Classical 989:Corporate 801:Austerity 726:Economics 688:Economics 535:Logicians 530:Ethicists 488:Political 448:Education 369:Christian 364:Confucian 263:Indonesia 217:By region 155:By period 24487:Progress 24472:Learning 24437:Autonomy 24267:HIV/AIDS 23761:Crusades 23515:Irenaeus 23508:Ignatius 23503:Polycarp 23353:Ministry 23341:(30–100) 23215:Timeline 23125:Category 23040:template 22754:Religion 22605:Socrates 22520:Muhammed 22442:rankings 22323:Napoleon 22141:Category 21959:Cold War 21862:Slovakia 21449:Waterloo 21318:Crusades 21263:Military 21111:Scotland 21069:Kemalist 20391:Nam tiến 20386:Vietnam 20376:Ukraine 20334:Romania 20316:Portugal 20242:Georgia 20217:Medieval 20166:Bulgaria 20155:Belarus 20140:Austria 19946:Americas 19914:Morocco 19910:Ethiopia 19689:Specific 19612:Concepts 19517:Leninist 19475:Feminist 19463:Critical 19310:Feminism 19283:Military 19237:Business 19232:Economic 19214:Cultural 19198:By topic 19184:Toponymy 19132:Heraldry 19080:template 19027:By scale 18949:Logbooks 18934:Features 18899:Archives 18683:Schengen 18613:Eurozone 18453:Property 18448:Religion 18339:Frankish 18329:Germanic 18309:Paganism 18230:Religion 18218:European 18130:Humanism 18033:Religion 17992:Painting 17958:Internet 17909:Folklore 17880:Clothing 17851:Calendar 17827:Cyrillic 17812:Alphabet 17775:Cold War 17447:See also 17418:Cold War 17213:Crusades 17183:Valencia 16845:See also 16591:Scottish 16551:Haskalah 16539:Hussites 16510:Religion 16389:England 16278:Germany 16247:Politics 16217:Concepts 15997:Category 15942:Franklin 15909:Playfair 15879:Ferguson 15836:Scotland 15783:Mrazović 15737:Kantemir 15732:Fonvizin 15671:Portugal 15637:Krasicki 15632:Konarski 15627:Kołłątaj 15579:Koerbagh 15528:Genovesi 15513:Beccaria 15475:Berkeley 15406:Schiller 15371:Humboldt 15345:Saussure 15340:Rousseau 15304:Voltaire 15259:Maréchal 15234:Jaucourt 15189:Châtelet 15184:Chamfort 15133:Reynolds 15036:Thinkers 14940:Midlands 14929:Lumières 14899:Humanism 14892:Haskalah 14332:: 65–86. 13840:in JSTOR 13755:Davies, 13573:(1): 81. 13205:Annales, 11849:Archived 11465:, p. 308 11457:, 2005, 11165:24423269 10987:, p. 158 10224:cite web 10214:25 March 10184:M. Fry, 10123:27 April 9843:archived 9271:cite web 9048:Voltaire 8944:Haskalah 8923:See also 8879:Jacobite 8813:Anglican 8809:Lutheran 8094:libelles 7875:autonomy 7852:critical 7718:Louis XV 7560:Lumières 7496:Tanzimat 7423:Club in 7306:Qianlong 7273:Italian 7215:szlachta 7068:and the 7026:Joseph I 6980:'s book 6824:Piedmont 6807:Il Caffè 6743:Austrian 6621:Schiller 6492:Scotland 6305:orthodox 6216:Voltaire 6193:Religion 5844:Politics 5820:and the 5818:penology 5708:taxonomy 5605:(1791). 5597:feminist 5479:Louis XV 5446:(1677). 5404:Bacon's 5376:(1781). 5283:Voltaire 5138:journals 5010:progress 4875:Category 4614:Erlander 4574:Kerensky 4544:Connolly 4401:Thompson 4386:Bookchin 4376:Montseny 4326:Vanzetti 4291:Einstein 4261:Landauer 4166:Saltykov 4161:Lassalle 4121:Proudhon 3903:Gandhian 3888:Feminist 3838:Buddhist 3818:Agrarian 3796:Variants 3460:a series 3458:Part of 3336:Humanism 3309:Centrism 3259:Zimbabwe 3213:Whiggism 3173:Thailand 3138:Slovenia 3133:Slovakia 3108:Portugal 3081:Paraguay 3004:Liberism 2969:Honduras 2887:Colombia 2860:Bulgaria 2653:Rathenau 2628:Milyukov 2548:Macaulay 2518:Kołłątaj 2490:Kymlicka 2470:Friedman 2415:Cassirer 2405:Hobhouse 2340:Constant 2335:Humboldt 2295:Beccaria 2260:Rousseau 2255:Voltaire 2098:Property 2061:Positive 2056:Negative 2012:Religion 1990:Economic 1963:Equality 1886:Catholic 1856:National 1851:Muscular 1829:Feminist 1824:Cultural 1783:a series 1781:Part of 1535:Cronyism 1447:Rothbard 1422:Marshall 1407:Friedman 1339:Merchant 1294:Consumer 1289:Advanced 1124:Austrian 1119:American 1046:National 1041:Monopoly 994:Dirigist 896:Investor 806:Business 795:Concepts 779:a series 777:Part of 658:Language 600:a series 598:Part of 493:Religion 478:Ontology 458:Language 412:Branches 359:Buddhist 314:American 236:Ethiopia 201:Analytic 181:Medieval 122:Glossary 107:Contents 38:Voltaire 24232:Judaism 23632:Vulgate 23442:Gospels 23417:Stephen 23334:Origins 23254:Vulgate 23190:General 23180:of the 23178:History 23060:Related 22950:Science 22595:Madonna 22567:Judaism 22530:Judaism 22362:Saladin 22252:Hypatia 22176:leaders 22100:Related 22053:Origins 22016:Origins 21967:Origins 21523:Origins 21469:Origins 21335:Origins 21197:Oceania 21160:British 21098:Kingdom 20741:Ireland 20648:Germany 20356:Sweden 20229:New Age 20205:Ancient 20201:Europe 20197:Croatia 20129:Albania 20122:Eurasia 19924:Rwanda 19622:General 19522:Marxist 19423:schools 19252:Thought 19219:Ecology 18981:Scrolls 18919:Codices 18887:Sources 18826:history 18803:History 18528:Benelux 18433:Thought 18383:Atheism 18324:Finnish 18300:Culture 18295:Judaism 18257:Eastern 18253:Western 18248:Culture 18182:Paradox 18048:Decline 18009:Science 17885:History 17873:Studies 17856:Cuisine 17844:Periods 17804:Culture 17633:History 17599:Eastern 17594:Western 17545:culture 17288:Baroque 17187:Majorca 17099:Francia 16737:General 16701:Authors 16671:Science 16601:Radical 16581:English 16404:France 16378:Leaders 16283:Britain 16144:Germany 16129:England 16098:Baroque 16066:Outline 15952:Madison 15924:Stewart 15864:Burnett 15859:Boswell 15844:Beattie 15816:Moratín 15801:Cadalso 15752:Novikov 15687:Romania 15662:Wybicki 15657:Staszic 15604:Spinoza 15574:Huygens 15569:Grotius 15523:Galvani 15518:Galiani 15468:Ireland 15449:Feraios 15421:Wieland 15386:Lessing 15381:Leibniz 15354:Germany 15335:Prévost 15320:Abauzit 15284:Quesnay 15274:Morelly 15264:Meslier 15249:Leclerc 15209:Diderot 15098:Johnson 15073:Collins 15068:Bentham 15053:Addison 15046:England 14994:Science 14831:Atheism 14758:at the 14732:(ed.). 14714:(1996) 14694:(1995) 14684:(2001) 14631:(2001) 14594:(1984) 14581:(1972) 14526:3654234 14469:(1985). 14425:Bibcode 14347:(2004) 14317:(2003) 14293:(1998) 14286:(1971). 14195:(2021). 14162:; also 14105:(2004) 14078:(1981) 13828:Sources 13818:458–474 13385:2652433 13323:3817904 13161:p. 14, 12848:(1990). 12780:135–47. 12618:19, 20. 11634:(1972) 11445:, eds. 11137:History 11023:, p. 14 11011:, p. 10 10327:(1994). 10175:(1986). 9980:p. 120. 9964:(1993) 9908:(2001). 9689:(2009). 9576:(1992). 9533:21 June 9261:3 April 8909:Pompeii 8847:Lessing 8261:le goût 8088:libelle 7836:serfdom 7762:argue: 7677:Marxian 7421:Jacobin 7351:' that 7277:priest 6820:Tuscany 6625:Wieland 6562:liberty 6496:In the 6454:Diderot 6406:England 6289:atheism 6110:Tuscany 5666:zoology 5658:biology 5654:anatomy 5642:physics 5609:Science 5491:skeptic 5459:deistic 5132:and in 5069:Leibniz 5065:Spinoza 5006:liberty 4996:and of 4709:Sánchez 4694:Sankara 4654:Mandela 4639:Kreisky 4629:Allende 4624:Senghor 4619:Douglas 4604:Durruti 4569:Trotsky 4461:Graeber 4441:Hampton 4411:Chomsky 4356:Marcuse 4341:Gramsci 4331:Bordiga 4321:Polanyi 4276:Russell 4266:Berkman 4256:Goldman 4246:Du Bois 4216:Kautsky 4211:Bellamy 4176:Tolstoy 4151:Wallace 4136:Bakunin 4126:Greeley 4116:Blanqui 4096:Fourier 4043:Zionist 4033:Utopian 3973:Popular 3968:Owenism 3948:Marxism 3928:Liberal 3913:Islamic 3873:Ethical 3868:Digital 3843:Chinese 3808:African 3492:Outline 3487:History 3249:Uruguay 3188:Ukraine 3178:Tunisia 3123:Senegal 3113:Romania 3061:Nigeria 3036:Moldova 2979:Iceland 2974:Hungary 2952:Germany 2947:Georgia 2937:Finland 2932:Estonia 2922:Ecuador 2917:Denmark 2912:Czechia 2897:Croatia 2850:Bolivia 2845:Belgium 2840:Austria 2830:Armenia 2825:Albania 2693:Jenkins 2688:Kennedy 2678:Pearson 2663:Einaudi 2648:Gokhale 2608:Itagaki 2603:Naoroji 2598:Mommsen 2578:Lincoln 2568:Mazzini 2553:Kossuth 2538:Broglie 2533:Bolívar 2528:Artigas 2523:Madison 2385:Spencer 2370:Emerson 2360:Bastiat 2345:Ricardo 2305:Bentham 2245:Spinoza 2202:History 2103:Private 2051:Liberty 1985:Freedom 1905:Secular 1893:Islamic 1871:Radical 1808:Schools 1663:Liberal 1623:Anarcho 1560:History 1392:Malthus 1387:Ricardo 1349:Rentier 1334:Marxist 1314:Finance 1225:Origins 1193:Marxist 1141:Chicago 1101:Welfare 1061:Private 1016:Liberal 836:Company 821:Capital 698:Physics 653:Element 498:Science 453:History 379:Islamic 339:Russian 334:Italian 319:British 309:Western 302:Iranian 278:Vietnam 253:Chinese 226:African 164:Ancient 127:History 112:Outline 24512:Virtue 24198:Nazism 24020:to the 23627:Jerome 23537:Origen 23220:Papacy 22686:Salons 22488:Others 22455:Canada 22089:Causes 22026:Causes 22001:Causes 21795:Spirit 21729:Causes 21699:Causes 21564:Causes 21533:Causes 21506:Causes 21484:Causes 21415:Causes 21162:Empire 21096:United 21062:Turkey 20877:Russia 20851:Deluge 20834:Poland 20574:France 20372:Taiwan 20345:Serbia 20151:Balhae 20002:Causes 19953:Canada 19887:Egypt 19880:Africa 19404:Tarikh 19325:Labour 19315:Gender 19305:Social 19105:dating 18971:Papyri 18894:Annals 18548:CANZUK 18438:Speech 18366:Slavic 18344:Gothic 18319:Celtic 18314:Baltic 18213:Values 18014:Values 17574:Greece 17175:Aragon 17154:Amalfi 17139:Venice 17127:Second 16852:Europe 16628:fields 16273:France 16162:Events 16139:France 16134:Papacy 15904:Newton 15894:Hutton 15874:Cullen 15771:Serbia 15719:Russia 15709:Șincai 15619:Poland 15559:Bekker 15533:Pagano 15495:Toland 15459:Korais 15454:Kairis 15436:Greece 15366:Herder 15361:Goethe 15325:Bonnet 15313:Geneva 15299:Turgot 15289:Raynal 15279:Pascal 15219:Gouges 15157:France 15143:Tindal 15138:Sidney 15113:Newton 15108:Milton 15083:Godwin 15078:Gibbon 14975:Reason 14817:Topics 14703:, ed. 14670: 14611: 14596:online 14583:online 14536:(2008) 14524: 14493:, 1999 14443: 14397: 14340:(2002) 14310:(2007) 14303:(2008) 14295:online 14257: 14226: 14207: 14164:online 14151:(1994) 14144:(2017) 14137:(2016) 14095:(2018) 14088:(1965) 14080:online 14055:(2002) 14023:(2004) 14006:(2005) 13960: 13929: 13848:(2003) 13772:(2002) 13635:p. 281 13548: 13509: 13499: 13481:Leiden 13383: 13321: 13169: 13095: 12690:1974). 12662:35–40. 12389: 12357: 12279: 12252: 12225: 12110:p. 126 11834:online 11820: 11760: 11708: 11636:online 11573: 11540:(1997) 11461: 11355:(1941) 11342:(2005) 11329:(2007) 11303:(1978) 11270: 11230: 11163: 11155: 11101: 11036:(1999) 10906:Nd.edu 10865: 10838: 10811: 10784: 10744: 10680: 10653: 10547: 10451: 10292: 10159:588406 10157: 9950:online 9735: 9708: 9615: 9556: 9507: 9499: 9396: 9371: 9178:Lekain 8767:bruits 8685:Salons 8567:. 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6785:Milan 6757:Italy 6301:creed 6285:deism 6002:Some 5470:Paris 4890:Songs 4864:Lists 4669:Palme 4519:Bebel 4509:Blanc 4471:Saito 4446:Žižek 4426:Wolff 4361:James 4346:Sacco 4336:Serge 4306:Volin 4251:Gorky 4241:Wells 4236:Dewey 4221:Wilde 4206:Sorel 4191:Jones 4101:Cabet 4071:Paine 4018:State 4008:Sewer 3908:Guild 3686:needs 3541:Ideas 3368:Right 3153:Spain 3011:Japan 2999:Italy 2984:India 2927:Egypt 2875:China 2870:Chile 2708:Obama 2683:Ohlin 2618:Kemal 2475:Rawls 2450:Hayek 2440:Čapek 2420:Mises 2410:Croce 2400:Weber 2395:Acton 2325:Staël 2290:Paine 2280:Burke 2265:Smith 2240:Locke 2007:Press 2000:Trade 1973:Legal 1841:Green 1472:Coase 1467:Weber 1412:Hayek 1377:Smith 1309:Crony 1171:Post- 1091:State 1081:Rhine 1036:Mixed 956:Value 921:Money 731:Music 693:Music 430:Logic 374:Hindu 273:Korea 268:Japan 231:Egypt 117:Lists 24350:2023 24345:2019 24340:2016 24335:2013 24330:2011 24325:2008 24320:2005 24315:2002 24310:2000 24277:1995 23447:Acts 23410:Paul 23405:John 23380:Mary 23024:list 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