English invasion of Scotland (1385)

489:, it would have ensured that the Crown would not "lose its right to demand such service in future". Jonathan Sumption, on the other hand, has questioned whether it was ever intended to be followed through with, and has suggested that it "may have been made as a prelude to a round of horse-trading". The policy caused such an uproar, however, that Richard was swiftly forced to withdraw the proposition. Indeed, he publicly denied—in parliament—that he had ever intended to enforce scutage. Sumption's theory is strengthened by the fact that, in return for the King dropping the claim to scutage, his captains agreed to waive their right to recruitment bonuses, which they could otherwise have claimed from the crown. Although it was never followed through, this summons was to be the last feudal levy of its kind in English history. Although its primary purpose was doubtless financial, Gillespie has drawn attention to the positive publicity that Richard may have expected to enjoy from summoning the feudal host to him: he would be truly Edward I's great-grandson. Men would serve, and be summoned to serve "not only 991:, he suggests, indicates "a headstrong ruler determined to exact vengeance on the Scots" although the King later made Melrose Abbey a grant towards its rebuilding. Similarly, Richard II's concern for the well-being of the ordinary soldiers is, he says, an early indicator of the "remarkable concern...that would later endear the King to his Cheshire guard". It depends on the King's priorities, explains MacDonald. If Richard had a secondary, punitive purpose to the invasion—i.e. punishing the Scots when he could not defeat them—"and the chronicle accounts provide some corroboration of this", Tuck, too, has remarked upon Richard's "unusual sensitivity" and compares it to a similar sensitivity demonstrated towards the rebelling peasants of 1381. Richard's main problem in the aftermath of the campaign, says Gillespie, was one of the perceptions with which he was held after the campaign. Although it may have been more successful than it appeared at first glance, Richard singularly failed to match up to the image of the successful warrior king as epitomised by his father and grandfather. 930:—respected the French as peers, the Scots generally were hostile to this group of foreigners who could not speak their language and who damaged their crops by riding warhorses many abreast. The acrimony over the assault on Wark Castle had made things worse. Even after the English withdrawal, the Scots refused to allow the French to leave until they had satisfactorily compensated their hosts for the damage they had caused. To this end, de Vienne was effectively kept hostage until money was sent from Paris to meet their demands. In the event, he was unable to depart until mid-November 1385, even though his army had left early the previous month. When de Vienne did leave Scotland, posits McKisack, it "was less due to English activity than to French distaste for living conditions in Scotland": de Vienne had described the country as containing nothing but "wild beasts, forests and mountains". 603:, brought sixty men-at-arms and the same number of archers. De Vere too, brought a "substantial" force. But their combined total of nearly 2,000 men was still massively outnumbered by John of Gaunt's force, which was in the region of 3,000 men. Richard did not solely call upon his nobility either. Gillespie has pointed out that about 10% of the entire host—around 450 men-at-arms and 500 archers—were under the direct command, not of barons, but of the king's officers. These were of the civil service ("the chancellor, treasurer, keeper of the privy seal") or household ("secretary, steward of the household, under-chamberlain of the household, and controller of the wardrobe"). Also included in the royal army were members of the Queen's Household (for example, 408:

with that institution in future. They may, in fact, have generally approved of de la Pole's foreign policy as an alternative to the repeated, and heavy, taxes required by Edward III to prosecute his French wars. The King claimed to have personally refused to touch what he had been granted, saying he had refused it "by his own special act, without the council or any other intervening". The King intended, though, that this be an invasion force of substance. It would have been one of the largest English armies organised in the 14th century, and the biggest ever raised in the whole of the

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was, and were not to be brought to the field. Instead, they withdrew into the hillsides, and lived off the land; this likewise ensured that little remained for the English army to forage. The French, says Scottish historian Ranald Nicholson, viewed their allies with dismay. Their preferred tactic was, like that of the English, the pitched battle, at which they could win honour and glory. However, even de Vienne soon came to understand that the Scottish policy was the only one likely to be effective. The English army resorted to

533:. It may have been an act of revenge by Huntingdon for the killing of one of his squires by someone in Ralph's retinue during a scuffle. Alternatively, it could have been a case of mistaken identity. Whatever its cause, says historian Carol Rawcliffe, the affair could potentially have threatened the entire campaign. It drew much commentary from political observers of the time. Huntingdon escaped to Lancashire, while Richard "in a paroxysm of rage and grief swore that his brother should be treated as a common murderer". 780:, though, posits that Richard was probably sensible to reject Gaunt's plan to "fling himself into the Highlands in a hopeless search for the enemy". This had, after all, effectively been Gaunt's strategy for his short campaign of the previous year, which had also achieved little of value. "Gaunt, who had some experience of Scotland", says Tuck, "must have appreciated this point", The King seems to have been particularly concerned for the well-being of the troops. He told Gaunt—according to the 784:—"though you and the other lords might have plenty of food for yourselves, the rest, the humbler, and lowlier members of our army, would certainly not find such a wealth of victuals as would prevent their dying of hunger", In the event, no offensive option was taken. The English commanders agreed on a withdrawal, which began around 17 August; before they left, Richard and Gaunt were once again reconciled. The royal army's line of retreat was guarded by Hotspur, who deflected various Scottish 743:, for the rest, the English army was given "free and uninterrupted play slaughter, rapine and fire-raising all along a six-mile front". There appears to have been indecision amongst the English military command whether to proceed or withdraw. Divisions between Richard's supporters and his uncle, only superficially healed at Durham, were re-opened. Food continued to be in short supply, and it was rumoured that Vienne and his Franco-Scottish army was invading England via the 391:

rape and sacrilege, for example. They also gave practical instructions, such as reminding naval ships to stick close to the Admiral in a storm, and guidance on punishments for soldiers' wrongdoing (the penalty for taking women and priests prisoner, for example, was to be death). They were necessary because the way of raising armies—for short periods and specific periods—meant that it was not possible to drill martial discipline into them, as would be possible with a

506: 853:, however, was a different matter. This had suffered years of neglect and was a state of severe disrepair as well as damage from previous Scottish attacks. Another argument took place as to whether to assault it before, as Sumption puts it, the French attacked "on their own as the Scots stood by and watched". The castle was eventually taken after two days bitter fighting, with heavy losses for the French and Wark's defenders only driven from its walls by 1204:, the marshalcy was one of the two great military officers of the medieval English Crown, and has also been described as being of the "utmost importance in matters of ceremony and frequently involved questions of precedence". The marshal was also responsible for the marshalling of parliament. Historian Rowena Archer notes, however, that "specific instances of the earl undertaking tasks arising from his office are extremely rare". 1018:. Gaunt had been persuaded by the news of a Castilian defeat that he should enter the dynastic contest, and the following year he led an army to make his claim. His absence from English politics was enough with hindsight, says Anthony Steel, as "a turning point in Richard's reign". In March 1386, Richard recognised Gaunt as King of Castille and was probably as keen for Gaunt to go as Gaunt was to be gone. In 2004, 485:. It would, in theory, save the government from having to pay them bonuses or ransoms, as was by now usual in royal campaigns. It may have had a secondary purpose of illustrating that the levy was still a viable option for the Crown. Edward I had never summoned one during his fifty-year reign; Richard's doing so in 1385 may have been an attempt to reaffirm the precedent. If this was the case, suggests 215:. According to James Gillespie: "it was a gamble, but a sensible gamble". Unfortunately trouble had been brewing on the domestic front for the previous year. Relations between the King and Gaunt had broken down, and the potential crisis was exacerbated by Richard's friends and close officials who wished to neutralise Gaunt's influence on policy. The invasion was one of several long 395:. By the later Middle Ages the Crown had established a "preference for the mobility and reliability of the paid professional" over the raising of the feudal tenantry. Armies were recruited and then disbanded, and there was no way of ensuring that men who had been bound by a previous set of regulations would be recruited again. The ordinances were promulgated on 17 July. 117: 168:). Their rift originated in differences over foreign policy. Whereas the council, meeting in December 1384, had been in favour of a military expedition to Scotland, Gaunt (and the Duke of Buckingham) had favoured France. Gaunt, and possibly Buckingham, had stormed out of the council meeting. Following the rumours of his possible murder, Gaunt retired to 92:, they had achieved little of military value, mostly the burning of churches. Gaunt may have proposed chasing the Scots into the mountains to force them to battle, but the King refused to countenance such a tactic and the army soon withdrew to England. As Richard's force left Scotland, the Franco-Scottish army counter-invaded England from the 763:

were scarce and it was likely to lead to starvation among the common soldiers"). According to the Westminster monk, Richard then harshly criticised the duke, saying "many shameful things" about him, even accusing him of treason. Froissart, on the other hand, says that Gaunt advocated a march across the

568:, who, as Goodman puts it, was "a military veteran, well-versed in Scottish campaigning, and well-acquainted with Scottish magnates". Richard, on the other hand, never developed a gift for command, relying in Scotland (as he later would in Ireland) on the advice of a small group of trusted individuals. 762:

This disagreement was very much moulded by the jealousies and distrust that existed between Gaunt and Richard's supporters. First, if Gaunt did recommend pushing deeper into Scotland, Richard rejected it as a course of action (probably, says Goodman, on the "reasonable logistical rounds that victuals

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Hospital was severely damaged. English strategy, says Nigel Saul, was to be "the traditional one employed by the English in Scotland: to draw their adversaries into battle at the earliest opportunity and to crush them by sheer weight of numbers". The Scottish, however, recognised this for the trap it

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The ordinances have been described as "the earliest extant code of discipline for an English army". Written in French, they consist of twenty-six discrete clauses. It was seen as necessary to remind the troops what they could and could not do during the offensive. The ordinances explicitly prohibited

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The component companies of a contract army could be very heterogeneous in their makeup, which was another reason why common rules, binding all, needed to be made explicit. Individual companies varied enormously in size and the status and background of their leaders; in their ranks, near-professionals

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France's increasing power threatened both English national pride and English economic interests, which needed to be defended. In 1384, de la Pole announced a royal expedition—although "he carefully refrained from saying where he or the council thought the King should go". The choice was made for them

1022:

wrote, "Richard was even prepared to speed Gaunt on his way by advancing a loan of 20,000 marks to defray the costs of the expedition". In 1962, Steel wrote that Gaunt's absence upset the balance of power within the political community and "liberated forces which had hitherto been more or less under

986:

called it "ignominious" and May McKisack, "inglorious"). Tuck wrote that seen as a "punitive raid", it was arguably a success. The Scots were sufficiently persuaded to accept truces for the next three years. This, says Steel, was a far more positive result for the campaign than it has generally been

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John of Gaunt remained in the north after the King returned to England to oversee the new truce with Scotland; their relationship was worse than it had ever been. Alienating his uncle was to prove a tactical error over the next few years when Richard found himself increasingly opposed by his barons.

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They were amazed to find that Edinburgh, which had been described to them as the Paris of the north, had only 400 houses. They were unimpressed by the 'red-faced and bleary-eyed' King Robert. they found his subjects a 'savage race' without courtesy or chivalry and his country bare of everything that

416:

suggests there were around 14,000 men in the invading army, while Exchequer receipts indicate at least 12,000 men had been paid for war service in 1385, with at least 142 captains. Ironically, points out Keen, the nobility brought greater armies to the King's host than the traditional feudal summons

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The French wanted a sustained campaign which would tie down significant English forces. They wanted to attack the major walled towns and castles of the English borderlands. They believed in careful advanced planning and disciplined movement. The Scots wanted to fight the kind of campaign which they

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in 1285. The Statute was extremely broad in its scope. It attempted to address contemporary concerns that "jurors were now increasingly reluctant to indict evil-doers". To counter this problem, "watches were to be kept in the summer months, in towns and countryside alike, and all law-abiding folk,

1054:

Richard planned ("though in vain") another invasion of Scotland in 1389, and mirroring this, there were complaints to the end of Richard's reign that the Scots regularly violated the truce. The next occasions on which Richard invaded a foreign country was in 1394 and 1399, when he invaded Ireland;

800:

The expedition, says Gillespie, had singularly "failed to live up to the careful preparations" which had preceded it, and had spent less than a fortnight in enemy territory. The reports of a Franco-Scottish raid into the north-west of England, on the other hand, turned out to be true. On 8 July a

422:

There has been considerable debate as to why should have been needed, given the Crown's power for decades past to raise military forces without such an expedient being necessary. Broadly, the debate hinges on whether a feudal summons was needed to ensure an impressive turn-out for Richard's first

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to fund a campaign, the Commons had done so on the impression that this was to be a continental campaign against the French; not a northern one against the Scots. The latter would be a breach of the Commons' wishes, which, while unwritten, were to be respected by any king who wanted good relations

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The latest truce with Scotland was due to expire on 15 July 1385, and the fact that the English muster was due to take place on the 14th indicates that the plan was to invade immediately it had done so. Richard II was nearly eighteen, and the campaign was clearly intended to cast him—as a would-be

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three days later. On 1 July, the French and Scottish battle captains signed articles of agreement (in French) in Edinburgh detailing the prosecution of their campaign. These were extremely detailed and ranged from their military ordinances to the reconnaissance procedures to be undertaken prior to

914:

The French complained about everything from the size of their dwelling quarters to the hardness of the beds they slept in to the quality of the beer and food. Relations worsened when the knights, as was customary, sent their servants out to forage from the land and villages. This custom went down

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says was "badly kept" by Scotland. The King's uncle, John of Gaunt, had already led a small incursion into Scotland in spring 1384, with little success. He reached Edinburgh but no further, and this experience may have engendered a more conciliatory approach. He was well-disposed to the Scots

962:

that same year. Although the invasion—widely expected in England—did not materialise, it cast a pall over the parliament which assembled in October 1386. Combined with the poor reception of Richard's attempt to reintroduce scutage, there was deep-seated indignation among members of the two

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to intercept the Franco-Scots force. Richard, though, was told by the Earl of Oxford that the reason Gaunt promoted this was to procure the King's death on what would certainly be a hazardous journey. Again, Richard robustly rejected Gaunt's suggestion, telling him that "if he wanted to go

686:. Arson, Anne Curry has noted, was explicitly not prohibited under the army's ordinances. The army reached Edinburgh on 11 August. It also was assaulted and pillaged, and "suffered its full share of calamities attendant upon these disastrous wars". It was at least partially burned, and 251:

As part of their treaty with France, the Scots had reassurances that, were war to break out between Scotland and England, France would provide military assistance for Scotland. Gaunt's attempts at furthering peace between England and Scotland did not suit France at all. They were, says

140:

needed funding. Three out of the four most recent parliaments had refused to grant the King any subsidy at all. As a result, the Crown was unable to oppose the French resurgence and lost much of England's continental possessions. This policy has been blamed on Richard II's chancellor,

1269:

has described how, by the 15th century, classic tenurial bonds of feudalism between lord and man had been replaced by personal contracts. These were based not on pledges of fealty, but on payment for rendered service, and had effectively ended the exchange of military service for

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In late 1384 Gaunt had been particularly critical of Richard's choices of advisor, whom he described as "unsavoury". These favourites rode high in the King's favour at this time. Both Mowbray and de Vere, for example, had their own private apartments within the King's palaces at

457:

which requested him to "arm and array all abbots, priors, men of religion and other ecclesiastical persons of his diocese", To some extent, this reflected Richard's desire to utilise the power of the Roman church in his campaign against Scotland, who—like France—supported the

321:

has suggested that apart from the obvious strategic necessity of the campaign, it had a secondary purpose in increasing Richard's military prestige and political profile, and indeed, says Sumption, "the presence of the English King...proved to be a powerful recruiting agent".

448:

to raise funds. This could have raised the King around £12,000 (equivalent to £12,378,344 in 2023); "a six-week campaign", suggests Sumption, "could be expected to cost about £20,000". Writs were sent to 56 tenants-in-chief on 13 June. They included a writ of

867:

In this type of warfare there was little room for French knights. The growing antagonism between them and their allies is vividly portrayed by Froissart, whose admiration for the bravery of the Scots mingled with contempt for their poverty-stricken uncouthness.

1307:, while the French support for the antipopes, says Goodman, "did add a political dimension"). The destruction of religious houses was not universally acclaimed: "even the patriotic chronicler Walsingham", says MacDonald, "lamented the destruction of Melrose". 1335:

Although, naturally, the ordinances issued by Elizabeth were relatively remote from those of Richard, the clauses of particular similarity are those relating to keeping watch, retaining another man's soldier, protection of merchants, and the raising of the

313:

conqueror of Scotland—in the same light as his father and grandfather. According to a modern commentator, it was, in contemporaries' eyes, "not just what a king would do but also what a man would do". He had, after all, been groomed from birth to follow in

904:

Relations were further soured because of the contempt the French held their hosts in. The French knights were dismayed at the "primitiveness" of both the land and the people: "What Prussian march is this to which our Admiral has taken us?" they moaned.

25:, king of England, led an English army into Scotland. The invasion was, in part, retaliation for Scottish border raids, but was most provoked by the arrival of a French army into Scotland the previous summer. England and France were engaged in the 882:

The French, meanwhile, had as Sumption puts it, encountered "unexpected difficulties" with their hosts. They had intended to immediately commence border raids, but "found the Scots uncooperative". In the event, no raiding took place until 8 July

715: 57:, with little success. The King's friends among the nobility – who were also Gaunt's enemies – preferred an invasion of Scotland. A parliament the year before had granted funds for a continental campaign and it was deemed unwise to flout the 470:. It also enabled the bishop to provide some degree of defence for the south coast of England. Like the others issued, this writ had no connection with feudal tenure. It was a normal commission of array such as was authorised under the 738:

escaped similar treatment was that Gaunt himself ordered it not to be touched, possibly on account of the hospitality that had previously been shown there. Holyrood was to be an exception. According to the contemporary chronicler

1325:

Although Saul notes that the Westminster monk who authored the chronicle must have received his information from someone on the campaign who disliked the duke, and "sought to misrepresent him or to show him in the worst possible

987:

noted: as "southern Scotland had been wasted so effectively that there was no more danger from the north for another three years". James Gillespie has highlighted the King's character traits that were to be revealed in 1385. The

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before his 1415 French campaign. Although Henry's contained nearly twice the number of clauses as Richard's, twenty out of Henry's first twenty-three were copies of those of Richard. A similar instrument of summons was used by

886:

Relations between them deteriorated rapidly. This was partly due to strategic differences. For example, following the incursion into the West March, the decision was taken to swing eastward. The Scottish wished to lay siege to

256:, "eager to profit by England's domestic embarrassments". A small and somewhat unofficial French force–perhaps in the nature of an advance party–had arrived in Scotland in May 1384. Their arrival followed the fall of 895:. These terms were unacceptable to the Scots, and the assault did not occur. Their different approaches were also provoked by their very different experiences of how a war with the English was best fought: 80:; once there, the leadership was divided and often indulged more in internecine fighting than in fighting against the Scots, who, with their French allies, had retired in the face of the English and refused 544:. Those who mustered in Newcastle did so under financial contract rather than tenurial bonds. The King and Gaunt, and their supporters were reconciled on the journey north. The English army arrived at 211:'s forces in Scotland. It was not, however, necessarily a poorly-conceived strategy. If successful, it would neutralise the northern theatre of war and allow England to refocus on the French fleet at 199:

generally and had recruited Scotsmen into his retinue. He also had personal reasons for wanting to avoid war with Scotland. Peace on the northern border would make it easier to further his plans in

264:, left Cumberland "more vulnerable than it had been for the past fifty years". It did, however, provide Richard's council with the perfect justification for invading Scotland rather than France. 3745: 3690: 3632: 2947: 1234:

of forty days a year. By the late fourteenth century, it was a description of a land division held by multiple people, which meant that there was no one knight to call upon for military service.

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The fact that they were written in French, says Sumption, reflects the degree to which the document reflected traditional French military tradition and philosophy, rather than that of the Scots.

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The army that Richard led to Scotland was a large one. Apart from the King and Gaunt, most of the senior English nobility took part. The Earls of Buckingham and Nottingham commanded the army's

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The campaign as a whole also reveals a grasp of strategy and the will—perhaps even the courage to carry it out...The King, however, had achieved and carefully defended his military objective.

164:, had fallen out the previous year with the King's uncle, John of Gaunt. The violent rupture gave credence to rumours that the King's friends intended to have the duke assassinated during a 354: 104:

on its return. Richard was to propose another invasion of Scotland a few years later, but this came to nothing; and on his next invasion, of Ireland in 1399, he was deposed by Gaunt's son,

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Ironically, the Scottish King issued similar ordinances to his own army when making his preparations to counter Richard's attack. They contained very similar instructions, but also, says

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on 20 July, where the duke dined with Nottingham, Oxford and Salisbury. Just before the English army entered Scotland, Richard created his uncles Edmund and Thomas respectively Dukes of

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selected Scotland as the young King's first campaign. The invasion was part of a broader and older policy of taking a robust stand against breaches of the truce, which the contemporary

1230:, but did not or could not themselves fight. The knight's fee was originally a unit of income based on the amount needed for a knight to maintain a family for a year in return for 3835: 595:. Arundel and Nottingham, he says, brought, between them, nearly 200 men-at-arms and 300 archers, while the Earl of Warwick had around 120 of the former and 160 of the latter. 3577: 3414: 1316:

Contemporaries speculated that she had died of grief at the quarrel that had suddenly blown up between her sons Richard and Huntingdon over the death of Hugh Stafford.

184:, both to provide technical assistance and to encourage the Scottish to invade England while the French were victorious in France. In early June the following year, a 383:

were drawn up collectively by King Richard and his uncles, John of Gaunt (who was also Steward of England) and Thomas Mowbray (the latter having been appointed

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campaign, or whether the government hoped to ease its fiscal problems by placing financial burdens on those who did not respond to the feudal call to arms.

3722: 3667: 3609: 3554: 3391: 2924: 1079:£134,000 (equivalent to £121,917,416 in 2023). "Sums on this scale", says Saul, "were virtually impossible for the government to raise in the 1380s". 958:

Nigel Saul has suggested that the Scottish expedition left the south coast exposed to a French attack, and, indeed, a French navy was being assembled at

3830: 845:, they boasted of stealing more from them alone than was held within the whole Kingdom of Scotland. The Franco-Scottish force considered an assault on 829:,10 miles (16 km) from the border, on 7 September. This was repulsed by a counterattack from Henry Hotspur, although the contemporary chronicler 153:

has commented on this that "military retrenchment was not so much a matter of choice for Chancellor Pole; it was forced upon him by circumstances".

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Sumption has described scutage as an "archaic fine" paid by individuals instead of performing a fixed feudal duty, often by those who held land by

776:

Richard has generally been considered by historians as being irresponsible for rejecting Gaunt's advice, as the most experienced of his captains.

604: 1047:—were clearly modelled on those of 200 years earlier. Richard's ordinances not only provided a blueprint for these later summonses, but, says 608: 304:

besieging a castle. They appointed 23 July for the launch of their campaign, although the date was eventually brought forward to the 8th.

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Archer, R. E. (1995). "Parliamentary Restoration: John Mowbray and the Dukedom of Norfolk in 1425". In Archer, R. E.; Walker, S. (eds.).

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For the Scots, says Sumption, "the resentment was mutual". Although the Scottish leaders—the King, of course, and his lords, such as the

553: 337:, left there the following day; they were already nearly a week behind schedule, having arranged to be in Newcastle on the 14th. A final 1191:

Nero D VI. This manuscript has been dated as contemporaneous to Richard's reign and appears to have originated with the Mowbray family.

54: 900:

had always fought, involving fast movement by formless hordes of men, maximum physical destruction and the capture of valuable cattle.

93: 68:

Richard promulgated ordinances to maintain discipline in his invasion force, but the campaign was beset by problems from the start.

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sewn on. with them were around 3,000 Scottish soldiers. Led by de Vienne and James, Earl of Douglas, alongside the latter's cousin

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had erupted in England, and the Scots had given him refuge for ten days. Gaunt's policy, though, disintegrated with the arrival of

891:, but de Vienne, anxious not to endanger his knights if he could avoid it, insisted that if it was captured, it would be a French 279:

has estimated that "with the usual hangers-on" the force probably amounted to around 2,500 men. They brought with them horse, 600

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appeared before them in defence of Carlisle. According to Froissart, when the invaders raided the wealthy English bishoprics of

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The English...had no enemy to fight and no food to eat. Increasingly hungry and frustrated, they took what revenge they could.

157: 975:, recently made 1st Earl of Suffolk, from the monarch's largesse. These were the prevailing sentiments going into the year's 3825: 3780: 3739: 3684: 3626: 3571: 3536: 3500: 3408: 3327: 3304: 3281: 3259: 3220: 3179: 3157: 3109: 3043: 3021: 3002: 2983: 2941: 2906: 2881: 2862: 2843: 2781: 2762: 45:

had done. There was some disagreement amongst the English leadership whether to invade France or Scotland; the King's uncle,

919:. Where the French did find Scots willing to trade with them, they regularly complained at being exorbitantly over-charged. 497:", As it turned out, his financial impotence was exposed to all and sundry, especially to the shire knights in the Commons. 2834:(2008). "The Military Ordinances of Henry V: Texts and Contexts". In Given-Wilson, C.; Kettle, A. J.; Scales, L. (eds.). 549: 518: 260:, the "last English outpost along in the western borders", after its capture by the Scots. The loss of this castle, says 172:, only obeying the King's summons to his presence early the next year, accompanied by a large and heavily-armed retinue. 979:, during which the removal of the Chancellor was sought as a prerequisite before any request for funds would be heard. 923: 1051:, "remained the principal means of recruitment of royal hosts, and influenced the regulation of armies even longer", 1044: 203:. Also, he had been treated most urbanely by the Scots on his previous visits. Indeed, during his visit in 1381, the 3717:"John [John of Gaunt], duke of Aquitaine and duke of Lancaster, styled king of Castile and León (1340–1399)" 530: 276: 73: 1055:

during the latter invasion Richard II was deposed by, Gaunt's son, Bolingbroke, who took the throne as Henry IV.

1015: 236: 161: 3840: 3820: 3353: 3201: 3090: 1201: 88:

as they retired. The invaders swiftly exhausted their food and other supplies; by the time the English reached

857:. The garrison was put to the sword, the captain held for ransom, and the castle's wooden outbuildings razed. 3815: 481:

The levy was intended to alleviate the costs of the campaign to the Crown by using its barons and nobles as

403:

There was still a problem with financing. Although the parliament of November 1384 had granted the King a

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The Impeachment of Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk in 1386: In the Context of the Reign of Richard II

2971: 1176: 1127:, who were both summarily executed by the rebels", who merely burned down his palatial London townhouse, 1026:

The ordinances that King Richard issued before the campaign were later the basis of those issued by King

730:—with whom Richard was very close—had died the previous day. Most of Edinburgh was set alight, including 615:), as well as Spaniards and Welshmen. The army that crossed the Scottish border on 6 August 1385 bore 38 318: 50: 2836:

War, Government and Aristocracy in the British Isles, C.1150-1500: Essays in Honour of Michael Prestwich

726:, which was deserted by then. Three days earlier Richard had received news from London that his mother, 674:. These were burned (an action justified by Scotland's–and thus these abbeys'–support for the so-called 1262: 927: 616: 69: 65:, which had not been called for many years; this was the last occasion on which it was to be summoned. 22: 792:, and within the fortnight he was back in Westminster. The main army may have taken longer to return. 333:, where the first wages were paid to Gaunt for him and his army on 19 July. The King's army, with his 3800: 3438: 947: 777: 756: 3805: 3656: 1116: 1019: 193: 1248:

sheriffs and bailiffs included, must be ready to raise and follow the hue in pursuit of suspects".

412:. In the event, it was still an "unusually large one", going by contemporary estimates. An extant 818: 620: 565: 514: 314: 38: 3100:

Keen, M. (1995). "Richard II's Ordinances of War of 1385". In Archer, R. E.; Walker, S. (eds.).

1040: 747:. Contemporary chroniclers were themselves confused as to what was happening deep in Scotland. 731: 124:

The English government was hardly in a financial position to fight. Major English garrisons in

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poorly with the locals, who often retaliated violently, and, in some cases, killed the French

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footsteps, and this expedition was the point at which he demonstrated his royal independence.

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to Scotland with an army the following year, with a force of about 1,300 men-at-arms and 250

165: 42: 26: 3604:"Vere, Robert de, ninth earl of Oxford, marquess of Dublin, and duke of Ireland (1362–1392)" 3363: 3119:

Lewis, N. B. (1958). "The Last Medieval Summons of the English Feudal Levy, 13 June 1385".

1296: 1094: 1032: 964: 943: 850: 682:). The English claimed these schismatics' abbeys were used for military purposes, and were 627:

was borne before it. Ultimately, Richard led an army of about 14,000 men from nearly every

587:. Assessing the numbers involved, Anthony Goodman suggests that Buckingham had brought 400 463: 428: 220: 362:

with long campaigning records mingled with young men who were "armed for the first time".

8: 3772:

Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures Since the Age of Science

1244: 838: 789: 584: 450: 204: 137: 105: 77: 2853:

Davies, R. G. (1999). "Richard II and the Church". In Goodman A. Gillespie J. L. (ed.).

2816:

The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom

3316: 3293: 1027: 785: 628: 576: 454: 342: 189: 3776: 3735: 3680: 3622: 3567: 3532: 3515: 3496: 3479: 3450: 3404: 3371: 3349: 3323: 3300: 3277: 3269: 3255: 3235: 3216: 3197: 3175: 3153: 3136: 3105: 3086: 3066: 3039: 3017: 2998: 2979: 2937: 2902: 2877: 2858: 2839: 2819: 2799: 2777: 2758: 2741: 1011: 842: 826: 768:

south-west, would be on his own", as the King and his men were returning to London.

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the previous year, also with the purpose of strengthening the defence of the region.

338: 232: 228: 200: 185: 169: 97: 1217:, "containing clauses unique to the circumstances of a joint Franco-Scottish force". 3727: 3672: 3614: 3559: 3471: 3396: 3128: 3058: 2929: 2897:. Vol. Richard II: The King of Battles?. London: St. Martin's Press. pp. 1304: 814: 536:

The army the King eventually gathered, then, had been recruited along contemporary

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Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages

2963: 1257:

Society, and the adhesive which bound it together had changed significantly since

3462:

Summerson, H. (1992). "The enforcement of the statute of Winchester, 1285–1327".

3247: 3167: 1266: 1227: 1181: 1180:(1871-1876, four volumes). The original manuscripts are in the possession of the 967:

over unfair and extravagant benefitting on the part of the King's favourite, the

888: 846: 735: 671: 659: 592: 561: 557: 545: 522: 413: 334: 216: 101: 3443: 1295:

was split at this time, and had been since 1378 when French bishops had elected

474:. Richard's old tutor and household chamberlain had been appointed Constable of 3731: 3676: 3618: 3563: 3400: 3132: 2933: 1231: 1188: 916: 830: 748: 707:, executing captured Scottish prisoners rather than the more usual practice of 700: 663: 513:

The campaign began poorly even before the English reached the border. In July,

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For context, the last campaign to have been led by a King, that of 1359–60 by

267:

The French invasion force under de Vienne consisted of 1,315 men-at-arms, 300

3794: 3454: 3375: 3239: 3140: 3102:

Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England: Essays Presented to Gerald Harriss

3070: 3031: 2823: 2803: 2755:

Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England: Essays Presented to Gerald Harriss

2745: 1300: 1171: 1149: 1145: 1120: 1090: 983: 752: 667: 526: 482: 392: 280: 129: 46: 30: 988: 37:, and it was expected that he would play a martial role just as his father, 3519: 3386:"Holland, John, first earl of Huntingdon and duke of Exeter (c. 1352–1400)" 3189: 3078: 1128: 1048: 892: 744: 727: 564:.. Leading the army was Richard, and perhaps more realistically, his uncle 475: 384: 367: 261: 253: 3062: 2995:

John of Gaunt: the exercise of princely power in fourteenth-century Europe

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preferred to record how the Scottish army withdrew, panicking, after the

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force of French knights journeyed south from Edinburgh; they wore black

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Instead of using the subsidy, in June 1385 the King resorted to the old

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in 1394, and from 1397 to 1399 he spent most of his time in either the

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with Gaunt. Arundel and Warwick, under the King, commanded the central

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policy as they withdrew ahead of the English. The English army showed

1258: 1119:, enabled Gaunt "to escape the fate of the chancellor and treasurer, 1076: 723: 675: 441: 125: 89: 61:. The Crown could barely afford a big campaign. Richard summoned the 2796:

Notices of the most remarkable fires in Edinburgh, from 1385 to 1824

156:

King Richard's supporters, predominant among whom were the earls of

3295:

The Staffords, Earls of Stafford and Dukes of Buckingham: 1394-1521

1140:

Apart from his 1385 invasion of Scotland, he made lengthy stays in

1036: 764: 624: 572: 459: 284: 181: 3053:

Harvey, S. (1970). "The Knight and the Knight's Fee in England".

2876:. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 806: 802: 696: 692: 612: 580: 541: 505: 445: 404: 714: 387:

on 30 June). and advised by various "wise knights" of the host.

49:, favoured invading France, to gain him a tactical advantage in 3368:

The High Court of Chivalry: A Study of the Civil Law in England

1292: 708: 540:

lines rather than by a traditional, early-medieval reliance on

380: 133: 2738:

The Mowbrays: Earls of Nottingham and Dukes of Norfolk to 1432

3662:"Percy, Sir Henry [called Henry Hotspur] (1364–1403)" 3274:

Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience

959: 300: 212: 2713: 2665: 2578: 2345: 1279:

This was a decision that would catch up with Richard at the

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Richard's 1385 campaign was considered generally a failure (

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was plundered. The invaders reached as far as the walls of

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advocated a swift interceptive attack on Vienne, while the

330: 2976:

The Loyal Conspiracy: The Lords Appellant Under Richard II

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that Richard undertook during his reign; he left behind a

33:

to support each other. The English King had only recently

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Admiral of the French fleet and famous to contemporaries.

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says he pushed for continuing the advance into Scotland.

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Border Bloodshed: Scotland and England at War, 1369-1403

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Border Bloodshed: Scotland and England at War, 1369-1403

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14th-century military history of the Kingdom of England

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Jean de Vienne, left, in a nineteenth-century depiction

299:. The fleet left Sluys on 22 March 1385 and arrived in 3514:. Vol. II. London: Sampson, Low, Marson &Co. 2614: 2537: 2535: 2386: 2384: 2333: 2297: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2105: 2103: 2063: 2061: 2059: 1996: 1684: 1682: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1648: 1646: 1605: 1566: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1470: 1468: 1466: 2701: 2650: 2602: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2369: 2078: 2076: 2034: 2032: 2030: 1984: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1910: 1908: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1733: 1731: 1593: 1581: 1366: 1356: 1354: 1352: 699:, although this was in part caused by the Scots' own 3014:

Edward Stafford, Third Duke of Buckingham, 1478-1521

2928:(online ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2919:"Mowbray, Thomas, first duke of Norfolk (1366–1399)" 2857:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 83–106. 2818:. Vol. XII. London: The St. Catherine's Press. 2396: 2044: 2008: 1859: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1543: 3196:(Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2638: 2532: 2381: 2321: 2309: 2158: 2115: 2100: 2056: 1972: 1679: 1658: 1643: 1499: 1463: 1441: 1439: 53:, the throne of which he claimed through his wife, 3715: 3660: 3602: 3547: 3442: 3384: 3341: 3315: 3292: 3172:England in the Fifteenth Century: Collected Essays 2917: 2491: 2285: 2073: 2027: 1955: 1905: 1871: 1728: 1409: 1349: 529:, he was killed by Richard II's half-brother, the 3512:The Origin and Growth of the English Constitution 2891:Gillespie, J. L. (1997). Gillespie, J. L. (ed.). 2249: 1842: 1451: 3792: 3775:. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. 2978:. Coral Gables, FL.: University of Miami Press. 2874:Richard II: Manhood, Youth, and Politics 1377-99 1436: 3246: 2838:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. pp. 214–249. 2526: 1035:in 1492 to raise the army that briefly invaded 849:, but decided against it as almost impossible. 631:, with over two-thirds of them being archers. 246: 149:. In a major biography of the King, Historian 3726:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 3671:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 3613:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 3558:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 3495:. Vol. III. London: Faber & Faber. 3395:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2915: 2757:. London: Hambledon Press. pp. 99–116. 1430: 1170:The ordinances were originally published by 860: 3322:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 3104:. London: Hambledon Press. pp. 33–48. 722:On 11 August 1385 the English army entered 145:, who was accused of following a policy of 3382: 3348:. Bury St Edmunds: Yale University Press. 3252:Landranger 85: Carlisle & Solway Firth 2339: 525:—was murdered. Somewhere between York and 3831:14th-century military history of Scotland 3461: 3449:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3299:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3290: 3268: 3229: 3215:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 3166: 3147: 2890: 2695: 2632: 2584: 2560: 2514: 2485: 2427: 2363: 2351: 2267: 2243: 2226: 2214: 2152: 2094: 1937: 1760: 1722: 1537: 417:would have obliged the lords to provide. 3490: 3188: 2871: 2814:(1953). Gibbs, V.; White, G. H. (eds.). 2790: 2719: 2671: 2596: 2572: 2454: 2442: 2279: 2133: 1899: 1865: 1836: 1824: 1801: 1772: 1707: 1637: 1493: 937: 713: 658:The army crossed into Scotland over the 504: 348: 115: 3723:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3713: 3668:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3655: 3610:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3555:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3392:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 3313: 3210: 3030: 3016:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2992: 2970: 2925:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 2810: 2740:(D.Phil thesis). University of Oxford. 2735: 2620: 2608: 2390: 2375: 2303: 2002: 1673: 1622: 1587: 1575: 1403: 1391: 3793: 3509: 3493:The Hundred Years' War: Divided Houses 3362: 3052: 3011: 2852: 2752: 2402: 2315: 2121: 2050: 1990: 1978: 1014:, then racked by a civil war over the 695:for sustenance, and destroyed much of 579:. Accompanying Gaunt—but with his own 372:Richard II's Ordinances of War of 1385 271:, and 200 unspecified others (called " 3768: 3600: 3580:from the original on 20 February 2018 3545: 3437: 3118: 3036:Shaping the Nation: England 1360-1461 2830: 2771: 2707: 2659: 2541: 2291: 2255: 2109: 2021: 1853: 1652: 1560: 1445: 771: 662:. Along this route lay the abbeys of 3526: 3336: 3276:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 3099: 3077: 2683: 2644: 2502: 2466: 2327: 2185: 2082: 2067: 2038: 1966: 1949: 1914: 1884: 1737: 1688: 1599: 1514: 1474: 1457: 1415: 1360: 788:. Three days later, the King was in 16:English invasion of Scotland in 1385 3529:Richard II and the English Nobility 3038:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 795: 634: 355:English military ordinances of 1385 287:—this for the use of the Scots—and 143:Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk 13: 734:. It appears that the only reason 398: 14: 3852: 946:in 1385, from an illustration in 3748:from the original on 28 May 2018 3693:from the original on 28 May 2018 3635:from the original on 28 May 2018 3417:from the original on 26 May 2018 3234:. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. 3083:England in the Later Middle Ages 2950:from the original on 28 May 2018 2798:. Edinburgh: Cas Smith &co. 1329: 1003:Richard II: The King of Battles? 325:By 10 July the army had reached 3232:Scotland: The Later Middle Ages 3174:. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 3152:. East Linton: Tuckwell Press. 2855:Richard II: The Art of Kingship 2728: 1319: 1310: 1285: 1273: 1251: 1237: 1220: 1207: 1194: 1164: 1155: 1134: 1109: 1100: 1039:and those as late as 1585—when 1016:War of the Castilian Succession 875:Scotland: The Later Middle Ages 466:, and could thus be treated as 1202:Lord High Constable of England 1082: 1065: 379:In Durham, military and naval 307: 29:, and France and Scotland had 1: 3383:Stansfield, M. M. N. (2004). 3121:The English Historical Review 1343: 1261:had been introduced with the 1045:invasion of the Low Countries 1010:Some good news came from the 751:, for example, suggests that 111: 76:before the army even reached 3826:Warfare in medieval Scotland 3762:UK public library membership 3707:UK public library membership 3649:UK public library membership 3594:UK public library membership 3464:The Journal of Legal History 3431:UK public library membership 2964:UK public library membership 942:Jean de Vienne's assault on 933: 819:George Dunbar, Earl of March 7: 3370:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1177:Black Book of the Admiralty 1174:in his 1871 edition of the 500: 247:The French army in Scotland 10: 3857: 3811:England–Scotland relations 1299:. England stayed loyal to 495:quanto potentius poteritis 352: 275:" in the French records). 3531:. London: Edward Arnold. 3476:10.1080/01440369208531061 3148:MacDonald, A. J. (2000). 2916:Given-Wilson, C. (2004). 2776:. London: Rubicon Press. 1243:This had been enacted by 861:Franco-Scottish divisions 591:and twice that number of 96:getting almost as far as 3549:"Richard II (1367–1400)" 3133:10.1093/ehr/LXXIII.286.1 1058: 619:and over 90 bearing the 229:Archbishop of Canterbury 100:and ravaged Cumbria and 70:One of Richard's knights 3314:Roskell, J. S. (1984). 3211:Neville, C. J. (1998). 2993:Goodman, A. J. (1992). 2736:Archer, R. E. (1984b). 566:John, Duke of Lancaster 74:the king's half-brother 39:Edward the Black Prince 3732:10.1093/ref:odnb/21931 3677:10.1093/ref:odnb/14843 3619:10.1093/ref:odnb/28218 3564:10.1093/ref:odnb/23499 3401:10.1093/ref:odnb/13529 3291:Rawcliffe, C. (1978). 3230:Nicholson, R. (1974). 3194:The Fourteenth Century 3012:Harris, B. J. (1986). 2934:10.1093/ref:odnb/19459 1281:next year's parliament 998: 954: 912: 902: 870: 728:Joan, Countess of Kent 719: 643: 601:Earl of Northumberland 519:Hugh, Earl of Stafford 510: 425: 364: 121: 3841:Invasions of Scotland 3821:Anglo-Scottish border 3769:Zupko, R. E. (1990). 3491:Sumption, J. (2009). 2894:The Age of Richard II 2872:Fletcher, C. (2008). 994: 941: 907: 897: 865: 855:hand-to-hand fighting 782:Westminster Chronicle 757:Westminster Chronicle 717: 639: 508: 472:Statute of Winchester 420: 359: 349:The King's ordinances 329:. The court moved to 176:when the French sent 120:Richard II of England 119: 3816:Invasions by England 3714:Walker, S. (2004b). 3085:. Bristol: Methuen. 2527:Ordnance Survey 2007 977:fractious parliament 621:arms of St. George's 585:Henry, Earl of Derby 521:and a knight of the 455:Bishop of Winchester 429:Alastair J Macdonald 221:caretaker government 195:Anonimalle Chronicle 3510:Taylor, H. (1898). 3063:10.1093/past/49.1.3 2997:. Harlow: Longman. 2722:, pp. 490–493. 2674:, pp. 440–441. 2587:, pp. 197–198. 2575:, pp. 545–546. 2469:, p. 145 n.38. 2136:, pp. 544–545. 807:St Andrew's crosses 556:. He also made his 491:cum servitio debito 3601:Tuck, A. (2004b). 3546:Tuck, A. (2004a). 3055:Past & Present 2772:Bevan, B. (1990). 2686:, p. 35 n. 9. 2599:, p. 440 n.1. 2354:, p. 11 n.12. 1952:, p. 33 n. 2. 1303:and his successor 973:Michael de la Pole 955: 873:Ranald Nicholson, 772:English withdrawal 720: 684:legitimate targets 623:, and the flag of 560:, de la Pole, the 531:Earl of Huntingdon 511: 410:Hundred Years' War 343:Berwick-upon-Tweed 223:consisting of the 122: 86:scorched the earth 41:, and grandfather 27:Hundred Years' War 3782:978-0-87169-186-6 3760:(Subscription or 3741:978-0-19-861412-8 3705:(Subscription or 3686:978-0-19-861412-8 3647:(Subscription or 3628:978-0-19-861412-8 3592:(Subscription or 3573:978-0-19-861412-8 3538:978-0-71315-708-6 3527:Tuck, A. (1973). 3502:978-0-571-24012-8 3429:(Subscription or 3410:978-0-19-861412-8 3329:978-0-71900-963-1 3306:978-0-521-21663-0 3283:978-0-300-07663-9 3261:978-0-319-22822-7 3222:978-0-74861-073-0 3181:978-0-907628-01-9 3159:978-1-86232-106-9 3111:978-1-85285-133-0 3045:978-0-19-921119-7 3023:978-0-8047-1316-0 3004:978-0-582-09813-8 2985:978-0-87024-215-1 2962:(Subscription or 2943:978-0-19-861412-8 2908:978-0-312-17584-9 2883:978-0-19161-573-3 2864:978-0-19-926220-5 2845:978-1-84383-389-5 2783:978-0-948695-17-9 2764:978-1-85285-133-0 2517:, pp. 90–91. 2366:, pp. 23–25. 2097:, pp. 88–99. 1602:, pp. 91–92. 1431:Given-Wilson 2004 1406:, pp. 11–12. 1012:Iberian Peninsula 1001:James Gillespie, 741:Andrew of Wyntoun 517:—son and heir of 487:Michael Prestwich 277:Jonathan Sumption 106:Henry Bolingbroke 3848: 3801:1385 in Scotland 3786: 3765: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3719: 3710: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3664: 3652: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3606: 3597: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3551: 3542: 3523: 3506: 3487: 3458: 3448: 3434: 3426: 3424: 3422: 3388: 3379: 3359: 3347: 3333: 3321: 3310: 3298: 3287: 3265: 3254:. London: HMSO. 3243: 3226: 3207: 3185: 3168:McFarlane, K. B. 3163: 3144: 3115: 3096: 3074: 3049: 3027: 3008: 2989: 2967: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2921: 2912: 2887: 2868: 2849: 2827: 2807: 2787: 2768: 2749: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2657: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2606: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2545: 2539: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2489: 2483: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2431: 2425: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2212: 2189: 2183: 2156: 2150: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2080: 2071: 2065: 2054: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2025: 2019: 2006: 2000: 1994: 1988: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1918: 1912: 1903: 1897: 1888: 1882: 1869: 1863: 1857: 1851: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1822: 1805: 1799: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1741: 1735: 1726: 1720: 1711: 1705: 1692: 1686: 1677: 1671: 1656: 1650: 1641: 1635: 1626: 1620: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1564: 1558: 1541: 1535: 1518: 1512: 1497: 1491: 1478: 1472: 1461: 1455: 1449: 1443: 1434: 1428: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1364: 1358: 1337: 1333: 1327: 1323: 1317: 1314: 1308: 1305:Pope Boniface IX 1289: 1283: 1277: 1271: 1255: 1249: 1241: 1235: 1224: 1218: 1211: 1205: 1198: 1192: 1168: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1138: 1132: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1098: 1086: 1080: 1069: 1006: 924:Earls of Douglas 910:made life sweet. 878: 815:Lord of Galloway 796:French incursion 654: 635:English invasion 436: 375: 335:tenants-in-chief 258:Lochmaben Castle 233:Bishop of London 205:Peasants' Revolt 59:House of Commons 3856: 3855: 3851: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3806:1385 in England 3791: 3790: 3789: 3783: 3759: 3751: 3749: 3742: 3704: 3696: 3694: 3687: 3646: 3638: 3636: 3629: 3591: 3583: 3581: 3574: 3539: 3503: 3428: 3420: 3418: 3411: 3356: 3330: 3307: 3284: 3262: 3248:Ordnance Survey 3223: 3204: 3182: 3160: 3112: 3093: 3046: 3024: 3005: 2986: 2961: 2953: 2951: 2944: 2909: 2884: 2865: 2846: 2784: 2774:King Richard II 2765: 2731: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2658: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2559: 2548: 2540: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2492: 2484: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2457:, pp. 1–2. 2453: 2449: 2441: 2434: 2426: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2389: 2382: 2374: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2350: 2346: 2340:Stansfield 2004 2338: 2334: 2326: 2322: 2314: 2310: 2302: 2298: 2290: 2286: 2278: 2274: 2266: 2262: 2254: 2250: 2242: 2233: 2225: 2221: 2213: 2192: 2184: 2159: 2151: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2081: 2074: 2066: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2037: 2028: 2020: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1965: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1936: 1921: 1913: 1906: 1898: 1891: 1883: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1852: 1843: 1835: 1831: 1823: 1808: 1800: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1744: 1736: 1729: 1721: 1714: 1706: 1695: 1687: 1680: 1672: 1659: 1651: 1644: 1636: 1629: 1621: 1606: 1598: 1594: 1586: 1582: 1574: 1567: 1559: 1544: 1536: 1521: 1513: 1500: 1492: 1481: 1473: 1464: 1456: 1452: 1444: 1437: 1429: 1422: 1414: 1410: 1402: 1398: 1390: 1367: 1359: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1340: 1334: 1330: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1293:Catholic papacy 1290: 1286: 1278: 1274: 1267:K. B. McFarlane 1263:Norman conquest 1256: 1252: 1242: 1238: 1225: 1221: 1212: 1208: 1200:Along with the 1199: 1195: 1182:British Library 1169: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1139: 1135: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1087: 1083: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1008: 1000: 936: 889:Roxburgh Castle 880: 872: 863: 847:Roxburgh Castle 798: 774: 736:Holyrood Palace 660:central borders 656: 645: 637: 629:peer of England 617:royal standards 597:Sir Henry Percy 562:Earl of Suffolk 558:Lord Chancellor 523:royal household 503: 438: 427: 414:order of battle 401: 399:The feudal levy 377: 366: 357: 351: 319:Anthony Goodman 310: 281:suits of armour 249: 225:Mayor of London 114: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3854: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3788: 3787: 3781: 3766: 3740: 3711: 3685: 3653: 3627: 3598: 3572: 3543: 3537: 3524: 3507: 3501: 3488: 3470:(3): 232–250. 3459: 3435: 3409: 3380: 3360: 3354: 3334: 3328: 3311: 3305: 3288: 3282: 3266: 3260: 3244: 3227: 3221: 3208: 3202: 3186: 3180: 3164: 3158: 3145: 3116: 3110: 3097: 3091: 3075: 3050: 3044: 3032:Harriss, G. L. 3028: 3022: 3009: 3003: 2990: 2984: 2972:Goodman, A. J. 2968: 2942: 2913: 2907: 2888: 2882: 2869: 2863: 2850: 2844: 2828: 2812:Cokayne, G. E. 2808: 2788: 2782: 2769: 2763: 2750: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2724: 2712: 2710:, p. 225. 2700: 2698:, p. 202. 2696:Nicholson 1974 2688: 2676: 2664: 2662:, p. 106. 2649: 2647:, p. 132. 2637: 2635:, p. 198. 2633:Nicholson 1974 2625: 2623:, p. 455. 2613: 2601: 2589: 2585:Nicholson 1974 2577: 2565: 2561:MacDonald 2000 2546: 2531: 2519: 2515:MacDonald 2000 2507: 2490: 2488:, p. 144. 2486:Gillespie 1997 2471: 2459: 2447: 2445:, p. 440. 2432: 2428:MacDonald 2000 2407: 2395: 2380: 2368: 2364:McFarlane 1981 2356: 2352:Rawcliffe 1978 2344: 2332: 2330:, p. 120. 2320: 2308: 2306:, p. 179. 2296: 2284: 2282:, p. 345. 2272: 2268:Prestwich 1996 2260: 2248: 2246:, p. 145. 2244:Gillespie 1997 2231: 2229:, p. 232. 2227:Summerson 1992 2219: 2217:, p. 197. 2215:Nicholson 1974 2190: 2188:, p. 145. 2157: 2155:, p. 142. 2153:Gillespie 1997 2138: 2126: 2114: 2099: 2095:MacDonald 2000 2087: 2072: 2070:, p. 144. 2055: 2043: 2026: 2024:, p. 230. 2007: 2005:, p. 168. 1995: 1993:, p. 104. 1983: 1971: 1954: 1942: 1940:, p. 143. 1938:Gillespie 1997 1919: 1904: 1902:, p. 548. 1889: 1870: 1858: 1841: 1839:, p. 544. 1829: 1827:, p. 547. 1806: 1804:, p. 546. 1777: 1775:, p. 543. 1765: 1761:MacDonald 2000 1742: 1727: 1725:, p. 196. 1723:Nicholson 1974 1712: 1710:, p. 545. 1693: 1691:, p. 291. 1678: 1657: 1642: 1640:, p. 438. 1627: 1625:, p. 127. 1604: 1592: 1580: 1578:, p. 103. 1565: 1563:, p. 105. 1542: 1540:, p. 141. 1538:Gillespie 1997 1519: 1517:, p. 220. 1498: 1496:, p. 439. 1479: 1477:, p. 143. 1462: 1450: 1435: 1420: 1418:, p. 112. 1408: 1396: 1394:, p. 104. 1365: 1363:, p. 142. 1347: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1328: 1318: 1309: 1284: 1272: 1250: 1236: 1232:knight service 1219: 1206: 1193: 1163: 1154: 1133: 1108: 1099: 1081: 1063: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1033:King Henry VII 993: 935: 932: 864: 862: 859: 831:Henry Knighton 797: 794: 773: 770: 749:Jean Froissart 732:St Giles' Kirk 705:little quarter 701:scorched earth 638: 636: 633: 583:—was his son, 538:bastard feudal 515:Ralph Stafford 502: 499: 483:subcontractors 419: 400: 397: 358: 353:Main article: 350: 347: 341:took place at 309: 306: 248: 245: 241:Robert Knolles 178:Jean de Vienne 113: 110: 72:was killed by 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3853: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3784: 3778: 3774: 3773: 3767: 3763: 3747: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3708: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3540: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3446: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3416: 3412: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3364:Squibb, G. D. 3361: 3357: 3351: 3346: 3345: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3325: 3320: 3319: 3312: 3308: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3270:Prestwich, M. 3267: 3263: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3127:(286): 1–26. 3126: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2949: 2945: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2733: 2721: 2720:McKisack 1991 2716: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2685: 2680: 2673: 2672:McKisack 1991 2668: 2661: 2656: 2654: 2646: 2641: 2634: 2629: 2622: 2617: 2611:, p. 43. 2610: 2605: 2598: 2597:McKisack 1991 2593: 2586: 2581: 2574: 2573:Sumption 2009 2569: 2563:, p. 91. 2562: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2544:, p. 45. 2543: 2538: 2536: 2528: 2523: 2516: 2511: 2505:, p. 98. 2504: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2487: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2468: 2463: 2456: 2455:Chambers 1824 2451: 2444: 2443:McKisack 1991 2439: 2437: 2430:, p. 90. 2429: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2405:, p. 94. 2404: 2399: 2392: 2387: 2385: 2378:, p. 31. 2377: 2372: 2365: 2360: 2353: 2348: 2341: 2336: 2329: 2324: 2317: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2293: 2288: 2281: 2280:Sumption 2009 2276: 2270:, p. 75. 2269: 2264: 2257: 2252: 2245: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2228: 2223: 2216: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2154: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2135: 2134:Sumption 2009 2130: 2123: 2118: 2112:, p. 18. 2111: 2106: 2104: 2096: 2091: 2085:, p. 34. 2084: 2079: 2077: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2053:, p. 34. 2052: 2047: 2041:, p. 35. 2040: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2023: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2004: 1999: 1992: 1987: 1980: 1975: 1969:, p. 33. 1968: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1951: 1946: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1917:, p. 36. 1916: 1911: 1909: 1901: 1900:Sumption 2009 1896: 1894: 1887:, p. 97. 1886: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1867: 1866:Fletcher 2008 1862: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1838: 1837:Sumption 2009 1833: 1826: 1825:Sumption 2009 1821: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1803: 1802:Sumption 2009 1798: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1774: 1773:Sumption 2009 1769: 1763:, p. 89. 1762: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1740:, p. 91. 1739: 1734: 1732: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1709: 1708:Sumption 2009 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1655:, p. 44. 1654: 1649: 1647: 1639: 1638:McKisack 1991 1634: 1632: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1601: 1596: 1590:, p. 66. 1589: 1584: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1562: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1516: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1495: 1494:McKisack 1991 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1467: 1460:, p. 94. 1459: 1454: 1447: 1442: 1440: 1432: 1427: 1425: 1417: 1412: 1405: 1400: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1362: 1357: 1355: 1353: 1348: 1332: 1322: 1313: 1306: 1302: 1301:Pope Urban VI 1298: 1294: 1288: 1282: 1276: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1254: 1246: 1245:King Edward I 1240: 1233: 1229: 1223: 1216: 1210: 1203: 1197: 1190: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1173: 1172:Travers Twiss 1167: 1158: 1151: 1150:East Midlands 1147: 1146:Welsh Marches 1143: 1137: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1121:Simon Sudbury 1118: 1112: 1103: 1096: 1095:Kings Langley 1092: 1085: 1078: 1074: 1068: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1007: 1004: 997: 992: 990: 985: 984:G. L. Harriss 980: 978: 974: 970: 966: 961: 952: 951: 945: 940: 931: 929: 925: 920: 918: 911: 906: 901: 896: 894: 890: 884: 879: 876: 869: 858: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 817:and possibly 816: 812: 808: 804: 793: 791: 787: 786:flank attacks 783: 779: 778:Anthony Steel 769: 766: 760: 758: 754: 753:John of Gaunt 750: 746: 742: 737: 733: 729: 725: 718:John of Gaunt 716: 712: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 655: 652: 648: 642: 632: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 605:Henry Burzebo 602: 599:, son of the 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 569: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 534: 532: 528: 527:Bishopsthorpe 524: 520: 516: 507: 498: 496: 492: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 456: 452: 447: 443: 437: 434: 430: 424: 418: 415: 411: 406: 396: 394: 393:standing army 388: 386: 382: 376: 373: 369: 363: 356: 346: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 320: 316: 305: 302: 298: 294: 291:worth 50,000 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273:gross varlets 270: 265: 263: 259: 255: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 197: 196: 191: 187: 183: 179: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 154: 152: 148: 144: 139: 135: 131: 127: 118: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 66: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 47:John of Gaunt 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 24: 21:In July 1385 19: 3771: 3750:. Retrieved 3721: 3695:. Retrieved 3666: 3637:. Retrieved 3608: 3582:. Retrieved 3553: 3528: 3511: 3492: 3467: 3463: 3444: 3419:. Retrieved 3390: 3367: 3343: 3317: 3294: 3273: 3251: 3231: 3212: 3193: 3190:McKisack, M. 3171: 3149: 3124: 3120: 3101: 3082: 3057:(49): 3–43. 3054: 3035: 3013: 2994: 2975: 2952:. Retrieved 2923: 2893: 2873: 2854: 2835: 2815: 2795: 2792:Chambers, R. 2773: 2754: 2737: 2729:Bibliography 2715: 2703: 2691: 2679: 2667: 2640: 2628: 2621:Harriss 2005 2616: 2609:Roskell 1984 2604: 2592: 2580: 2568: 2522: 2510: 2462: 2450: 2398: 2391:Walker 2004a 2376:Goodman 1971 2371: 2359: 2347: 2335: 2323: 2318:, p. 7. 2311: 2304:Cokayne 1953 2299: 2294:, p. 1. 2287: 2275: 2263: 2251: 2222: 2129: 2124:, p. 7. 2117: 2090: 2046: 2003:Archer 1984b 1998: 1986: 1981:, p. 1. 1974: 1945: 1861: 1832: 1768: 1674:Walker 2004b 1623:Goodman 1971 1595: 1588:Neville 1998 1583: 1576:Goodman 1992 1453: 1411: 1404:Goodman 1971 1399: 1392:Goodman 1992 1331: 1321: 1312: 1287: 1275: 1253: 1239: 1222: 1209: 1196: 1175: 1166: 1157: 1136: 1125:Robert Hales 1117:Simon Walker 1111: 1102: 1084: 1067: 1053: 1049:Maurice Keen 1043:ordered the 1025: 1020:Simon Walker 1009: 1002: 999: 995: 981: 956: 949: 948:Froissart's 921: 913: 908: 903: 898: 885: 881: 874: 871: 866: 799: 781: 775: 761: 721: 657: 650: 644: 640: 570: 535: 512: 494: 490: 480: 476:Dover Castle 439: 432: 426: 421: 402: 389: 385:Earl Marshal 378: 371: 368:Maurice Keen 365: 360: 324: 315:his father's 311: 289:gold florins 272: 266: 262:Anthony Tuck 254:May McKisack 250: 217:itinerancies 194: 174: 155: 123: 84:. The Scots 67: 20: 18: 3079:Keen, M. H. 2403:Davies 1999 2316:Harris 1986 2122:Taylor 1898 2051:Harvey 1970 1991:Archer 1995 1979:Squibb 1959 1297:Clement VII 1228:knights fee 1142:South Wales 1115:This, says 1075:, cost the 1041:Elizabeth I 944:Wark Castle 851:Wark Castle 835:Virgin Mary 805:with white 688:Musselburgh 680:Clement VII 625:St Cuthbert 589:men-at-arms 468:schismatics 464:Clement VII 308:Preparation 269:crossbowman 237:Lord Cobham 188:meeting in 182:crossbowmen 147:appeasement 63:feudal levy 35:come of age 3795:Categories 3764:required.) 3709:required.) 3657:Walker, S. 3651:required.) 3596:required.) 3484:1034339189 3445:Richard II 3433:required.) 3355:0300070039 3344:Richard II 3203:0192852507 3092:0416835708 2966:required.) 2708:Steel 1962 2660:Steel 1962 2542:Bevan 1990 2292:Lewis 1958 2256:Lewis 1958 2110:Zupko 1990 2022:Curry 2008 1854:Tuck 2004a 1653:Bevan 1990 1561:Steel 1962 1446:Tuck 2004b 1344:References 1215:Anne Curry 1131:, instead. 1073:Edward III 1023:control". 989:chevauchée 969:Chancellor 950:Chronicles 823:Cumberland 821:, much of 745:West March 651:Richard II 647:Nigel Saul 609:Henry Hask 554:Gloucester 381:ordinances 327:Nottingham 283:and other 239:, and Sir 170:Pontefract 166:tournament 158:Nottingham 151:Nigel Saul 112:Background 94:West March 43:Edward III 23:Richard II 3659:(2004a). 3455:254581264 3439:Steel, A. 3376:504278136 3240:468742260 3141:754650998 3071:664602455 2832:Curry, A. 2824:861236878 2804:633721189 2746:638691892 2684:Keen 1995 2645:Tuck 1973 2503:Tuck 1973 2467:Saul 1997 2328:Saul 1997 2186:Saul 1997 2083:Keen 1995 2068:Saul 1997 2039:Keen 1995 1967:Keen 1995 1950:Keen 1995 1915:Keen 1995 1885:Tuck 1973 1738:Tuck 1973 1689:Saul 1997 1600:Tuck 1973 1515:Keen 1973 1475:Saul 1997 1458:Tuck 1973 1416:Saul 1997 1361:Saul 1997 1259:feudalism 1129:the Savoy 1077:Exchequer 934:Aftermath 811:Archibald 790:Newcastle 724:Edinburgh 709:ransoming 693:pillaging 676:Anti-pope 672:Newbattle 297:Robert II 209:de Vienne 138:Cherbourg 126:Aquitaine 90:Edinburgh 78:Newcastle 55:Constance 3746:Archived 3691:Archived 3633:Archived 3578:Archived 3441:(1962). 3415:Archived 3366:(1959). 3340:(1997). 3338:Saul, N. 3272:(1996). 3250:(2007). 3192:(1991). 3170:(1981). 3081:(1973). 3034:(2005). 2974:(1971). 2948:Archived 2794:(1824). 1037:Brittany 917:foragers 839:Carlisle 827:Carlisle 803:surcoats 765:Pennines 664:Dryburgh 573:vanguard 501:Invasion 460:Antipope 285:materiel 98:Carlisle 31:a treaty 3520:9728826 2899:139–164 1326:light". 1148:or the 1028:Henry V 697:Lothian 668:Melrose 613:Bohemia 593:archers 581:retinue 542:scutage 453:to the 446:scutage 444:due of 405:subsidy 190:Reading 186:council 51:Castile 3779: 3758: 3752:28 May 3738: 3703: 3697:28 May 3683: 3645: 3639:28 May 3625: 3590: 3584:21 May 3570: 3535: 3518: 3499: 3482: 3453: 3427: 3421:26 May 3407: 3374: 3352: 3326: 3303: 3280: 3258: 3238: 3219: 3200: 3178: 3156: 3139: 3108: 3089: 3069: 3042: 3020: 3001: 2982: 2960: 2954:28 May 2940: 2905: 2880: 2861: 2842: 2822: 2802: 2780: 2761: 2744: 1336:alarm. 1189:Cotton 1091:Eltham 1005:(1997) 965:Houses 877:(1974) 843:Durham 711:them. 653:(1997) 577:battle 546:Durham 442:feudal 435:(2000) 374:(1995) 339:muster 293:livres 231:, the 227:, the 201:Iberia 162:Oxford 134:Calais 102:Durham 82:battle 1270:land. 1059:Notes 960:Sluys 928:Moray 893:prize 451:array 301:Leith 213:Sluys 130:Brest 3777:ISBN 3754:2018 3736:ISBN 3699:2018 3681:ISBN 3641:2018 3623:ISBN 3586:2018 3568:ISBN 3533:ISBN 3516:OCLC 3497:ISBN 3480:OCLC 3451:OCLC 3423:2018 3405:ISBN 3372:OCLC 3350:ISBN 3324:ISBN 3301:ISBN 3278:ISBN 3256:ISBN 3236:OCLC 3217:ISBN 3198:ISBN 3176:ISBN 3154:ISBN 3137:OCLC 3106:ISBN 3087:ISBN 3067:OCLC 3040:ISBN 3018:ISBN 2999:ISBN 2980:ISBN 2956:2018 2938:ISBN 2903:ISBN 2878:ISBN 2859:ISBN 2840:ISBN 2820:OCLC 2800:OCLC 2778:ISBN 2759:ISBN 2742:OCLC 1291:The 1123:and 1093:and 926:and 841:and 670:and 607:and 552:and 550:York 493:but 331:York 295:for 160:and 136:and 3728:doi 3673:doi 3615:doi 3560:doi 3472:doi 3397:doi 3129:doi 3059:doi 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English invasion of Scotland (1385)

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