1468:). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of
2027:, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein explained this puzzle by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists. Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the
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6385:; p319: "For historical reasons, different portions of the EM spectrum are given different names, although they are all the same kind of thing. Visible light constitutes a narrow range of the spectrum, from wavelengths of about 400-800 nm.... ;p 320 "An electromagnetic wave carries forward momentum... If the radiation is absorbed by a surface, the momentum drops to zero and a force is exerted on the surface... Thus the radiation pressure of an electromagnetic wave is (formula)."
33:
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1733:. Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves. The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at a very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source. Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation). As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of
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effects are those due to radiation power alone, acting through heating when radiation is absorbed. For these thermal effects, frequency is important as it affects the intensity of the radiation and penetration into the organism (for example, microwaves penetrate better than infrared). It is widely accepted that low frequency fields that are too weak to cause significant heating could not possibly have any biological effect.
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2050:(one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called
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2106:, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the
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2798:(eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV." Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere.
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2634:) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR). An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a
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From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left. This picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This
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The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the
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vector describes the energy flow...;" p 440: ... the electromagnetic wave must have the following properties: 1) The field pattern travels with speed c (speed of light); 2) At every point within the wave... the electric field strength E equals "c" times the magnetic field strength B; 3) The electric
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is the study of the interactions and effects of EM radiation on living organisms. The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon living cells, including those in humans, depends upon the radiation's power and frequency. For low-frequency radiation (radio waves to near ultraviolet) the best-understood
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Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per
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Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well into the ultraviolet range). However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation, Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as atoms vibrate at the ends
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Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms.
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with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes
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More general forms of the second-order wave equations given above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources. Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications. One very general example is a form of the electric field
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involves charged particles bound together. When electromagnetic radiation impinges on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the context. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted
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measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with a higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa. The origin of
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formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to
Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation. By contrast, the term
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electromagnetic radiation. The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing the transmitter to affect them. This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver. Due
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can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, the electromagnetic spectrum
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qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.
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is usually considered a form of heat, since it has an equivalent temperature and is associated with an entropy change per unit of thermal energy. However, "heat" is a technical term in physics and thermodynamics and is often confused with thermal energy. Any type of electromagnetic energy can be
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for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material. This happens for infrared, microwave and radio wave radiation. Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In
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Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e.
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Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This 3D animation shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right. The electric and magnetic fields in such a wave are in-phase with each other, reaching
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Infrared radiation is divided into spectral subregions. While different subdivision schemes exist, the spectrum is commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm), mid-wavelength infrared (3–8 μm), long-wavelength infrared (8–15 μm) and
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developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of
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At higher frequencies (some of visible and beyond), the effects of individual photons begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually to directly or indirectly damage biological molecules. All UV frequencies have been classed as Group 1 carcinogens by the World Health
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The behavior of EM radiation and its interaction with matter depends on its frequency, and changes qualitatively as the frequency changes. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and are associated with photons of higher energy. There is no
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in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by
Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and
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that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g. a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal. This far part of the
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5012:{\displaystyle \Box =\nabla ^{2}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}={\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial y^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial z^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\ }
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Visible light is able to affect only a tiny percentage of all molecules. Usually not in a permanent or damaging way, rather the photon excites an electron which then emits another photon when returning to its original position. This is the source of color produced by most dyes.
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in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.
2783:, this causes lasting damage. DNA is also indirectly damaged by reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to damage DNA directly. This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is capable of causing cancer, and (for
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are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the
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preparations more quickly than did the nearby violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called "chemical rays") were capable of causing chemical reactions.
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of a single chemical bond. It is consequently absorbed by a wide range of substances, causing them to increase in temperature as the vibrations dissipate as heat. The same process, run in reverse, causes bulk substances to radiate in the infrared spontaneously (see
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Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor. However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.
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Thus, at UV frequencies and higher, electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as
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unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.
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4329:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)=-{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\left(\nabla \times \mathbf {B} \right)=-\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}}
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unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as
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electromagnetic fields (including weak ELF magnetic fields, although the latter does not strictly qualify as EM radiation) and modulated RF and microwave fields can have biological effects, though the significance of this is unclear.
1671:. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:
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on one side of these equations results in first-order spatial derivatives of the wave solution, while the time-derivative on the other side of the equations, which gives the other field, is first-order in time, resulting in the same
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of electromagnetic spectrum are produced. In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are on average perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a
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far-fields in free space, which as wave solutions depend primarily on these two
Maxwell equations, are in-phase with each other. This is guaranteed since the generic wave solution is first order in both space and time, and the
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associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation.
1149:. The effect of non-ionizing radiation on chemical systems and living tissue is primarily simply heating, through the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are
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transport a conserved amount of energy over distances but instead fades with distance, with its energy (as noted) rapidly returning to the transmitter or absorbed by a nearby receiver (such as a transformer secondary coil).
2820:. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles). Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all
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1326:) on the source. The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by a receiver.
5620:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)},}
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that explained the observed spectrum. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called
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discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named
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Browne, p 376: "Radiation is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one orbit to the other, and the frequency of radiation depends only upon on the energies of the electron in the initial and final
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Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.
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equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation.
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of the random process. Random electromagnetic radiation requiring this kind of analysis is, for example, encountered in the interior of stars, and in certain other very wideband forms of radiation such as the
2114:. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature.
1745:. A monochromatic electromagnetic wave can be characterized by its frequency or wavelength, its peak amplitude, its phase relative to some reference phase, its direction of propagation, and its polarization.
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the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of
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These phenomena can aid various chemical determinations for the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra). Spectroscopy (for example) determines what
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As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible range, as the
2311:. After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties.
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An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as
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1349:, the amount of power passing through any spherical surface drawn around the source is the same. Because such a surface has an area proportional to the square of its distance from the source, the
5971:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}
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of power, such that the total energy that crosses through an imaginary sphere surrounding the source is the same regardless of the size of the sphere. Electromagnetic radiation thus reaches the
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The heat ray is an application of EMR that makes use of microwave frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper layer of the skin. A publicly known heat ray weapon called the
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fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space (see illustrations). In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free
Maxwell
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These are only two equations versus the original four, so more information pertains to these waves hidden within
Maxwell's equations. A generic vector wave for the electric field has the form
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At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called
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in an experiment similar to
Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism. Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened
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and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.
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The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some
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The source of
Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the
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1304:–type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an
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1395:. Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are
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Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 m or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the
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Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed
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field. Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to a receiver very close to the source, such as inside a
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Cleary, S. F.; Liu, L. M.; Merchant, R. E. (1990). "In vitro lymphocyte proliferation induced by radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation under isothermal conditions".
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prior to the development of
Maxwell's electrodynamics, however Maxwell was the first to produce a field theory consistent with waves traveling at the speed of light.
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4130:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} \right)-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} .}
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A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the
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Infrared, microwaves and radio waves are known to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.
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At radio and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as a bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms. In
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is a theoretical weapon that delivers heat ray based on electromagnetic energy at levels that are capable of injuring human tissue. An inventor of a death ray,
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which implies that the electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates. The second of
Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field, namely,
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The electric and magnetic field waves in the far-field travel at the speed of light. They have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes,
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X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers.
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is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as
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1361:. This is in contrast to dipole parts of the EM field, the near field, which varies in intensity according to an inverse cube power law, and thus does
5778:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=0}
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Chen, Szu-yuan; Maksimchuk, Anatoly; Umstadter, Donald (17 December 1998). "Experimental observation of relativistic nonlinear
Thomson scattering".
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6133:. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as
3984:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)}
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through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation. However, in 1900 the French scientist
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3883:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {A} \right)=\nabla \left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {A} \right)-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {A} .}
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and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a
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1741:, or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude and phase. Such a component wave is said to be
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upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by
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begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 m).
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Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of
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Purcell, p442: "Any number of electromagnetic waves can propagate through the same region without affecting one another. The field
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8154:"Environmental magnetic fields inhibit the antiproliferative action of tamoxifen and melatonin in a human breast cancer cell line"
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an electric current on the conductor surface by moving the electrons of the conducting material in correlated bunches of charge.
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is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the
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The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum
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fundamental limit known to these wavelengths or energies, at either end of the spectrum, although photons with energies near the
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is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.
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p 430: "These waves... require no medium to support their propagation. Traveling electromagnetic waves carry energy, and... the
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at the mid-range of UV. Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.
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are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.
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Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single
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The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two
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equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other. These derivatives require that the
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make use of small packets of water that change temperature, in an essentially thermal process that involves many photons.
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1000:, and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy,
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propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by
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2062:). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light. Delayed emission is called
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1472:. Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter, is a more subtle affair.
92:
4561:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {B} }{\partial t^{2}}}.}
2787:) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects.
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salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and
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4455:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}}
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6480:"Electromagnetic Spectrum facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Electromagnetic Spectrum"
3122:. There are nontrivial solutions of the homogeneous Maxwell's equations (without charges or currents), describing
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3681:
2568:, and then spectral analysis must be done by slightly different mathematical techniques appropriate to random or
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with visible light highlighted. The bottom graph (visible spectrum) shows wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).
2015:. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the
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comprise a particular star. Spectroscopy is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the
1597:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &=0\\\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} &=0\end{aligned}}}
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of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of
1407:
yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves.
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discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering the intense radiation of
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at a space time point is the vector sum of the electric fields of the individual waves, and the same goes for
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field and the magnetic field are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of travel, or propagation."
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is a function of time and location, which gives the amplitude of the wave at some time at a certain location:
3379:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}}
1414:, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the
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4471:) results in a similar differential equation for a magnetic field solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:
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are created by visible light in skin, and that these may have some role in photoaging, in the same manner as
2750:, and requires a protein to convert it back, i.e. reset it to be able to function as a light detector again.
1730:
1530:
1211:
635:
340:
9630:
8286:
5630:
5311:
5250:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {E} _{0}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}}
1916:
1081:
500:
240:
107:
5021:
Comparing the terms for the speed of propagation, yields in the case of the electric and magnetic fields:
2913:). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 m or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in
2593:
or exceeding it (far too high to have ever been observed) will require new physical theories to describe.
1403:. For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive
1318:. The near field has strong effects its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased
230:
9504:
9113:
8184:
8042:
7949:
7667:
7476:"Experiments on the Refrangibility of the Invisible Rays of the Sun. By William Herschel, LL. D. F. R. S"
6592:
2726:
1804:
proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles. Later the particle of light was given the name
1783:. Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as the
1647:
fields in EMR are in-phase (see mathematics section below). An important aspect of light's nature is its
793:
668:
565:
540:
460:
6931:
3096:, claimed to have lost sight in his left eye while working on his death ray weapon based on a microwave
9847:
9552:
9345:
9200:
9173:
7228:
3773:
2732:
1521:
Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation
1065:
909:
293:
6082:
5262:
5095:
3695:
2363:
demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and
9509:
9230:
8307:"Irradiation of skin with visible light induces reactive oxygen species and matrix-degrading enzymes"
7776:"Irradiation of Skin with Visible Light Induces Reactive Oxygen Species and Matrix-Degrading Enzymes"
3042:
2616:
2237:
2075:
1127:
The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation's
1026:
847:
808:
325:
265:
260:
200:
7881:
6562:
5342:
9168:
9078:
8942:
7194:
7020:
6237:
3546:
3049:– possibly carcinogenic. This group contains possible carcinogens such as lead, DDT, and styrene.
2444:
2390:
2381:
1442:
957:
345:
8605:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics
8079:
7979:
7711:
6449:
3779:
3430:
3408:
3088:
was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon to deny the enemy access to an area. A
2080:
The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality.
778:
280:
9914:
9842:
9622:
9413:
9398:
9108:
8902:
8810:
8775:
8338:
6257:
3118:
Electromagnetic waves are predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as
3093:
2953:
2754:
2558:
2510:
2233:
2195:
2090:
1784:
1495:
1392:
1121:
1061:
1030:
658:
185:
175:
170:
8705:
8341:
generated in skin. This happens also with UVA. With UVB, the damage to DNA becomes direct, with
2729:, to prevent reactions that would otherwise interfere with photosynthesis at high light levels.
1930:
of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:
783:
753:
9834:
9382:
9349:
9260:
8934:
8848:
6618:
6512:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
4768:
3119:
2965:
2725:
act to quench electronically excited chlorophyll produced by visible light in a process called
2577:
1769:
1624:
1346:
1300:
near them that do not radiate. Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of a
1193:
1137:
1077:
605:
375:
150:
8266:
7742:
7143:
6853:
5125:
3656:
1890:
9494:
9441:
9426:
9353:
9088:
8871:
8408:
Saladi, RN; Persaud, AN (January 2005). "The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review".
7868:
7348:
7232:
7222:
7169:
6761:
6227:
4711:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}f}{\partial t^{2}}}}
4365:
2944:
radiation. It may get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to
2779:
or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical rearrangement. In
2256:
2141:
1627:
that specify how one is produced from the other. In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these
1465:
1357:
source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the
1297:
1280:
1261:
1057:
891:
703:
390:
380:
330:
320:
8468:
8078:. Repiev, A & Edelev, M (translators from Russian). San Diego: Academic Press. pp.
8071:
7734:
7186:
6827:
6765:
4578:
1923:) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave.
9499:
9210:
9098:
9055:
9005:
8512:
7746:
7487:
7068:
6868:
6852:
Thorn, J. J.; Neel, M. S.; Donato, V. W.; Bergreen, G. S.; Davies, R. E.; Beck, M. (2004).
6727:
6334:
6186:
5157:
4750:
3085:
3053:
Organization. Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer.
2703:, which absorbs a single photon. The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of the
2627:
2612:
2450:
2058:. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet (
2004:
1502:
1483:, it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a
1323:
1230:, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by
1226:. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured
1073:
828:
728:
693:
445:
310:
210:
195:
130:
8469:"Effects on the human body: Extremely low frequency RF | Radio Frequency | Radio Spectrum"
7685:
7112:
2775:
As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three
67:
8:
9816:
9657:
9431:
9327:
9205:
9118:
8861:
8072:
7187:
6212:
6207:
6190:
5120:
5090:
3648:
3026:
2969:
2961:
2945:
2576:
content, and the phase information is not preserved. Such a representation is called the
2504:
2498:
2463:
2457:
2360:
2284:
2275:
2145:
2023:
2007:, in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an
1661:
1454:
1207:
1167:
and damage living cells beyond simply heating, and can be a health hazard and dangerous.
1045:
788:
768:
763:
570:
555:
440:
410:
305:
235:
37:
9286:
8516:
8267:
IARC classifies Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans
7750:
7491:
7072:
6872:
6731:
6338:
9919:
9889:
9829:
9768:
9652:
9574:
9322:
9143:
9123:
9103:
8987:
8895:
8795:
8502:
8390:
8129:
8113:"Embryological changes induced by weak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields"
8112:
7920:
7641:
7557:
7524:
7505:
7089:
7058:
7046:
6743:
6717:
6350:
6325:
Maxwell, J. Clerk (1 January 1865). "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".
6262:
6247:
6193:. The direction of the polarization is defined as the direction of the electric field.
6173:
6037:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\frac {1}{c_{0}}}{\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} }
5291:
4608:
3540:
3236:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}
3058:
2854:
2817:
2572:. In such cases, the individual frequency components are represented in terms of their
2569:
2518:
2487:
1920:
1738:
1636:
1461:
1457:); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount.
1396:
1358:
1331:
1310:
1308:–type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the
1270:
1265:
1256:
In electromagnetic radiation (such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here) the term
1243:
1223:
1197:
1151:
1018:
1014:
663:
403:
205:
165:
8744:
8732:
2863:
2304:
485:
9856:
9755:
9704:
9679:
9635:
9617:
9561:
9489:
9375:
9215:
9093:
9030:
8995:
8671:
8649:
8627:
8608:
8589:
8583:
8568:
8425:
8382:
8377:
8360:
8346:
8328:
8249:
8214:
8173:
8134:
8093:
8083:
7924:
7912:
7828:
7797:
7754:
7735:
7645:
7633:
7580:
7562:
7544:
7454:
7397:
7354:
7327:
7286:
7261:
7236:
7198:
7149:
7094:
7000:
6516:
6429:
6402:
6374:
6354:
6299:
6252:
5161:
2930:
2654:
2347:
2055:
1491:
1164:
1037:
723:
8394:
8191:
Aalto, S.; Haarala, C.; Brück, A.; Sipilä, H.; Hämäläinen, H.; Rinne, J. O. (2006).
6747:
2517:
EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and
1184:
The relative wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves of three different colours of
9795:
9746:
9599:
9479:
9446:
9220:
8866:
8820:
8815:
8520:
8417:
8372:
8318:
8241:
8204:
8165:
8124:
7904:
7820:
7787:
7623:
7552:
7536:
7495:
7389:
7084:
7076:
6876:
6735:
6342:
2868:
2631:
2582:
2550:
2534:
2475:
2229:
2199:
2119:
2008:
1808:, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the
1734:
1446:
1132:
1022:
1005:
993:
823:
738:
698:
688:
575:
530:
513:
430:
365:
135:
59:
9642:
8538:"Light: Electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum and photons (article)"
2977:, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can easily set paper afire.
2717:
becomes possible in this range as well, for the same reason. A single molecule of
9861:
9821:
9811:
9783:
9726:
9662:
9531:
9332:
9317:
9133:
9045:
9035:
8887:
8421:
8273:
7819:. Advances in Optics and Optoelectronics. Springer, Singapore. pp. 111–188.
7218:
6789:
6130:
3651:(rate of change in time, with location fixed) of the magnetic and electric field;
3104:
creates a tissue damaging cooking effect inside the oven at around 2 kV/m).
2956:, in the material. With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons (such as
2934:
2914:
2842:
2791:
2707:
protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the
2493:
2319:
2264:
2184:
2063:
1884:
1801:
1605:
1526:
1484:
1400:
1305:
1301:
1219:
1128:
1106:
950:
758:
683:
678:
545:
420:
385:
245:
145:
8715:
7895:
Dabas, R S (July 2000). "Ionosphere and its influence on radio communications".
7824:
3126:
of changing electric and magnetic fields. Beginning with Maxwell's equations in
2561:), which in turn can each be classified into these regions of the EMR spectrum.
2148:, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the current.
798:
9736:
9699:
9463:
9436:
9180:
9138:
9128:
9050:
9040:
9010:
8668:
Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed
8524:
8342:
7815:
Tao, Jiasheng (2023). "Radiation Source and Optical Atmospheric Transmission".
5086:
3466:
3450:
3101:
2994:
2949:
2918:
2895:
2883:, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of
2858:
2714:
2635:
2469:
2369:
2364:
2339:
2289:
2219:
2152:
2135:
2102:
are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for
2028:
1912:
1773:
1757:
1713:
1480:
1450:
1438:
1415:
1231:
1227:
1215:
1131:
and its frequency. EMR of lower energy ultraviolet or lower frequencies (i.e.,
933:
925:
921:
903:
718:
713:
535:
425:
350:
300:
250:
223:
180:
155:
125:
118:
45:
41:
7628:
7611:
7393:
5426:{\displaystyle f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}}
2747:
2679:
Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a
2271:
1252:
9903:
9773:
9731:
9721:
9594:
9589:
9569:
9255:
9015:
9000:
8803:
8663:
8493:
Kinsler, P. (2010). "Optical pulse propagation with minimal approximations".
8209:
8192:
7916:
7637:
7548:
4572:
2795:
2776:
2758:
2721:
is excited by a single photon. In plant tissues that conduct photosynthesis,
2696:
2590:
2481:
2427:
2343:
2315:
2039:
1441:. Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible
1350:
1185:
1160:
1146:
974:
833:
818:
803:
743:
455:
370:
355:
270:
255:
160:
8097:
6961:
1188:(blue, green, and red) with a distance scale in micrometers along the x-axis
9866:
9790:
9716:
9674:
9647:
9579:
9521:
9458:
9235:
9195:
9060:
8429:
8386:
8332:
8245:
8218:
7801:
7566:
7500:
7475:
7281:
Ling, Samuel J.; Sanny, Jeff; Moebs, William (2016). "The Compton Effect".
7098:
6346:
3720:
3689:
3474:
3470:
3066:
2957:
2662:
2351:
2051:
2047:
1069:
997:
813:
708:
673:
615:
550:
470:
435:
315:
190:
9484:
8253:
8177:
8138:
7417:
6619:"Electromagnetic radiation | Spectrum, Examples, & Types | Britannica"
2924:
2564:
For certain classes of EM waves, the waveform is most usefully treated as
1399:
fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to
9694:
9667:
9584:
9536:
8977:
8843:
8323:
8306:
7792:
7775:
7663:
7384:
Hunter, Tim B.; Dobek, Gerald O. (19 July 2023). "Nebulae: An Overview".
6688:"PV Performance Modeling Collaborative | Plane of Array (POA) Irradiance"
6178:
2838:
2770:
2722:
2718:
2538:
2420:
2335:
2327:
2314:
The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with
2260:
2249:
2083:
1506:
1419:
1315:
978:
962:
945:
917:
733:
585:
415:
77:
32:
8716:
The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 28: Electromagnetic Radiation
8305:
Liebel, F; Kaur, S; Ruvolo, E; Kollias, N; Southall, M. D. (July 2012).
7540:
6854:"Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory"
6722:
2638:. These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both.
1651:. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in
1382:
1180:
9778:
9684:
9025:
8972:
7908:
7774:
Liebel, F.; Kaur, S.; Ruvolo, E.; Kollias, N.; Southall, M. D. (2012).
3508:
2985:
2906:
2872:
2850:
2825:
2811:
2680:
2602:
2554:
2546:
2522:
2294:
2168:
2156:
2095:
2059:
1788:
1780:
1668:
1426:
1156:
1142:
986:
966:
450:
8621:
8170:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:8<555::AID-BEM4>3.0.CO;2-1
7509:
7080:
6880:
6293:
2386:
1274:
part of the electromagnetic field around a transmitter. A part of the
9689:
9312:
9185:
9020:
8967:
8957:
8918:
6826:. Quantum Optics Theory Group, University of Auckland. Archived from
6217:
4159:) by exchanging the sequence of derivatives and inserting the fourth
3097:
3089:
2704:
2688:
2684:
2606:
2526:
2406:
2356:
2298:
2160:
2123:
2017:
1648:
1049:
941:
773:
748:
560:
82:
8153:
6273:
Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation
5076:{\displaystyle c_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}}}}.}
8962:
8947:
8876:
8444:"DVIDS – News – New Marine Corps non-lethal weapon heats things up"
8111:
Delgado, J. M.; Leal, J.; Monteagudo, J. L.; Gracia, M. G. (1982).
7063:
6222:
5156:, via the above equation. This relationship had been discovered by
4368:
for the electric field, solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:
2993:
electromagnetic radiation can "heat" (in the sense of increase the
2884:
2880:
2647:
2530:
2434:
2225:
2167:. Each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by
2043:
1809:
1729:
Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's
1434:
1354:
1008:
away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to
1001:
970:
899:
525:
520:
140:
8662:
8507:
6739:
2989:
transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter. Thus,
2879:
Most UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular
1749:
interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as
1604:
These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be a
1155:– individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to
1109:. Thus, higher frequency photons have more energy. For example, a
9240:
8827:
8779:
8002:"Thermodynamics Part 1: Work, Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy"
7612:"Pioneers in Optics: Johann Wilhelm Ritter and Ernest Rutherford"
6537:
3462:
3458:
3005:
2910:
2894:
Visible light is well transmitted in air, a property known as an
2846:
2743:
2700:
2397:
2323:
2241:
2012:
1797:
1430:
1411:
1264:
that radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by an
1053:
875:
495:
6398:
An Introduction to Electromagnetic Wave Propagation and Antennas
2867:
Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric absorption and scattering (or
1525:
In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a
1292:
Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents (
9514:
9367:
8721:
3127:
2940:
2821:
2807:
2708:
2331:
2308:
2164:
2111:
1813:
1805:
1476:
1041:
1009:
982:
929:
580:
87:
7941:
2794:. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10
1993:{\displaystyle p={E \over c}={hf \over c}={h \over \lambda }.}
1141:
because its photons do not individually have enough energy to
40:
electromagnetic wave going in the z-axis, with E denoting the
9065:
8952:
8787:
6450:"The Dual Nature of Light as Reflected in the Nobel Archives"
3724:
2974:
2888:
2674:
2542:
2412:
2098:. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant
1652:
1620:
are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
1445:
passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent
895:
6046:
The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of
5433:
is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words,
3045:
has classified radio frequency electromagnetic radiation as
8110:
6770:. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. pp. 54–57
3640:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}}
3601:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}
3454:
3061:
due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce
2099:
2035:
1135:, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is
887:
8738:
8358:
1429:, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different
8622:
Reitz, John; Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert (1992).
7684:. Instituts für Umform- und Hochleistungs. Archived from
7480:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
6327:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
5825:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}=0}
4571:
Both differential equations have the form of the general
3107:
3062:
2784:
2780:
2245:
1040:, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of
7308:"7 Differences between Fluorescence and Phosphorescence"
1756:
The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called
8774:
8304:
8190:
7773:
6851:
6707:
6425:
A Course in Classical Physics, Vol. 4 – Waves and Light
6401:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 28–33.
3765:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {0} ,}
2925:
Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat
2748:
retinal permanently changes structure from cis to trans
1656:
1278:
field (close to the transmitter) includes the changing
8337:
for evidence of quantum damage from visible light via
6298:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press, New York.
5339:
is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and
2549:. Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by
2084:
Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation
8581:
8359:
Narayanan, DL; Saladi, RN; Fox, JL (September 2010).
6993:"Chapter V Plane waves in unbounded, isotropic media"
6139:
6085:
6052:
5986:
5838:
5793:
5667:
5633:
5439:
5369:
5345:
5314:
5294:
5265:
5173:
5128:
5098:
5027:
4777:
4753:
4724:
4631:
4611:
4581:
4480:
4377:
4180:
4030:
3909:
3804:
3782:
3737:
3698:
3659:
3614:
3575:
3549:
3517:
3485:
3433:
3411:
3319:
3267:
3193:
3141:
2984:
Infrared radiation in the spectral distribution of a
2699:
involves the change in bonding of a single molecule,
2252:. These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared.
2151:
As a wave, light is characterized by a velocity (the
2140:
When any wire (or other conducting object such as an
1939:
1893:
1833:
1681:
1680:
1539:
8193:"Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans"
2615:, they couple to the conductor, travel along it and
1763:
1391:
Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of
1060:, responsible for all electromagnetic interactions.
3772:useful solutions can be derived with the following
956:The position of an electromagnetic wave within the
8917:
7347:Meredith, W. J.; Massey, J. B. (22 October 2013).
6155:
6121:
6068:
6036:
5970:
5824:
5777:
5650:
5619:
5425:
5355:
5331:
5300:
5280:
5249:
5141:
5111:
5075:
5011:
4759:
4739:
4710:
4617:
4597:
4560:
4454:
4328:
4129:
3983:
3882:
3790:
3764:
3711:
3672:
3639:
3600:
3560:
3531:
3499:
3441:
3419:
3378:
3287:
3235:
3161:
1992:
1899:
1868:
1697:
1596:
992:Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically
8407:
8231:
7525:"The Other End of the Rainbow: Infrared and Skin"
7145:The Earth Around Us: Maintaining A Livable Planet
4013:) with the above identity and simplifying using (
2997:temperature of) a material, when it is absorbed.
2216:Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics
1865:
9901:
7258:Quantum Mechanics; An Experimentalist's Approach
6181:for both fields in each mathematical operation.
5089:in vacuum. Thus Maxwell's equations connect the
4465:Taking the curl of the fourth Maxwell equation (
3892:Taking the curl of the second Maxwell equation (
3080:Directed energy weapons § Microwave weapons
2746:is an exception. When a photon is absorbed, the
1212:wave form of the electric and magnetic equations
8197:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism
7184:
6593:"Maxwell's equations and the secrets of nature"
6368:
6294:Purcell and Morin, Harvard University. (2013).
6156:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} }
2832:
2232:, who published his results in 1800 before the
1869:{\displaystyle E=hf={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}\,\!}
1460:EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and
8734:Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations
8151:
7346:
7280:
6962:"Wave Behaviors | Science Mission Directorate"
6373:(2nd ed.). McGraw Hill/Schaum, New York.
5661:From the first of Maxwell's equations, we get
4771:, which in Cartesian coordinates is given as:
9383:
8903:
8760:
6754:
855:
8582:Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004).
8287:"Trouble with cell phone radiation standard"
8074:Magnetobiology: Underlying Physical Problems
7737:Unexploded Ordnance Detection and Mitigation
7522:
7467:
7332:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7141:
7045:She, Alan; Capasso, Federico (17 May 2016).
2687:and 700 nm is directly detected by the
8492:
8486:
7383:
6767:The life and discoveries of Michael Faraday
3288:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}
3162:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} =0}
2375:
1080:and proportional to frequency according to
9390:
9376:
8910:
8896:
8767:
8753:
7523:Holzer, Aton M.; Elmets, Craig A. (2010).
7450:RFID in Logistics A Practical Introduction
7249:
7044:
6999:. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY.
6563:"The Impact of James Clerk Maxwell's Work"
3532:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {X} }
1479:. When a single photon is sent through an
1214:, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of
1025:that directly produced them, specifically
862:
848:
66:
8506:
8376:
8322:
8208:
8128:
7791:
7627:
7556:
7499:
7088:
7062:
6721:
6371:Physics for Engineering and Science, p427
6189:. On a quantum level, it is described as
6129:, which can be seen immediately from the
6069:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ,\mathbf {B} }
3500:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {X} }
2909:begins to interact with radio waves (see
2630:, such induced bulk movement of charges (
1864:
1698:{\displaystyle \displaystyle v=f\lambda }
1021:refers to EM fields near the charges and
8401:
8276:. World Health Organization. 31 May 2011
7659:
7657:
7655:
7609:
7529:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
7473:
7217:
7047:"Parallel Polarization State Generation"
6990:
6760:
2917:beyond line-of-sight. However, certain
2862:
2801:
2396:
2385:
2270:
2069:
1516:
1381:
1251:
1179:
1076:. The energy of an individual photon is
912:, electromagnetic radiation consists of
31:
8648:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
8640:
8361:"Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer"
8152:Harland, J. D.; Liburdy, R. P. (1997).
8065:
8063:
7847:
7255:
6821:"Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect"
6421:
6324:
5308:is any second differentiable function,
3001:deposited energy heating the material.
2205:
1487:or other sensitive detector only once.
611:Electromagnetism and special relativity
14:
9902:
9452:Psychological and sociological effects
9251:Wireless electronic devices and health
8602:
7732:
7726:
6818:
6573:from the original on 17 September 2017
6508:
6415:
6394:
3723:of a vacuum (8.85 × 10
3108:Derivation from electromagnetic theory
2596:
1751:parallel polarization state generation
1237:
1234:through experiments with radio waves.
1202:
932:, electromagnetic waves travel at the
9371:
8891:
8748:
8624:Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory
8562:
8069:
7936:
7934:
7894:
7679:
7652:
7446:
7314:from the original on 4 September 2017
7123:from the original on 4 September 2017
6942:from the original on 4 September 2017
6890:from the original on 1 February 2016.
6502:
6388:
5651:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}}
5332:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}}
3011:
2711:of the human eye to sense the light.
2293:characterized what were later termed
2163:. As particles, light is a stream of
1718:in a vacuum or less in other media),
1509:, and can interfere with each other.
631:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
9277:List of civilian radiation accidents
9246:Wireless device radiation and health
9241:Biological dose units and quantities
9191:Electromagnetic radiation and health
8585:Physics for Scientists and Engineers
8365:International Journal of Dermatology
8060:
7780:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
7474:Herschel, William (1 January 1800).
7428:from the original on 1 February 2017
7142:Schneiderman, Jill (27 March 2000).
7113:"What Is Electromagnetic Radiation?"
7021:"Electromagnetic Radiation | COSMOS"
6243:Finite-difference time-domain method
6233:Electromagnetic radiation and health
5627:for a generic wave traveling in the
4171:
4021:
3900:
3310:
3258:
3184:
3132:
3022:Wireless device radiation and health
3018:Electromagnetic radiation and health
2753:Limited evidence indicate that some
2338:was differentiated into alpha rays (
2228:radiation is ascribed to astronomer
2129:
1101:is the frequency of the photon, and
27:Physical model of propagating energy
8567:(4th ed.). Pearson Education.
7814:
7610:Davidson, Michael W. (March 2014).
6645:"10.1: Liénard-Wiechert Potentials"
6268:Health effects of sunlight exposure
4153:Evaluating the right hand side of (
3033:Some research suggests that weaker
2521:) is classified by wavelength into
24:
9226:Radioactivity in the life sciences
8556:
8012:from the original on 24 March 2017
7952:from the original on 20 April 2017
7931:
7767:
7306:Haneef, Deena T. Kochunni, Jazir.
7305:
5959:
5949:
5839:
5668:
5545:
5535:
5441:
4990:
4980:
4932:
4922:
4900:
4890:
4868:
4858:
4836:
4826:
4785:
4692:
4678:
4633:
4539:
4523:
4482:
4436:
4420:
4379:
4310:
4294:
4248:
4234:
4230:
4208:
4198:
4181:
4110:
4089:
4069:
4061:
4042:
4031:
4007:Evaluating the left hand side of (
3967:
3957:
3940:
3921:
3910:
3863:
3843:
3835:
3816:
3805:
3628:
3618:
3589:
3579:
3518:
3486:
3367:
3357:
3320:
3268:
3224:
3214:
3194:
3142:
3073:
1569:
1544:
1284:, but that is not electromagnetic
25:
9931:
8685:
7591:from the original on 1 March 2021
7386:The Barnard Objects: Then and Now
6535:
6490:from the original on 13 June 2017
6460:from the original on 15 July 2017
4575:for waves propagating with speed
2212:History of electromagnetic theory
2194:In a medium (other than vacuum),
1915:. This is sometimes known as the
1820:, proportional to its frequency,
1764:Particle model and quantum theory
1464:properties at the same time (see
1260:applies only to the parts of the
9883:
9551:
9397:
8720:
8626:(4th ed.). Addison Wesley.
8378:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04474.x
8293:from the original on 9 May 2013.
7350:Fundamental Physics of Radiology
6972:from the original on 14 May 2017
6912:from the original on 12 May 2015
6149:
6141:
6122:{\displaystyle E_{0}=c_{0}B_{0}}
6062:
6054:
6030:
6016:
5988:
5953:
5914:
5900:
5872:
5857:
5846:
5806:
5795:
5743:
5729:
5701:
5686:
5675:
5638:
5588:
5574:
5477:
5463:
5397:
5383:
5348:
5319:
5281:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} _{0}}
5268:
5221:
5207:
5184:
5175:
5112:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}
4533:
4492:
4430:
4389:
4304:
4255:
4202:
4120:
4099:
4076:
4049:
3961:
3928:
3873:
3850:
3823:
3784:
3755:
3747:
3739:
3712:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}
3622:
3583:
3551:
3525:
3493:
3435:
3413:
3361:
3327:
3275:
3218:
3201:
3149:
2668:
2611:When radio waves impinge upon a
1576:
1551:
8607:(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
8461:
8436:
8352:
8297:
8279:
8260:
8225:
8145:
8104:
8024:
7994:
7964:
7888:
7848:Chaplin, Martin (15 May 2013).
7841:
7808:
7700:
7673:
7603:
7573:
7516:
7440:
7410:
7377:
7367:
7340:
7299:
7274:
7211:
7193:. John Wiley and Sons. p.
7178:
7162:
7135:
7105:
7038:
7013:
6991:Stratton, Julius Adams (1941).
6984:
6954:
6924:
6894:
6845:
6812:
6782:
6701:
6680:
6663:
6637:
6611:
6585:
6555:
6296:Electricity and Magnetism, 820p
4364:) again, gives a vector-valued
2585:of the electromagnetic vacuum.
1163:. Ionizing radiation can cause
1145:atoms or molecules or to break
7668:The Growth of Physical Science
7260:. Cambridge University Press.
6529:
6472:
6442:
6428:. Springer. pp. 95, 103.
6361:
6318:
6286:
6020:
5904:
5861:
5810:
5733:
5690:
5642:
5578:
5467:
5387:
5356:{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}
5323:
5211:
2764:
2191:is the frequency of the wave.
2034:As a photon is absorbed by an
13:
1:
8666:and Susan C. Hagness (2005).
8588:(6th ed.). Brooks Cole.
6279:
3731:Besides the trivial solution
3561:{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ;}
3114:Electromagnetic wave equation
2179:is the energy of the photon,
1731:electromagnetic wave equation
1512:
1501:Electromagnetic waves can be
1377:
636:Relativistic electromagnetism
44:and perpendicular B denoting
8422:10.1358/dot.2005.41.1.875777
7817:Space Optical Remote Sensing
7708:"Near, Mid and Far-Infrared"
7670:. Cambridge University Press
7283:University physics. Volume 3
7224:The Quantum Theory of Fields
6422:Bettini, Alessandro (2016).
3791:{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
3442:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }
3420:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }
2875:of electromagnetic radiation
2833:Atmosphere and magnetosphere
2733:Animals that detect infrared
2359:. In 1910 British physicist
7:
9114:Cosmic background radiation
8670:. Artech House Publishers.
7825:10.1007/978-981-99-3318-1_4
7710:. NASA IPAC. Archived from
7682:"Wavelength considerations"
6861:American Journal of Physics
6796:. Spectroscopy-09-01-2008.
6200:
4467:
4360:
4354:
4342:
4163:
4155:
4143:
4015:
4009:
3997:
3894:
3392:
3301:
3249:
3175:
2727:non-photochemical quenching
2641:
1608:, where the electric field
1505:, reflected, refracted, or
1387:minima and maxima together.
10:
9936:
9343:
9201:Lasers and aviation safety
8525:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.013819
8070:Binhi, Vladimir N (2002).
7453:. CRC Press. p. 437.
7229:Cambridge University Press
7148:. Henry Holt and Company.
6567:clerkmaxwellfoundation.org
6515:. MacMillan. p. 454.
5149:, and the speed of light,
3111:
3077:
3015:
2948:and manifesting itself as
2928:
2836:
2805:
2768:
2683:between approximately 400
2672:
2645:
2600:
2379:
2255:In 1801, German physicist
2220:Radiation § Discovery
2209:
2133:
2073:
2011:to flow across an applied
1816:. A photon has an energy,
1791:developed a new theory of
1767:
1712:is the speed of the wave (
1371:Liénard–Wiechert potential
1248:Liénard–Wiechert potential
1241:
1191:
1170:
1097:is the energy per photon,
944:of oscillation, different
940:. There, depending on the
894:, which propagate through
892:electromagnetic (EM) field
361:Liénard–Wiechert potential
9910:Electromagnetic radiation
9879:
9804:
9754:
9745:
9610:
9560:
9549:
9472:
9412:
9405:
9341:
9305:
9269:
9231:Radioactive contamination
9156:
9084:Electromagnetic radiation
9074:
8986:
8933:
8926:
8857:
8836:
8786:
8727:Electromagnetic radiation
8706:Resources in your library
8697:Electromagnetic radiation
8646:Classical Electrodynamics
7629:10.1017/S1551929514000029
7422:National Redshift Project
7394:10.1007/978-3-031-31485-8
7353:. Butterworth-Heinemann.
6906:galileo.phys.virginia.edu
6542:The Physics Hypertextbook
4718:This is also written as:
3100:from the 1920s (a normal
3043:World Health Organization
1919:. In quantum theory (see
1175:
1027:electromagnetic induction
916:, which are synchronized
880:electromagnetic radiation
626:Mathematical descriptions
336:Electromagnetic radiation
326:Electromagnetic induction
266:Magnetic vector potential
261:Magnetic scalar potential
9344:See also the categories
9282:1996 Costa Rica accident
8943:Acoustic radiation force
8776:Fundamental interactions
8210:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600279
7256:Commins, Eugene (2014).
7185:Paul M. S. Monk (2004).
6936:www-jcsu.jesus.cam.ac.uk
6509:Tipler, Paul A. (1999).
6369:Browne, Michael (2013).
6238:Evanescent wave coupling
5142:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
4740:{\displaystyle \Box f=0}
3776:, valid for all vectors
3673:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
2445:Extremely high frequency
2391:Electromagnetic spectrum
2382:Electromagnetic spectrum
2376:Electromagnetic spectrum
2236:. Herschel used a glass
1917:Planck–Einstein equation
1900:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1353:of EM radiation from an
958:electromagnetic spectrum
9256:Radiation heat-transfer
9109:Gravitational radiation
8811:Electroweak interaction
8339:reactive oxygen species
6538:"Electromagnetic Waves"
6258:Impedance of free space
3094:Harry Grindell Matthews
2966:photochemical reactions
2939:The basic structure of
2755:reactive oxygen species
2559:monochromatic radiation
2511:Extremely low frequency
2234:Royal Society of London
2042:the atom, elevating an
1926:Likewise, the momentum
1785:ultraviolet catastrophe
1614:and the magnetic field
1496:quantum electrodynamics
1122:extremely low frequency
1066:transition of electrons
1062:Quantum electrodynamics
1031:electrostatic induction
176:Electrostatic induction
171:Electrostatic discharge
9890:Outer space portal
9297:1990 Zaragoza accident
9292:1984 Moroccan accident
9261:Linear energy transfer
8935:Non-ionizing radiation
8563:Hecht, Eugene (2001).
8246:10.1002/bem.2250110107
7876:Cite journal requires
7850:"Infared Spectroscopy"
7733:Byrnes, James (2009).
7581:"Ultraviolet | COSMOS"
7501:10.1098/rstl.1800.0015
6997:Electromagnetic Theory
6762:Crowther, James Arnold
6395:Cloude, Shane (1995).
6347:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
6157:
6123:
6070:
6038:
5972:
5826:
5779:
5652:
5621:
5427:
5363:is a position vector.
5357:
5333:
5302:
5288:is a constant vector,
5282:
5251:
5143:
5113:
5077:
5013:
4767:denotes the so-called
4761:
4741:
4712:
4619:
4599:
4598:{\displaystyle c_{0},}
4562:
4456:
4330:
4131:
3985:
3884:
3798:in some vector field:
3792:
3766:
3713:
3674:
3641:
3602:
3562:
3533:
3501:
3443:
3421:
3380:
3289:
3237:
3163:
2876:
2578:power spectral density
2514:
2424:NUV = Near-ultraviolet
2394:
2280:
2187:, 6.626 × 10 J·s, and
1994:
1907:is the wavelength and
1901:
1870:
1770:Quantization (physics)
1699:
1598:
1522:
1388:
1347:conservation of energy
1340:electromagnetic field
1298:electromagnetic fields
1289:
1189:
1117:times the energy of a
606:Electromagnetic tensor
48:
18:Electromagnetic signal
9522:Extraterrestrial life
9287:1987 Goiânia accident
9089:Synchrotron radiation
9079:Earth's energy budget
9061:Radioactive materials
9056:Particle accelerators
8872:Philosophy of physics
8603:Tipler, Paul (2004).
8006:www2.southeastern.edu
7972:"Blackbody Radiation"
7741:. Springer. pp.
7585:astronomy.swin.edu.au
7447:Jones, Erick (2007).
7174:. UM Libraries. 1960.
7025:astronomy.swin.edu.au
6228:Electromagnetic pulse
6158:
6124:
6071:
6039:
5973:
5827:
5780:
5653:
5622:
5428:
5358:
5334:
5303:
5283:
5252:
5144:
5114:
5078:
5014:
4762:
4760:{\displaystyle \Box }
4742:
4713:
4620:
4600:
4563:
4457:
4366:differential equation
4331:
4132:
3986:
3885:
3793:
3767:
3714:
3688: × 10
3675:
3642:
3603:
3563:
3534:
3502:
3444:
3422:
3381:
3290:
3238:
3164:
2973:addition to infrared
2866:
2802:X-rays and gamma rays
2628:electrical conductors
2583:Zero point wave field
2400:
2389:
2334:. The radiation from
2307:discovered and named
2274:
2257:Johann Wilhelm Ritter
2076:Wave–particle duality
2070:Wave–particle duality
1995:
1902:
1871:
1722:is the frequency and
1700:
1599:
1520:
1466:wave-particle duality
1385:
1335:field is composed of
1281:electromagnetic field
1262:electromagnetic field
1255:
1183:
1113:gamma ray photon has
1058:electromagnetic field
914:electromagnetic waves
599:Covariant formulation
391:Synchrotron radiation
331:Electromagnetic pulse
321:Electromagnetic field
35:
9358:Radiation protection
9211:Radiation protection
9099:Black-body radiation
9006:Background radiation
8921:(physics and health)
8729:at Wikimedia Commons
8324:10.1038/jid.2011.476
7793:10.1038/jid.2011.476
7171:The Michigan Technic
6137:
6083:
6050:
5984:
5836:
5791:
5665:
5631:
5437:
5367:
5343:
5312:
5292:
5263:
5171:
5158:Wilhelm Eduard Weber
5126:
5096:
5025:
4775:
4751:
4722:
4629:
4609:
4579:
4478:
4375:
4178:
4028:
3907:
3802:
3780:
3735:
3696:
3657:
3612:
3573:
3547:
3515:
3483:
3431:
3409:
3317:
3265:
3191:
3139:
3086:Active Denial System
2570:stochastic processes
2451:Super-high frequency
2206:History of discovery
2005:photoelectric effect
1937:
1891:
1831:
1793:black-body radiation
1678:
1537:
1324:electrical reactance
1074:black-body radiation
1046:elementary particles
902:and electromagnetic
641:Stress–energy tensor
566:Reluctance (complex)
311:Displacement current
9328:Radiation hardening
9270:Radiation incidents
9206:Medical radiography
9165:Radiation syndrome
9119:Cherenkov radiation
8862:Glossary of physics
8837:Hypothetical forces
8642:Jackson, John David
8517:2010PhRvA..81a3819K
8311:J. Invest. Dermatol
8272:1 June 2011 at the
8234:Bioelectromagnetics
8158:Bioelectromagnetics
8048:on 30 November 2016
7751:2009uodm.book.....B
7541:10.1038/jid.2010.79
7492:1800RSPT...90..284H
7073:2016NatSR...626019S
6873:2004AmJPh..72.1210T
6800:(9). September 2008
6732:1998Natur.396..653C
6625:. 15 September 2023
6339:1865RSPT..155..459M
6213:Bioelectromagnetics
6208:Antenna measurement
6191:photon polarization
5121:vacuum permeability
5091:vacuum permittivity
4769:d'Alembert operator
3649:partial derivatives
3120:Maxwell's equations
3027:Bioelectromagnetics
2970:photovoltaic effect
2962:harmonic generation
2946:thermal equilibrium
2919:ionospheric effects
2697:mechanism of vision
2665:(15–1000 μm).
2597:Radio and microwave
2505:Super-low frequency
2499:Ultra-low frequency
2464:Very high frequency
2458:Ultrahigh frequency
2361:William Henry Bragg
2285:James Clerk Maxwell
2276:James Clerk Maxwell
2146:alternating current
2091:absorption spectrum
1531:following equations
1435:speed and direction
1238:Near and far fields
1208:James Clerk Maxwell
1203:Maxwell's equations
1194:Maxwell's equations
1159:molecules or break
1124:radio wave photon.
1013:referred to as the
936:, commonly denoted
556:Magnetomotive force
441:Electromotive force
411:Alternating current
346:Jefimenko equations
306:Cyclotron radiation
9805:Other technologies
9323:Radioactive source
9144:Radiation exposure
9124:Askaryan radiation
9104:Particle radiation
8988:Ionizing radiation
8796:Strong interaction
8117:Journal of Anatomy
7909:10.1007/bf02867245
7855:: water.lsbu.ac.uk
7688:on 28 October 2007
7189:Physical Chemistry
7051:Scientific Reports
6819:Carmichael, H. J.
6649:Physics LibreTexts
6623:www.britannica.com
6599:. 18 December 2015
6263:Radiation reaction
6248:Gravitational wave
6153:
6119:
6066:
6034:
5968:
5822:
5775:
5648:
5617:
5423:
5353:
5329:
5298:
5278:
5247:
5139:
5109:
5073:
5009:
4757:
4737:
4708:
4615:
4595:
4558:
4452:
4326:
4161:Maxwell equation (
4127:
3981:
3880:
3788:
3762:
3709:
3670:
3637:
3598:
3558:
3543:of a vector field
3529:
3497:
3477:/m), respectively;
3439:
3417:
3376:
3285:
3233:
3159:
3059:ionizing radiation
3012:Biological effects
2896:atmospheric window
2877:
2855:atmospheric window
2818:ionizing radiation
2515:
2488:Very low frequency
2440:FIR = Far-infrared
2438:MIR = Mid-infrared
2395:
2281:
2089:Dark bands in the
2021:, rather than the
1990:
1921:first quantization
1897:
1866:
1739:frequency spectrum
1695:
1694:
1594:
1592:
1523:
1389:
1359:inverse-square law
1290:
1266:inverse-square law
1244:Near and far field
1198:Near and far field
1190:
1165:chemical reactions
404:Electrical network
241:Gauss magnetic law
206:Static electricity
166:Electric potential
49:
38:linearly polarized
9897:
9896:
9875:
9874:
9784:Carbonated drinks
9756:Human spaceflight
9636:of items in space
9547:
9546:
9365:
9364:
9346:Radiation effects
9216:Radiation therapy
9152:
9151:
9094:Thermal radiation
9031:Neutron radiation
8996:Radioactive decay
8885:
8884:
8725:Media related to
8692:Library resources
8677:978-1-58053-832-9
8655:978-0-471-30932-1
8633:978-0-201-52624-0
8614:978-0-7167-0810-0
8595:978-0-534-40842-8
8574:978-0-8053-8566-3
8347:pyrimidine dimers
8123:(Pt 3): 533–551.
8089:978-0-12-100071-4
7834:978-981-99-3318-1
7760:978-1-4020-9252-7
7460:978-0-367-38811-9
7403:978-3-031-31485-8
7388:. Springer Cham.
7360:978-1-4832-8435-4
7292:978-1-947172-22-7
7267:978-1-107-06399-0
7242:978-0-521-55001-7
7204:978-0-471-49180-4
7155:978-1-4668-1443-1
7081:10.1038/srep26019
7006:978-0-470-13153-4
6932:"Physics – Waves"
6881:10.1119/1.1737397
6716:(6712): 653–655.
6651:. 9 December 2021
6522:978-1-57259-491-3
6435:978-3-319-48329-0
6408:978-0-387-91501-2
6380:978-0-07-161399-6
6305:978-1-107-01402-2
6023:
6010:
5966:
5907:
5864:
5813:
5736:
5693:
5645:
5581:
5559:
5530:
5470:
5390:
5326:
5301:{\displaystyle f}
5214:
5162:Rudolf Kohlrausch
5068:
5067:
5008:
5004:
4975:
4946:
4914:
4882:
4850:
4821:
4706:
4672:
4618:{\displaystyle f}
4553:
4450:
4350:
4349:
4324:
4241:
4215:
4151:
4150:
4005:
4004:
3974:
3635:
3596:
3400:
3399:
3374:
3309:
3308:
3257:
3256:
3231:
3183:
3182:
3006:radiation entropy
2931:Thermal radiation
2655:thermal radiation
2632:electric currents
2348:Ernest Rutherford
2342:) and beta rays (
2130:Propagation speed
2120:chemical elements
2056:photoluminescence
1985:
1972:
1954:
1862:
1625:Maxwell equations
1329:By contrast, the
1082:Planck's equation
1038:quantum mechanics
994:charged particles
872:
871:
571:Reluctance (real)
541:Gyrator–capacitor
486:Resonant cavities
376:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
9927:
9888:
9887:
9886:
9752:
9751:
9555:
9410:
9409:
9392:
9385:
9378:
9369:
9368:
9306:Related articles
9221:Radiation damage
9046:Nuclear reactors
8931:
8930:
8912:
8905:
8898:
8889:
8888:
8867:Particle physics
8821:electromagnetism
8816:weak interaction
8769:
8762:
8755:
8746:
8745:
8724:
8681:
8659:
8637:
8618:
8599:
8578:
8552:
8550:
8548:
8529:
8528:
8510:
8490:
8484:
8483:
8481:
8479:
8465:
8459:
8458:
8456:
8454:
8440:
8434:
8433:
8405:
8399:
8398:
8380:
8356:
8350:
8336:
8326:
8301:
8295:
8294:
8283:
8277:
8264:
8258:
8257:
8229:
8223:
8222:
8212:
8188:
8182:
8181:
8149:
8143:
8142:
8132:
8108:
8102:
8101:
8077:
8067:
8058:
8057:
8055:
8053:
8047:
8041:. Archived from
8036:
8028:
8022:
8021:
8019:
8017:
7998:
7992:
7991:
7989:
7987:
7982:on 8 August 2017
7978:. Archived from
7968:
7962:
7961:
7959:
7957:
7942:"CANDU textbook"
7938:
7929:
7928:
7892:
7886:
7885:
7879:
7874:
7872:
7864:
7862:
7860:
7854:
7845:
7839:
7838:
7812:
7806:
7805:
7795:
7786:(7): 1901–1907.
7771:
7765:
7764:
7740:
7730:
7724:
7723:
7721:
7719:
7704:
7698:
7697:
7695:
7693:
7680:Henderson, Roy.
7677:
7671:
7661:
7650:
7649:
7631:
7616:Microscopy Today
7607:
7601:
7600:
7598:
7596:
7577:
7571:
7570:
7560:
7535:(6): 1496–1499.
7520:
7514:
7513:
7503:
7471:
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7444:
7438:
7437:
7435:
7433:
7414:
7408:
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7381:
7375:
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7036:
7035:
7033:
7031:
7017:
7011:
7010:
6988:
6982:
6981:
6979:
6977:
6966:science.nasa.gov
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6527:
6526:
6506:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6495:
6484:encyclopedia.com
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4117:
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3221:
3212:
3204:
3185:
3177:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3152:
3133:
2657:section below).
2551:Fourier analysis
2476:Medium frequency
2416:SX = Soft X-Rays
2230:William Herschel
2200:refractive index
2009:electric current
1999:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1960:
1955:
1947:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1850:
1735:Fourier analysis
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1619:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1579:
1554:
1447:refractive index
1296:) produce local
1133:near ultraviolet
1120:
1116:
1112:
1092:
1006:angular momentum
864:
857:
850:
531:Electric machine
514:Magnetic circuit
476:Parallel circuit
466:Network analysis
431:Electric current
366:London equations
211:Triboelectricity
201:Potential energy
70:
60:Electromagnetism
51:
50:
21:
9935:
9934:
9930:
9929:
9928:
9926:
9925:
9924:
9900:
9899:
9898:
9893:
9884:
9882:
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9800:
9741:
9606:
9556:
9543:
9468:
9401:
9396:
9366:
9361:
9360:
9337:
9333:Havana syndrome
9318:Nuclear physics
9301:
9265:
9158:
9148:
9134:Unruh radiation
9070:
9051:Nuclear weapons
9036:Nuclear fission
8982:
8922:
8916:
8886:
8881:
8853:
8832:
8788:Physical forces
8782:
8773:
8739:Project PHYSNET
8712:
8711:
8710:
8700:
8699:
8695:
8688:
8678:
8656:
8634:
8615:
8596:
8575:
8559:
8557:Further reading
8546:
8544:
8536:
8533:
8532:
8491:
8487:
8477:
8475:
8467:
8466:
8462:
8452:
8450:
8442:
8441:
8437:
8406:
8402:
8357:
8353:
8302:
8298:
8285:
8284:
8280:
8274:Wayback Machine
8265:
8261:
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8185:
8150:
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8105:
8090:
8068:
8061:
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7865:
7858:
7856:
7852:
7846:
7842:
7835:
7813:
7809:
7772:
7768:
7761:
7731:
7727:
7717:
7715:
7706:
7705:
7701:
7691:
7689:
7678:
7674:
7662:
7653:
7608:
7604:
7594:
7592:
7579:
7578:
7574:
7521:
7517:
7472:
7468:
7461:
7445:
7441:
7431:
7429:
7416:
7415:
7411:
7404:
7382:
7378:
7372:
7368:
7361:
7345:
7341:
7325:
7324:
7317:
7315:
7304:
7300:
7293:
7279:
7275:
7268:
7254:
7250:
7243:
7227:. Vol. 1.
7216:
7212:
7205:
7183:
7179:
7168:
7167:
7163:
7156:
7140:
7136:
7126:
7124:
7111:
7110:
7106:
7043:
7039:
7029:
7027:
7019:
7018:
7014:
7007:
6989:
6985:
6975:
6973:
6960:
6959:
6955:
6945:
6943:
6930:
6929:
6925:
6915:
6913:
6900:
6899:
6895:
6887:
6856:
6850:
6846:
6836:
6834:
6833:on 27 June 2007
6830:
6823:
6817:
6813:
6803:
6801:
6788:
6787:
6783:
6773:
6771:
6759:
6755:
6723:physics/9810036
6706:
6702:
6692:
6690:
6686:
6685:
6681:
6668:
6664:
6654:
6652:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6628:
6626:
6617:
6616:
6612:
6602:
6600:
6591:
6590:
6586:
6576:
6574:
6561:
6560:
6556:
6546:
6544:
6534:
6530:
6523:
6507:
6503:
6493:
6491:
6478:
6477:
6473:
6463:
6461:
6448:
6447:
6443:
6436:
6420:
6416:
6409:
6393:
6389:
6381:
6366:
6362:
6323:
6319:
6306:
6291:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6203:
6148:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6131:Poynting vector
6113:
6109:
6103:
6099:
6090:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6080:
6061:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6029:
6015:
6013:
6012:
6004:
6000:
5995:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5958:
5952:
5948:
5946:
5925:
5921:
5913:
5899:
5897:
5896:
5895:
5891:
5890:
5882:
5876:
5871:
5870:
5856:
5854:
5853:
5845:
5837:
5834:
5833:
5805:
5803:
5802:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5788:
5754:
5750:
5742:
5728:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5720:
5719:
5711:
5705:
5700:
5699:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5674:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5637:
5635:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5599:
5595:
5587:
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5552:
5548:
5544:
5538:
5534:
5532:
5524:
5517:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5488:
5484:
5476:
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5460:
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5454:
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5444:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5408:
5404:
5396:
5382:
5380:
5379:
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5374:
5373:
5368:
5365:
5364:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5318:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5272:
5267:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5232:
5228:
5220:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5198:
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5188:
5183:
5182:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5155:
5133:
5129:
5127:
5124:
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5103:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5093:
5061:
5057:
5051:
5047:
5041:
5032:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5022:
4997:
4993:
4989:
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4979:
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4969:
4962:
4958:
4957:
4956:
4951:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4925:
4921:
4919:
4907:
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4857:
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4839:
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4829:
4825:
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4815:
4808:
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4803:
4802:
4797:
4788:
4784:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4666:
4659:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4648:
4636:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4586:
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4406:
4400:
4396:
4388:
4382:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4293:
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4290:
4284:
4280:
4274:
4270:
4254:
4247:
4243:
4233:
4228:
4207:
4201:
4197:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4160:
4119:
4113:
4109:
4098:
4092:
4088:
4075:
4068:
4064:
4048:
4041:
4037:
4029:
4026:
4025:
3966:
3960:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3927:
3920:
3916:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3872:
3866:
3862:
3849:
3842:
3838:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3774:vector identity
3754:
3746:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3703:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3685:
3664:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3654:
3627:
3621:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3588:
3582:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3524:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3492:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3354:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3334:
3326:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3274:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3223:
3217:
3213:
3211:
3200:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3148:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3116:
3110:
3082:
3076:
3074:Use as a weapon
3024:
3016:Main articles:
3014:
2937:
2929:Main articles:
2927:
2915:shortwave radio
2861:
2843:shortwave radio
2837:Main articles:
2835:
2814:
2806:Main articles:
2804:
2792:photoionisation
2773:
2767:
2677:
2671:
2650:
2644:
2609:
2601:Main articles:
2599:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2494:Voice frequency
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2432:
2431:
2430:(colored bands)
2426:
2425:
2423:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2384:
2378:
2340:alpha particles
2320:Henri Becquerel
2305:Wilhelm Röntgen
2278:
2265:silver chloride
2244:light from the
2222:
2208:
2196:velocity factor
2185:Planck constant
2138:
2132:
2086:
2078:
2072:
2064:phosphorescence
1977:
1961:
1959:
1946:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1885:Planck constant
1851:
1849:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1802:Albert Einstein
1776:
1766:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1615:
1609:
1606:transverse wave
1591:
1590:
1580:
1575:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1527:transverse wave
1515:
1485:photomultiplier
1401:vector addition
1380:
1306:electric-dipole
1302:magnetic-dipole
1250:
1242:Main articles:
1240:
1220:magnetic fields
1205:
1200:
1192:Main articles:
1178:
1173:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:Planck constant
1084:
1072:in an atom and
951:transverse wave
926:magnetic fields
868:
839:
838:
654:
646:
645:
601:
591:
590:
546:Induction motor
516:
506:
505:
421:Current density
406:
396:
395:
386:Poynting vector
296:
294:Electrodynamics
286:
285:
281:Right-hand rule
246:Magnetic dipole
236:Biot–Savart law
226:
216:
215:
151:Electric dipole
146:Electric charge
121:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9933:
9923:
9922:
9917:
9915:Heinrich Hertz
9912:
9895:
9894:
9880:
9877:
9876:
9873:
9872:
9870:
9869:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9853:
9852:
9851:
9850:
9848:for spacecraft
9845:
9837:
9832:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9808:
9806:
9802:
9801:
9799:
9798:
9793:
9788:
9787:
9786:
9776:
9771:
9766:
9760:
9758:
9749:
9743:
9742:
9740:
9739:
9734:
9729:
9724:
9719:
9714:
9713:
9712:
9702:
9697:
9692:
9687:
9682:
9677:
9672:
9671:
9670:
9665:
9655:
9650:
9645:
9640:
9639:
9638:
9633:
9625:
9620:
9614:
9612:
9608:
9607:
9605:
9604:
9603:
9602:
9592:
9587:
9582:
9577:
9572:
9566:
9564:
9558:
9557:
9550:
9548:
9545:
9544:
9542:
9541:
9540:
9539:
9529:
9527:Microorganisms
9524:
9519:
9518:
9517:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9487:
9476:
9474:
9470:
9469:
9467:
9466:
9461:
9456:
9455:
9454:
9444:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9422:The human body
9418:
9416:
9407:
9403:
9402:
9395:
9394:
9387:
9380:
9372:
9363:
9362:
9342:
9339:
9338:
9336:
9335:
9330:
9325:
9320:
9315:
9309:
9307:
9303:
9302:
9300:
9299:
9294:
9289:
9284:
9279:
9273:
9271:
9267:
9266:
9264:
9263:
9258:
9253:
9248:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9228:
9223:
9218:
9213:
9208:
9203:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9181:Health physics
9178:
9177:
9176:
9171:
9162:
9160:
9154:
9153:
9150:
9149:
9147:
9146:
9141:
9139:Dark radiation
9136:
9131:
9129:Bremsstrahlung
9126:
9121:
9116:
9111:
9106:
9101:
9096:
9091:
9086:
9081:
9075:
9072:
9071:
9069:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9043:
9041:Nuclear fusion
9038:
9033:
9028:
9023:
9018:
9013:
9011:Alpha particle
9008:
9003:
8998:
8992:
8990:
8984:
8983:
8981:
8980:
8975:
8970:
8965:
8960:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8939:
8937:
8928:
8924:
8923:
8915:
8914:
8907:
8900:
8892:
8883:
8882:
8880:
8879:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8858:
8855:
8854:
8852:
8851:
8846:
8840:
8838:
8834:
8833:
8831:
8830:
8825:
8824:
8823:
8818:
8808:
8807:
8806:
8801:
8792:
8790:
8784:
8783:
8772:
8771:
8764:
8757:
8749:
8743:
8742:
8730:
8718:
8709:
8708:
8702:
8701:
8690:
8689:
8687:
8686:External links
8684:
8683:
8682:
8676:
8660:
8654:
8638:
8632:
8619:
8613:
8600:
8594:
8579:
8573:
8558:
8555:
8554:
8553:
8531:
8530:
8485:
8460:
8435:
8410:Drugs of Today
8400:
8351:
8296:
8278:
8259:
8224:
8203:(7): 885–890.
8183:
8164:(8): 555–562.
8144:
8103:
8088:
8059:
8032:"Planck's law"
8023:
7993:
7963:
7930:
7887:
7878:|journal=
7840:
7833:
7807:
7766:
7759:
7725:
7714:on 29 May 2012
7699:
7672:
7651:
7602:
7572:
7515:
7466:
7459:
7439:
7418:"Spectroscopy"
7409:
7402:
7376:
7366:
7359:
7339:
7298:
7291:
7273:
7266:
7248:
7241:
7210:
7203:
7177:
7161:
7154:
7134:
7104:
7037:
7012:
7005:
6983:
6953:
6923:
6893:
6844:
6811:
6781:
6753:
6700:
6679:
6662:
6636:
6610:
6597:plus.maths.org
6584:
6554:
6536:Elert, Glenn.
6528:
6521:
6501:
6471:
6454:nobelprize.org
6441:
6434:
6414:
6407:
6387:
6379:
6360:
6317:
6304:
6284:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6245:
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6235:
6230:
6225:
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6215:
6210:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6116:
6112:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6093:
6089:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6032:
6028:
6022:
6018:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5994:
5990:
5964:
5961:
5955:
5951:
5945:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5928:
5924:
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5912:
5906:
5902:
5894:
5888:
5885:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5863:
5859:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5841:
5821:
5818:
5812:
5808:
5801:
5797:
5774:
5771:
5766:
5762:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5735:
5731:
5723:
5717:
5714:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5692:
5688:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5670:
5644:
5640:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5576:
5568:
5563:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5541:
5537:
5527:
5520:
5516:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5469:
5465:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5443:
5420:
5416:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5389:
5385:
5377:
5372:
5350:
5325:
5321:
5297:
5275:
5270:
5244:
5240:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5209:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5153:
5136:
5132:
5106:
5102:
5087:speed of light
5072:
5064:
5060:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4986:
4982:
4972:
4965:
4961:
4955:
4950:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4896:
4892:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4864:
4860:
4854:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4832:
4828:
4818:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4780:
4756:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4727:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4669:
4662:
4658:
4652:
4647:
4644:
4639:
4635:
4614:
4594:
4589:
4585:
4557:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4535:
4529:
4525:
4516:
4512:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4488:
4484:
4473:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4426:
4422:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4381:
4370:
4348:
4347:
4338:
4336:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4296:
4287:
4283:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4250:
4246:
4239:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4224:
4220:
4213:
4210:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4183:
4149:
4148:
4139:
4137:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4003:
4002:
3993:
3991:
3979:
3972:
3969:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3834:
3830:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3807:
3786:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3729:
3728:
3706:
3702:
3684:of a vacuum (4
3667:
3663:
3652:
3633:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3594:
3591:
3585:
3581:
3568:
3557:
3553:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3495:
3491:
3488:
3478:
3467:magnetic field
3451:electric field
3437:
3415:
3398:
3397:
3388:
3386:
3372:
3369:
3363:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3322:
3307:
3306:
3297:
3295:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3255:
3254:
3245:
3243:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3181:
3180:
3171:
3169:
3158:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3144:
3112:Main article:
3109:
3106:
3102:microwave oven
3075:
3072:
3013:
3010:
2995:thermal energy
2954:kinetic energy
2950:thermal energy
2926:
2923:
2859:optical window
2834:
2831:
2803:
2800:
2777:electron volts
2769:Main article:
2766:
2763:
2715:Photosynthesis
2673:Main article:
2670:
2667:
2646:Main article:
2643:
2640:
2636:microwave oven
2598:
2595:
2470:High frequency
2419:EUV = Extreme-
2380:Main article:
2377:
2374:
2370:bremsstrahlung
2365:Edward Andrade
2344:beta particles
2290:Heinrich Hertz
2207:
2204:
2153:speed of light
2136:Speed of light
2134:Main article:
2131:
2128:
2085:
2082:
2074:Main article:
2071:
2068:
2029:Compton effect
2001:
2000:
1989:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1942:
1913:speed of light
1896:
1877:
1876:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1774:Quantum optics
1765:
1762:
1758:radiant energy
1706:
1705:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1514:
1511:
1492:quantum theory
1481:interferometer
1416:Faraday effect
1379:
1376:
1239:
1236:
1232:Heinrich Hertz
1228:speed of light
1204:
1201:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1161:chemical bonds
1147:chemical bonds
1052:which are the
934:speed of light
904:radiant energy
886:) consists of
870:
869:
867:
866:
859:
852:
844:
841:
840:
837:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
655:
652:
651:
648:
647:
644:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
621:Four-potential
618:
613:
608:
602:
597:
596:
593:
592:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
536:Electric motor
533:
528:
523:
517:
512:
511:
508:
507:
504:
503:
498:
493:
491:Series circuit
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
461:Kirchhoff laws
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
426:Direct current
423:
418:
413:
407:
402:
401:
398:
397:
394:
393:
388:
383:
381:Maxwell tensor
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
351:Larmor formula
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
301:Bremsstrahlung
297:
292:
291:
288:
287:
284:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
251:Magnetic field
248:
243:
238:
233:
227:
224:Magnetostatics
222:
221:
218:
217:
214:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
156:Electric field
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
126:Charge density
122:
119:Electrostatics
117:
116:
113:
112:
111:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
72:
71:
63:
62:
56:
55:
54:Articles about
46:magnetic field
42:electric field
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9932:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9913:
9911:
9908:
9907:
9905:
9892:
9891:
9878:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9849:
9846:
9844:
9841:
9840:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9827:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9817:Manufacturing
9815:
9813:
9810:
9809:
9807:
9803:
9797:
9794:
9792:
9789:
9785:
9782:
9781:
9780:
9777:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9762:
9761:
9759:
9757:
9753:
9750:
9748:
9744:
9738:
9735:
9733:
9730:
9728:
9725:
9723:
9720:
9718:
9715:
9711:
9708:
9707:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9669:
9666:
9664:
9661:
9660:
9659:
9656:
9654:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9641:
9637:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9628:
9626:
9624:
9621:
9619:
9616:
9615:
9613:
9609:
9601:
9598:
9597:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9590:Magnetosphere
9588:
9586:
9583:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9567:
9565:
9563:
9559:
9554:
9538:
9535:
9534:
9533:
9530:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9520:
9516:
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9491:
9488:
9486:
9483:
9482:
9481:
9478:
9477:
9475:
9471:
9465:
9462:
9460:
9457:
9453:
9450:
9449:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9415:
9411:
9408:
9404:
9400:
9393:
9388:
9386:
9381:
9379:
9374:
9373:
9370:
9359:
9355:
9351:
9350:Radioactivity
9347:
9340:
9334:
9331:
9329:
9326:
9324:
9321:
9319:
9316:
9314:
9311:
9310:
9308:
9304:
9298:
9295:
9293:
9290:
9288:
9285:
9283:
9280:
9278:
9275:
9274:
9272:
9268:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9227:
9224:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9175:
9172:
9170:
9167:
9166:
9164:
9163:
9161:
9155:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9112:
9110:
9107:
9105:
9102:
9100:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9076:
9073:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9016:Beta particle
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9002:
9001:Cluster decay
8999:
8997:
8994:
8993:
8991:
8989:
8985:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8940:
8938:
8936:
8932:
8929:
8927:Main articles
8925:
8920:
8913:
8908:
8906:
8901:
8899:
8894:
8893:
8890:
8878:
8875:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8859:
8856:
8850:
8847:
8845:
8842:
8841:
8839:
8835:
8829:
8826:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8813:
8812:
8809:
8805:
8802:
8799:
8798:
8797:
8794:
8793:
8791:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8770:
8765:
8763:
8758:
8756:
8751:
8750:
8747:
8740:
8736:
8735:
8731:
8728:
8723:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8713:
8707:
8704:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8679:
8673:
8669:
8665:
8664:Allen Taflove
8661:
8657:
8651:
8647:
8643:
8639:
8635:
8629:
8625:
8620:
8616:
8610:
8606:
8601:
8597:
8591:
8587:
8586:
8580:
8576:
8570:
8566:
8561:
8560:
8543:
8539:
8535:
8534:
8526:
8522:
8518:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8501:(1): 013819.
8500:
8496:
8489:
8474:
8470:
8464:
8449:
8445:
8439:
8431:
8427:
8423:
8419:
8415:
8411:
8404:
8396:
8392:
8388:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8371:(9): 978–86.
8370:
8366:
8362:
8355:
8348:
8345:formation of
8344:
8343:photochemical
8340:
8334:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8317:(7): 1901–7.
8316:
8312:
8308:
8300:
8292:
8288:
8282:
8275:
8271:
8268:
8263:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8243:
8239:
8235:
8228:
8220:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8187:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8148:
8140:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8114:
8107:
8099:
8095:
8091:
8085:
8081:
8076:
8075:
8066:
8064:
8044:
8040:
8033:
8027:
8011:
8007:
8003:
7997:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7967:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7937:
7935:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7891:
7883:
7870:
7851:
7844:
7836:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7818:
7811:
7803:
7799:
7794:
7789:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7770:
7762:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7739:
7738:
7729:
7713:
7709:
7703:
7687:
7683:
7676:
7669:
7665:
7660:
7658:
7656:
7647:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7606:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7576:
7568:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7519:
7511:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7470:
7462:
7456:
7452:
7451:
7443:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7413:
7405:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7380:
7370:
7362:
7356:
7352:
7351:
7343:
7335:
7329:
7313:
7309:
7302:
7294:
7288:
7284:
7277:
7269:
7263:
7259:
7252:
7244:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7225:
7220:
7214:
7206:
7200:
7196:
7191:
7190:
7181:
7173:
7172:
7165:
7157:
7151:
7147:
7146:
7138:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7041:
7026:
7022:
7016:
7008:
7002:
6998:
6994:
6987:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6957:
6941:
6937:
6933:
6927:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6897:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6855:
6848:
6829:
6822:
6815:
6799:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6769:
6768:
6763:
6757:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6740:10.1038/25303
6737:
6733:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6704:
6689:
6683:
6676:
6672:
6666:
6650:
6646:
6640:
6624:
6620:
6614:
6598:
6594:
6588:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6558:
6543:
6539:
6532:
6524:
6518:
6514:
6513:
6505:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6475:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6445:
6437:
6431:
6427:
6426:
6418:
6410:
6404:
6400:
6399:
6391:
6382:
6376:
6372:
6364:
6356:
6352:
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6340:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6321:
6313:
6307:
6301:
6297:
6289:
6285:
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6264:
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6256:
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6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6198:
6194:
6192:
6188:
6182:
6180:
6175:
6174:curl operator
6170:
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6145:
6132:
6114:
6110:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6091:
6087:
6077:
6058:
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5992:
5978:
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5918:
5910:
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5764:
5760:
5755:
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5706:
5696:
5679:
5671:
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5614:
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5605:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5584:
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5549:
5539:
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5518:
5514:
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5489:
5485:
5481:
5473:
5455:
5450:
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5418:
5414:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5393:
5375:
5370:
5295:
5273:
5257:
5242:
5238:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5217:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5179:
5165:
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5104:
5100:
5092:
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5070:
5062:
5058:
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5019:
4998:
4994:
4984:
4970:
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4948:
4940:
4936:
4926:
4916:
4908:
4904:
4894:
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4876:
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4667:
4660:
4656:
4650:
4645:
4642:
4637:
4612:
4592:
4587:
4583:
4574:
4573:wave equation
4568:
4555:
4547:
4543:
4527:
4514:
4510:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4486:
4472:
4470:
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4174:
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3977:
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3650:
3631:
3592:
3569:
3555:
3542:
3521:
3510:
3489:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3469:(measured in
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3453:(measured in
3452:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3387:
3370:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3323:
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3305:
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3125:
3121:
3115:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3071:
3068:
3067:free radicals
3064:
3060:
3054:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3036:
3031:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3009:
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3002:
2998:
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2987:
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2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2897:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2874:
2871:) of various
2870:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2809:
2799:
2797:
2796:electron volt
2793:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2762:
2760:
2759:ultraviolet A
2756:
2751:
2749:
2745:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2676:
2669:Visible light
2666:
2664:
2658:
2656:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2592:
2591:Planck energy
2586:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2495:
2489:
2483:
2482:Low frequency
2477:
2471:
2465:
2460:(radio waves)
2459:
2452:
2446:
2436:
2429:
2428:Visible light
2422:
2414:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2316:radioactivity
2312:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1987:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1956:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1940:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1743:monochromatic
1740:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1637:curl operator
1634:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1607:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1572:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1547:
1532:
1528:
1519:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1393:superposition
1384:
1375:
1372:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1351:power density
1348:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1182:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1070:energy levels
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
975:visible light
972:
968:
964:
959:
954:
952:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
865:
860:
858:
853:
851:
846:
845:
843:
842:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
656:
650:
649:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
603:
600:
595:
594:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
518:
515:
510:
509:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
456:Joule heating
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
408:
405:
400:
399:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
371:Lorentz force
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
295:
290:
289:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
271:Magnetization
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
256:Magnetic flux
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
228:
225:
220:
219:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
161:Electric flux
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
123:
120:
115:
114:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
98:Computational
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
75:
74:
73:
69:
65:
64:
61:
58:
57:
53:
52:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
9881:
9769:Architecture
9653:Colonization
9627:Archaeology
9442:Neuroscience
9399:... in space
9354:Radiobiology
9236:Radiobiology
9196:Laser safety
9083:
8849:Quintessence
8733:
8696:
8667:
8645:
8623:
8604:
8584:
8564:
8545:. Retrieved
8542:Khan Academy
8541:
8498:
8495:Phys. Rev. A
8494:
8488:
8476:. Retrieved
8472:
8463:
8451:. Retrieved
8447:
8438:
8416:(1): 37–53.
8413:
8409:
8403:
8368:
8364:
8354:
8314:
8310:
8299:
8289:. CBS News.
8281:
8262:
8240:(1): 47–56.
8237:
8233:
8227:
8200:
8196:
8186:
8161:
8157:
8147:
8120:
8116:
8106:
8073:
8050:. Retrieved
8043:the original
8038:
8026:
8014:. Retrieved
8005:
7996:
7984:. Retrieved
7980:the original
7976:docs.kde.org
7975:
7966:
7954:. Retrieved
7945:
7903:(7): 28–43.
7900:
7896:
7890:
7869:cite journal
7857:. Retrieved
7843:
7816:
7810:
7783:
7779:
7769:
7736:
7728:
7716:. Retrieved
7712:the original
7702:
7690:. Retrieved
7686:the original
7675:
7664:Jeans, James
7622:(2): 48–51.
7619:
7615:
7605:
7595:29 September
7593:. Retrieved
7584:
7575:
7532:
7528:
7518:
7483:
7479:
7469:
7449:
7442:
7430:. Retrieved
7421:
7412:
7385:
7379:
7369:
7349:
7342:
7316:. Retrieved
7301:
7285:. OpenStax.
7282:
7276:
7257:
7251:
7223:
7219:Weinberg, S.
7213:
7188:
7180:
7170:
7164:
7144:
7137:
7125:. Retrieved
7117:Live Science
7116:
7107:
7054:
7050:
7040:
7028:. Retrieved
7024:
7015:
6996:
6986:
6974:. Retrieved
6965:
6956:
6944:. Retrieved
6935:
6926:
6914:. Retrieved
6905:
6896:
6864:
6860:
6847:
6835:. Retrieved
6828:the original
6814:
6802:. Retrieved
6797:
6794:Spectroscopy
6793:
6784:
6772:. Retrieved
6766:
6756:
6713:
6709:
6703:
6691:. Retrieved
6682:
6674:
6670:
6665:
6653:. Retrieved
6648:
6639:
6627:. Retrieved
6622:
6613:
6601:. Retrieved
6596:
6587:
6575:. Retrieved
6566:
6557:
6545:. Retrieved
6541:
6531:
6511:
6504:
6492:. Retrieved
6483:
6474:
6462:. Retrieved
6453:
6444:
6424:
6417:
6397:
6390:
6370:
6363:
6330:
6326:
6320:
6311:
6295:
6288:
6195:
6187:polarization
6183:
6168:
6164:
6078:
6045:
5979:
5786:
5660:
5258:
5166:
5150:
5085:This is the
5084:
5020:
4570:
4474:
4466:
4464:
4371:
4359:
4353:
4351:
4340:
4162:
4154:
4152:
4141:
4014:
4008:
4006:
3995:
3893:
3891:
3730:
3721:permittivity
3682:permeability
3401:
3390:
3299:
3247:
3173:
3123:
3117:
3083:
3055:
3051:
3040:
3034:
3032:
3025:
3003:
2999:
2990:
2983:
2979:
2958:fluorescence
2938:
2935:Planck's law
2904:
2900:
2893:
2887:and finally
2878:
2815:
2789:
2774:
2752:
2740:
2737:
2731:
2713:
2693:
2678:
2663:far infrared
2659:
2651:
2625:
2621:
2610:
2587:
2573:
2565:
2563:
2553:in terms of
2516:
2453:(microwaves)
2447:(microwaves)
2401:
2352:Paul Villard
2313:
2303:
2282:
2254:
2223:
2193:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2150:
2139:
2116:
2110:spectrum of
2087:
2079:
2054:, a type of
2052:fluorescence
2048:energy level
2046:to a higher
2033:
2022:
2016:
2002:
1927:
1925:
1908:
1880:
1878:
1821:
1817:
1781:black bodies
1777:
1755:
1747:
1742:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1707:
1666:
1644:
1640:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1524:
1500:
1489:
1474:
1469:
1459:
1424:
1409:
1405:interference
1390:
1368:
1362:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1319:
1309:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1257:
1206:
1150:
1138:non-ionizing
1136:
1126:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1044:, uncharged
1035:
1017:, while the
998:acceleration
991:
955:
937:
918:oscillations
913:
908:
883:
879:
873:
616:Four-current
551:Linear motor
436:Electrolysis
335:
316:Eddy current
276:Permeability
196:Polarization
191:Permittivity
29:
9680:Exploration
9618:Advertising
9562:Environment
9537:Astrobotany
9500:Fruit flies
8978:Ultraviolet
8973:Radio waves
8844:Fifth force
8828:Gravitation
8800:fundamental
8039:astro.lu.se
7486:: 284–292.
7318:4 September
7231:. pp.
7127:4 September
6976:4 September
6946:4 September
6916:4 September
6867:(9): 1210.
6837:22 December
6577:4 September
6494:4 September
6464:4 September
6333:: 459–512.
6179:phase shift
5658:direction.
4352:Combining (
4019:), yields:
3507:yields the
3035:non-thermal
2873:wavelengths
2839:ozone layer
2771:Ultraviolet
2765:Ultraviolet
2723:carotenoids
2719:chlorophyll
2539:ultraviolet
2519:near fields
2433:NIR = Near-
2421:ultraviolet
2336:pitchblende
2328:Marie Curie
2322:found that
2295:radio waves
2283:In 1862–64
2279:(1831–1879)
2261:ultraviolet
2259:discovered
2250:thermometer
2144:) conducts
1800:. In 1905,
1787:. In 1900,
1439:Snell's law
1433:alters its
1420:Kerr effect
1322:(decreased
1316:transformer
1033:phenomena.
996:undergoing
979:ultraviolet
963:radio waves
946:wavelengths
910:Classically
586:Transformer
416:Capacitance
341:Faraday law
136:Coulomb law
78:Electricity
9904:Categories
9862:Telescopes
9747:Technology
9600:Weathering
9447:Psychology
9432:Locomotion
9159:and health
9157:Radiation
9026:Cosmic ray
8453:1 November
7692:18 October
7432:19 January
7064:1602.04463
6804:17 January
6693:14 January
6629:16 October
6280:References
3898:) yields:
3509:divergence
3465:) and the
3128:free space
3078:See also:
2986:black body
2952:, or even
2907:ionosphere
2851:ionosphere
2826:gamma rays
2812:Gamma rays
2681:wavelength
2603:Radio wave
2555:sinusoidal
2547:gamma rays
2411:HX = Hard
2407:Gamma rays
2357:gamma rays
2299:microwaves
2210:See also:
2157:wavelength
2096:light beam
2060:blacklight
1789:Max Planck
1768:See also:
1669:wavelength
1662:dispersion
1513:Wave model
1507:diffracted
1455:dispersion
1453:material (
1427:refraction
1378:Properties
1222:and their
1210:derived a
1119:10 Hz
1111:10 Hz
1048:with zero
1019:near field
987:gamma rays
967:microwaves
961:includes:
898:and carry
653:Scientists
501:Waveguides
481:Resistance
451:Inductance
231:Ampère law
9920:Radiation
9843:for Earth
9830:Batteries
9812:Logistics
9764:Accidents
9710:Christmas
9575:Corrosion
9515:Tortoises
9473:Non-human
9313:Half-life
9186:Dosimetry
9021:Gamma ray
8968:Microwave
8958:Starlight
8919:Radiation
8508:0810.5689
7946:nuceng.ca
7925:121347063
7917:0971-8044
7897:Resonance
7646:135584871
7638:1551-9295
7549:0022-202X
7057:: 26019.
6355:186207827
6218:Bolometer
6146:×
6027:×
6021:^
5960:∂
5950:∂
5944:−
5919:−
5911:⋅
5905:^
5868:×
5862:^
5843:×
5840:∇
5811:^
5800:⋅
5748:−
5740:⋅
5734:^
5697:⋅
5691:^
5672:⋅
5669:∇
5643:^
5593:−
5585:⋅
5579:^
5546:∂
5536:∂
5482:−
5474:⋅
5468:^
5442:∇
5402:−
5394:⋅
5388:^
5324:^
5226:−
5218:⋅
5212:^
5131:μ
5101:ε
5059:ε
5049:μ
4991:∂
4981:∂
4949:−
4933:∂
4923:∂
4901:∂
4891:∂
4869:∂
4859:∂
4837:∂
4827:∂
4795:−
4786:∇
4779:◻
4755:◻
4726:◻
4693:∂
4679:∂
4634:∇
4540:∂
4524:∂
4511:ε
4501:μ
4483:∇
4437:∂
4421:∂
4408:ε
4398:μ
4380:∇
4311:∂
4295:∂
4282:ε
4272:μ
4268:−
4252:×
4249:∇
4235:∂
4231:∂
4226:−
4209:∂
4199:∂
4193:−
4185:×
4182:∇
4111:∇
4107:−
4090:∇
4086:−
4073:⋅
4070:∇
4062:∇
4046:×
4043:∇
4035:×
4032:∇
3968:∂
3958:∂
3952:−
3944:×
3941:∇
3925:×
3922:∇
3914:×
3911:∇
3864:∇
3860:−
3847:⋅
3844:∇
3836:∇
3820:×
3817:∇
3809:×
3806:∇
3701:ε
3692:/m), and
3662:μ
3629:∂
3619:∂
3590:∂
3580:∂
3522:×
3519:∇
3490:⋅
3487:∇
3368:∂
3358:∂
3346:ε
3336:μ
3324:×
3321:∇
3272:⋅
3269:∇
3225:∂
3215:∂
3209:−
3198:×
3195:∇
3146:⋅
3143:∇
3098:magnetron
3090:death ray
2705:rhodopsin
2689:human eye
2613:conductor
2607:Microwave
2527:microwave
2171:relation
2161:frequency
2124:red shift
2024:intensity
2018:frequency
1983:λ
1895:λ
1860:λ
1737:into its
1692:λ
1649:frequency
1573:⋅
1570:∇
1548:⋅
1545:∇
1503:polarized
1355:isotropic
1337:radiation
1286:radiation
1258:radiation
1078:quantized
1068:to lower
1050:rest mass
1015:far field
942:frequency
809:Steinmetz
739:Kirchhoff
724:Jefimenko
719:Hopkinson
704:Helmholtz
699:Heaviside
561:Permeance
446:Impedance
186:Insulator
181:Gauss law
131:Conductor
108:Phenomena
103:Textbooks
83:Magnetism
9705:Religion
9695:Military
9631:of Earth
9510:Primates
9437:Medicine
8963:Sunlight
8948:Infrared
8877:Universe
8804:residual
8644:(1999).
8430:15753968
8395:22224492
8387:20883261
8333:22318388
8291:Archived
8270:Archived
8219:16495939
8098:49700531
8052:24 March
8016:24 March
8010:Archived
7986:24 March
7956:24 March
7950:Archived
7859:19 April
7802:22318388
7589:Archived
7567:20463675
7426:Archived
7328:cite web
7312:Archived
7221:(1995).
7121:Archived
7099:27184813
7030:29 March
6970:Archived
6940:Archived
6910:Archived
6885:Archived
6790:"Prisms"
6764:(1920).
6748:16080209
6571:Archived
6488:Archived
6458:Archived
6312:Poynting
6223:CONELRAD
6201:See also
6163:. Also,
5887:′
5716:′
4169:yields:
3449:are the
3047:Group 2B
2885:dioxygen
2881:nitrogen
2648:Infrared
2642:Infrared
2531:infrared
2435:infrared
2226:infrared
2175:, where
2169:Planck's
2108:emission
2104:emission
2044:electron
1810:electron
1462:particle
1443:spectrum
1418:and the
1412:crystals
1224:symmetry
1216:electric
1152:ionizing
1093:, where
1002:momentum
971:infrared
922:electric
900:momentum
834:Wiechert
789:Poynting
679:Einstein
526:DC motor
521:AC motor
356:Lenz law
141:Electret
9867:Weapons
9835:Nuclear
9796:Writing
9791:Toilets
9774:Farming
9722:Tourism
9717:Selfies
9658:Economy
9623:Alcohol
9611:Society
9595:Weather
9570:Climate
9480:Animals
9427:Hygiene
9406:Biology
9174:chronic
8780:physics
8513:Bibcode
8478:8 March
8254:2346507
8178:9383244
8139:7107514
8130:1167891
7747:Bibcode
7718:4 April
7666:(1947)
7558:2926798
7488:Bibcode
7374:orbits.
7090:4869035
7069:Bibcode
6869:Bibcode
6774:15 June
6728:Bibcode
6655:26 July
6335:Bibcode
6253:Helicon
4358:) and (
3719:is the
3680:is the
2911:skywave
2869:opacity
2847:skywave
2744:Retinal
2701:retinal
2557:waves (
2535:visible
2513:(radio)
2507:(radio)
2501:(radio)
2490:(radio)
2484:(radio)
2478:(radio)
2472:(radio)
2466:(radio)
2402:Legend:
2324:uranium
2242:refract
2183:is the
2165:photons
2142:antenna
2112:nebulae
2040:excites
2013:voltage
1911:is the
1883:is the
1449:of the
1431:density
1369:In the
1294:sources
1171:Physics
1105:is the
1056:of the
1042:photons
1023:current
928:. In a
890:of the
876:physics
819:Thomson
794:Ritchie
784:Poisson
769:Neumann
764:Maxwell
759:Lorentz
754:Liénard
684:Faraday
669:Coulomb
496:Voltage
471:Ohm law
93:History
9839:Solar
9826:Power
9822:Mining
9727:Voting
9675:Ethics
9663:Mining
9648:Burial
9580:Debris
9532:Plants
9356:, and
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5787:Thus,
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4605:where
3457:/m or
3402:where
2975:lasers
2968:, the
2941:matter
2857:, and
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2808:X-rays
2709:retina
2617:induce
2566:random
2543:X-rays
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2309:X-rays
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8503:arXiv
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