954:
1520:
908:. Maxwell's equations detail how the electric field converges towards or diverges away from electric charges, how the magnetic field curls around electrical currents, and how changes in the electric and magnetic fields influence each other. The Lorentz force law states that a charge subject to an electric field feels a force along the direction of the field, and a charge moving through a magnetic field feels a force that is perpendicular both to the magnetic field and to its direction of motion.
61:
1799:
1739:
moves against a background of positively charged ions, and the densities of positive and negative charges cancel each other out. A test charge near the wire would feel no electrical force from the wire. However, if the test charge is in motion parallel to the current, the situation changes. In the rest frame of the test charge, the positive and negative charges in the wire are moving at different speeds, and so the positive and negative charge distributions are
3006:
1743:
by different amounts. Consequently, the wire has a nonzero net charge density, and the test charge must experience a nonzero electric field and thus a nonzero force. In the rest frame of the laboratory, there is no electric field to explain the test charge being pulled towards or pushed away from the
1759:
Thus, electrostatics and magnetostatics are now seen as studies of the static EM field when a particular frame has been selected to suppress the other type of field, and since an EM field with both electric and magnetic will appear in any other frame, these "simpler" effects are merely a consequence
1485:
is the current density vector, also a function of time and position. Inside a linear material, Maxwell's equations change by switching the permeability and permittivity of free space with the permeability and permittivity of the linear material in question. Inside other materials which possess more
2271:
The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency, intensity of the fields, and the length of the exposure. Low frequency, low intensity, and short duration exposure to electromagnetic radiation is generally considered safe. On the other hand,
1738:
makes mathematically precise. For example, suppose that a laboratory contains a long straight wire that carries an electrical current. In the frame of reference where the laboratory is at rest, the wire is motionless and electrically neutral: the current, composed of negatively charged electrons,
1778:
The two
Maxwell equations, Faraday's Law and the Ampère–Maxwell Law, illustrate a very practical feature of the electromagnetic field. Faraday's Law may be stated roughly as "a changing magnetic field inside a loop creates an electric voltage around the loop". This is the principle behind the
1751:
In general, a situation that one observer describes using only an electric field will be described by an observer in a different inertial frame using a combination of electric and magnetic fields. Analogously, a phenomenon that one observer describes using only a magnetic field will be, in a
981:
as well as an electric field are produced when the charge moves, creating an electric current with respect to this observer. Over time, it was realized that the electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole—the electromagnetic field. In 1820,
1392:
1535:
The
Maxwell equations simplify when the charge density at each point in space does not change over time and all electric currents likewise remain constant. All of the time derivatives vanish from the equations, leaving two expressions that involve the electric field,
986:
showed that an electric current can deflect a nearby compass needle, establishing that electricity and magnetism are closely related phenomena. Faraday then made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents in 1831.
2111:
1999:
1021:
Practical applications of the new understanding of electromagnetic fields emerged in the late 1800s. The electrical generator and motor were invented using only the empirical findings like
Faraday's and Ampere's laws combined with practical experience.
1760:
of different frames of measurement. The fact that the two field variations can be reproduced just by changing the motion of the observer is further evidence that there is only a single actual field involved which is simply being observed differently.
891:. Because of the interrelationship between the fields, a disturbance in the electric field can create a disturbance in the magnetic field which in turn affects the electric field, leading to an oscillation that propagates through space, known as an
969:, that two objects carrying charge of the same sign repel each other, that two objects carrying charges of opposite sign attract one another, and that the strength of this force falls off as the square of the distance between them.
1295:
965:, who around 600 BCE described his experiments rubbing fur of animals on various materials such as amber creating static electricity. By the 18th century, it was understood that objects can carry positive or negative
1193:
1582:
1702:
1306:
2891:
1040:. These vector fields each have a value defined at every point of space and time and are thus often regarded as functions of the space and time coordinates. As such, they are often written as
1619:
2005:
1893:
1653:
1233:
2876:
1786:
Ampere's Law roughly states that "an electrical current around a loop creates a magnetic field through the loop". Thus, this law can be applied to generate a magnetic field and run an
1442:
1010:. The Lorentz theory works for free charges in electromagnetic fields, but fails to predict the energy spectrum for bound charges in atoms and molecules. For that problem,
1473:
2955:
1875:
1415:
998:
is an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's continuous field theory was very successful until evidence supporting the atomic model of matter emerged. Beginning in 1877,
1299:
2127:. This unified the physical understanding of electricity, magnetism, and light: visible light is but one portion of the full range of electromagnetic waves, the
1117:. However, if either the electric or magnetic field has a time-dependence, then both fields must be considered together as a coupled electromagnetic field using
1031:
618:
2234:. Otherwise, they appear parasitically around conductors which absorb EMR, and around antennas which have the purpose of generating EMR at greater distances.
1539:
1244:
1036:
There are different mathematical ways of representing the electromagnetic field. The first one views the electric and magnetic fields as three-dimensional
1752:
relatively moving reference frame, described by a combination of fields. The rules for relating the fields required in different reference frames are the
2811:
591:
2902:
1658:
1753:
1721:
603:
2684:
1150:
2165:(EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source. Such radiation can occur across a wide range of frequencies called the
2200:
A notable application of visible light is that this type of energy from the Sun powers all life on Earth that either makes or uses oxygen.
1132:. Maxwell's equations can be written in tensor form, generally viewed by physicists as a more elegant means of expressing physical laws.
994:
synthesized all the work to date on electrical and magnetic phenomena into a single mathematical theory, from which he then deduced that
977:. An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an observer measuring the properties of the charge, and a
854:
623:
1237:
2349:
932:
1734:
Whether a physical effect is attributable to an electric field or to a magnetic field is dependent upon the observer, in a way that
2294:
1587:
1387:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\mathbf {J} +\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}}
633:
1624:
961:
The empirical investigation of electromagnetism is at least as old as the ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician and scientist
3010:
458:
17:
2823:
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473:
468:
95:
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When a field travels across to different media, the behavior of the field changes according to the properties of the media.
953:
2373:
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483:
2546:
2519:
2673:
2492:
900:
The way in which charges and currents (i.e. streams of charges) interact with the electromagnetic field is described by
2940:
2805:
2708:
Stauffer, Robert C. (1957). "Speculation and experiment in the background of
Oersted's discovery of electromagnetism".
2756:
948:
85:
2106:{\displaystyle \left(\nabla ^{2}-{1 \over {c}^{2}}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial t^{2}}\right)\mathbf {B} \ \ =\ \ 0}
1994:{\displaystyle \left(\nabla ^{2}-{1 \over {c}^{2}}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial t^{2}}\right)\mathbf {E} \ \ =\ \ 0}
353:
2659:
38:
2631:
1204:
268:
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1725:
1486:
complex responses to electromagnetic fields, these terms are often represented by complex numbers, or tensors.
924:
847:
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90:
919:. This theory describes many macroscopic physical phenomena accurately. However, it was unable to explain the
1884:
1811:
1769:
628:
333:
1197:
493:
233:
100:
2119:
was the first to obtain this relationship by his completion of
Maxwell's equations with the addition of a
1773:
223:
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661:
558:
533:
453:
1139:(electromagnetic fields), is governed by Maxwell's equations. In the vector field formalism, these are:
2665:
2595:
2197:. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.
286:
1420:
3026:
2314:
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2156:
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1135:
The behavior of electric and magnetic fields, whether in cases of electrostatics, magnetostatics, or
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328:
318:
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253:
193:
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2319:
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devices. These include motors and electrical transformers at low frequencies, and devices such as
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2981:(This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.)
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8:
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879:, mathematical functions of position and time, representing the influences on and due to
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2203:
A changing electromagnetic field which is physically close to currents and charges (see
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2204:
2152:
2140:
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1290:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}
1125:
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716:
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2964:
2807:
The 2007 recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
2719:
2324:
2304:
2241:
dipole fields (i.e., magnetic near-fields) are used commercially for many types of
2230:
dipole fields, as such, are used commercially as near-fields mainly as a source of
2148:
816:
731:
691:
681:
568:
523:
506:
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358:
128:
52:
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suspended over an infinite sheet of conducting material. The field is depicted by
883:. The field at any point in space and time can be regarded as a combination of an
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2212:
1524:
1136:
999:
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An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called
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2992:. New York: Random House. Ch. 3, §§ "Force", "Matter", and "The Higgs Field".
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811:
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448:
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153:
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1188:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}}
1037:
806:
701:
666:
608:
543:
463:
428:
308:
183:
1493:
governs the interaction of the electromagnetic field with charged matter.
2872:
2277:
1798:
726:
578:
408:
70:
1708:, which focuses on situations where electrical charges do not move, and
1577:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\epsilon _{0}}}}
2584:
2170:
1854:
1815:
1807:
1528:
443:
2731:
2219:. This type of dipole field near sources is called an electromagnetic
1763:
2953:(1 January 1865). "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".
2281:
2194:
2174:
766:
741:
553:
75:
1744:
wire. So, an observer in the laboratory rest frame concludes that a
2877:
United States
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
2815:
2723:
2178:
1838:, are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation.
1103:) is non-zero, and is constant in time, the field is said to be an
1007:
518:
513:
133:
1810:
propagating parallel to the z-axis is a possible solution for the
1531:, lines which follow the direction of the electric field in space.
1417:
is the charge density, which is a function of time and position,
1113:) is non-zero and is constant in time, the field is said to be a
488:
2604:, pp. 61–79, §4. Quantities used in radiological protection
2134:
1697:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\mathbf {J} .}
3005:
2935:(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
2507:
2344:
2208:
2190:
1129:
573:
80:
27:
Electric and magnetic fields produced by moving charged objects
2422:
2410:
2284:, are known to cause significant harm in some circumstances.
995:
1853:. In a volume of space not containing charges or currents (
1794:
Behavior of the fields in the absence of charges or currents
1715:
973:
visualized this in terms of the charges interacting via the
927:, experiments at the atomic scale. That required the use of
2890:
2590:
2534:
2246:
2897:(Report). Norfolk, Virginia: Environmental Health Center,
1002:
developed an atomic model of electromagnetism and in 1897
2956:
2388:
2254:
1883:
are zero, the electric and magnetic fields satisfy these
1621:
along with two formulae that involve the magnetic field:
2434:
1849:. The solutions of these equations take the form of an
2211:
characteristic that is dominated by either a changing
1032:
Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field
2683:
Ling, Samuel J.; Moebs, William; Sanny, Jeff (2023).
2008:
1896:
1863:
1661:
1627:
1590:
1542:
1454:
1423:
1403:
1309:
1247:
1207:
1153:
957:
Results of
Michael Faraday's iron filings experiment.
2685:"16.1 Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves"
2618:
2552:
2525:
2498:
2446:
2379:
1504:
1128:, physical laws became amenable to the formalism of
2457:
1764:
Reciprocal behavior of electric and magnetic fields
2105:
1993:
1869:
1696:
1647:
1613:
1576:
1467:
1436:
1409:
1386:
1289:
1227:
1187:
2573:
2399:
1722:Classical electromagnetism and special relativity
3018:
1712:, the corresponding area of magnetic phenomena.
1014:is needed, ultimately leading to the theory of
2682:
2394:
2135:Time-varying EM fields in Maxwell's equations
1704:These expressions are the basic equations of
1614:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =0,}
848:
2654:
2540:
2513:
2440:
2428:
2416:
1648:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}
1228:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}
1025:
2854:"A Timeline of Events in Electromagnetism"
2765:
2486:
1499:
911:The electromagnetic field is described by
855:
841:
59:
2928:
2873:"NIOSH Fact Sheet: EMFs in the Workplace"
2852:
2746:
2474:
2452:
2350:Quantization of the electromagnetic field
2207:for a definition of "close") will have a
1716:Transformations of electromagnetic fields
1107:. Similarly, if only the magnetic field (
933:quantization of the electromagnetic field
2803:
2707:
2601:
2463:
2295:Classification of electromagnetic fields
1797:
1518:
952:
2949:
1006:completed experiments that defined the
604:Electromagnetism and special relativity
37:For the British hacker convention, see
14:
3019:
2832:
2405:
2871:
2784:
2579:
2567:
2257:scanner coils at higher frequencies.
1754:Lorentz transformations of the fields
624:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
2768:Schaum's Outline of Electromagnetics
2553:Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1970)
2526:Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1970)
2499:Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1970)
2380:Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1970)
2267:Electromagnetic radiation and health
2260:
1523:Electric field of a positive point
24:
2984:
2921:
2591:Ultraviolet Radiation Guide (1992)
2325:Electromagnetic field measurements
2272:radiation from other parts of the
2059:
2049:
2015:
1947:
1937:
1903:
1662:
1628:
1591:
1543:
1375:
1365:
1310:
1278:
1268:
1248:
1208:
1154:
25:
3038:
2998:
1505:Electrostatics and magnetostatics
949:History of electromagnetic theory
3004:
2489:, Examples and practice problems
2081:
1969:
1687:
1669:
1635:
1598:
1550:
1437:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}
1369:
1335:
1317:
1272:
1255:
1215:
1161:
39:Electromagnetic Field (festival)
2932:Introduction to Electrodynamics
2789:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
2787:Field and Wave Electromagnetics
2633:The Feynman Lectures on Physics
2766:Edminister, Joseph A. (1995).
2395:Ling, Moebs & Sanny (2023)
1885:electromagnetic wave equations
1812:electromagnetic wave equations
1726:Electromagnetic four-potential
925:atomic absorption spectroscopy
13:
1:
2835:"Electricity & Magnetism"
2770:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
2570:, Intermediate-level textbook
2477:, Intermediate-level textbook
2361:
629:Relativistic electromagnetism
2929:Griffiths, David J. (1999).
2901:. April 1992. Archived from
2747:Wangsness, Roald K. (1986).
2366:
1097:If only the electric field (
7:
2892:Ultraviolet Radiation Guide
2310:Electromagnetic propagation
2287:
10:
3043:
2804:Valentin, J., ed. (2007).
2666:Cambridge University Press
2658:; Morin, David J. (2012).
2611:
2541:Purcell & Morin (2012)
2514:Purcell & Morin (2012)
2441:Purcell & Morin (2012)
2429:Purcell & Morin (2012)
2417:Purcell & Morin (2012)
2264:
2138:
1845:can be combined to derive
1770:Faraday's law of induction
1767:
1719:
1508:
1029:
946:
942:
354:Liénard–Wiechert potential
36:
29:
2841:. Northwestern University
2814:publication 103. Oxford:
2693:. Vol. 2. OpenStax.
2661:Electricity and Magnetism
2315:Electromagnetic radiation
2163:electromagnetic radiation
2157:Electromagnetic induction
1198:Gauss's law for magnetism
913:classical electrodynamics
619:Mathematical descriptions
329:Electromagnetic radiation
319:Electromagnetic induction
259:Magnetic vector potential
254:Magnetic scalar potential
2990:The Fabric of the Cosmos
2785:Cheng, David K. (1989).
2320:Electromagnetic spectrum
2274:electromagnetic spectrum
2167:electromagnetic spectrum
2129:electromagnetic spectrum
1468:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
1026:Mathematical description
30:Not to be confused with
2751:(2nd ed.). Wiley.
2355:Quantum electrodynamics
1748:field must be present.
1500:Properties of the field
1016:quantum electrodynamics
937:quantum electrodynamics
935:and the development of
169:Electrostatic induction
164:Electrostatic discharge
2969:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
2833:Taylor, David (2012).
2749:Electromagnetic Fields
2638:Addison Wesley Longman
2125:Ampere's circuital law
2107:
1995:
1871:
1839:
1774:Ampère's circuital law
1730:Electromagnetic tensor
1698:
1649:
1615:
1578:
1532:
1469:
1438:
1411:
1388:
1291:
1229:
1189:
958:
917:classical field theory
599:Electromagnetic tensor
18:Electromagnetic fields
3011:Electromagnetic field
2108:
1996:
1872:
1870:{\displaystyle \rho }
1801:
1720:Further information:
1699:
1650:
1616:
1579:
1522:
1470:
1439:
1412:
1410:{\displaystyle \rho }
1389:
1292:
1230:
1190:
984:Hans Christian Ørsted
956:
869:electromagnetic field
592:Covariant formulation
384:Synchrotron radiation
324:Electromagnetic pulse
314:Electromagnetic field
3013:at Wikimedia Commons
2340:Photoelectric effect
2121:displacement current
2006:
1894:
1861:
1851:electromagnetic wave
1659:
1625:
1588:
1540:
1529:electric field lines
1452:
1421:
1401:
1307:
1245:
1205:
1151:
921:photoelectric effect
894:electromagnetic wave
634:Stress–energy tensor
559:Reluctance (complex)
304:Displacement current
2624:Leighton, Robert B.
2335:Maxwell's equations
2117:James Clerk Maxwell
1857:) – that is, where
1843:Maxwell's equations
1477:vacuum permeability
1446:vacuum permittivity
1124:With the advent of
1119:Maxwell's equations
1115:magnetostatic field
1105:electrostatic field
992:James Clerk Maxwell
931:, specifically the
902:Maxwell's equations
549:Magnetomotive force
434:Electromotive force
404:Alternating current
339:Jefimenko equations
299:Cyclotron radiation
32:Electromotive force
2899:United States Navy
2690:University Physics
2656:Purcell, Edward M.
2516:, pp. 259–263
2431:, pp. 277–296
2419:, pp. 436–437
2243:magnetic induction
2232:dielectric heating
2205:near and far field
2153:dielectric heating
2141:near and far field
2103:
1991:
1867:
1840:
1804:linearly polarized
1781:electric generator
1741:Lorentz-contracted
1736:special relativity
1694:
1645:
1611:
1574:
1533:
1465:
1434:
1407:
1384:
1300:Ampère–Maxwell law
1287:
1225:
1185:
1126:special relativity
959:
915:, an example of a
397:Electrical network
234:Gauss magnetic law
199:Static electricity
159:Electric potential
3009:Media related to
2825:978-0-7020-3048-2
2796:978-0-201-12819-2
2700:978-1-947172-27-2
2647:978-0-201-02115-8
2487:Edminister (1995)
2261:Health and safety
2187:ultraviolet light
2145:near field optics
2099:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2073:
2044:
1987:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1961:
1932:
1572:
1491:Lorentz force law
1382:
1285:
1183:
1012:quantum mechanics
963:Thales of Miletus
929:quantum mechanics
906:Lorentz force law
865:
864:
564:Reluctance (real)
534:Gyrator–capacitor
479:Resonant cavities
369:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
3034:
3027:Electromagnetism
3008:
2993:
2980:
2946:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2907:
2896:
2887:
2885:
2884:
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2865:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2839:Ideas of Physics
2829:
2800:
2781:
2762:
2743:
2704:
2679:
2664:(3rd ed.).
2651:
2636:. Vol. II.
2620:Feynman, Richard
2605:
2599:
2593:
2588:
2582:
2577:
2571:
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2550:
2544:
2538:
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2484:
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2475:Wangsness (1986)
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2466:
2461:
2455:
2453:ThoughtCo (2018)
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2444:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2403:
2397:
2392:
2386:
2377:
2305:Electromagnetism
2215:, or a changing
2149:virtual particle
2112:
2110:
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2085:
2084:
2079:
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881:electric charges
857:
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524:Electric machine
507:Magnetic circuit
469:Parallel circuit
459:Network analysis
424:Electric current
359:London equations
204:Triboelectricity
194:Potential energy
63:
53:Electromagnetism
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2675:9781-10701-4022
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2602:Valentin (2007)
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2217:magnetic dipole
2213:electric dipole
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1137:electrodynamics
1108:
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1000:Hendrik Lorentz
971:Michael Faraday
967:electric charge
951:
945:
861:
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638:
594:
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539:Induction motor
509:
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414:Current density
399:
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379:Poynting vector
289:
287:Electrodynamics
279:
278:
274:Right-hand rule
239:Magnetic dipole
229:Biot–Savart law
219:
209:
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144:Electric dipole
139:Electric charge
114:
42:
35:
28:
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15:
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11:
5:
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2999:External links
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2951:Maxwell, J. C.
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2942:978-0138053260
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1847:wave equations
1830:magnetic field
1820:electric field
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1710:magnetostatics
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47:Articles about
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2908:on 2019-12-21
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1004:J. J. Thomson
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449:Joule heating
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364:Lorentz force
362:
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264:Magnetization
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249:Magnetic flux
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154:Electric flux
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91:Computational
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33:
19:
2989:
2960:
2954:
2931:
2910:. Retrieved
2903:the original
2881:. Retrieved
2862:. Retrieved
2857:
2843:. Retrieved
2838:
2806:
2786:
2767:
2748:
2718:(1): 33–50.
2715:
2709:
2689:
2660:
2632:
2597:
2586:
2580:NIOSH (1996)
2575:
2568:Cheng (1989)
2563:
2548:
2536:
2521:
2509:
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2220:
2202:
2199:
2169:, including
2160:
2115:
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1824:
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1777:
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1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1020:
989:
960:
910:
899:
892:
872:
868:
866:
609:Four-current
544:Linear motor
429:Electrolysis
313:
309:Eddy current
269:Permeability
189:Polarization
184:Permittivity
2963:: 459–512.
2443:, p. 2
2278:ultraviolet
2171:radio waves
1144:Gauss's law
579:Transformer
409:Capacitance
334:Faraday law
129:Coulomb law
71:Electricity
2912:2019-12-21
2883:2015-08-31
2864:2023-10-28
2845:2023-01-08
2777:0070212341
2362:References
2282:gamma rays
2280:light and
2276:, such as
2221:near-field
2195:gamma rays
1855:free space
1828:, and the
1816:free space
1808:plane wave
646:Scientists
494:Waveguides
474:Resistance
444:Inductance
224:Ampère law
2977:186207827
2858:ThoughtCo
2740:120063434
2367:Citations
2237:Changing
2226:Changing
2175:microwave
2060:∂
2050:∂
2025:−
2016:∇
1948:∂
1938:∂
1913:−
1904:∇
1865:ρ
1678:μ
1666:×
1663:∇
1632:⋅
1629:∇
1595:×
1592:∇
1564:ϵ
1560:ρ
1547:⋅
1544:∇
1457:μ
1426:ε
1405:ρ
1376:∂
1366:∂
1354:ε
1344:μ
1326:μ
1314:×
1311:∇
1279:∂
1269:∂
1263:−
1252:×
1249:∇
1212:⋅
1209:∇
1175:ε
1171:ρ
1158:⋅
1155:∇
990:In 1861,
802:Steinmetz
732:Kirchhoff
717:Jefimenko
712:Hopkinson
697:Helmholtz
692:Heaviside
554:Permeance
439:Impedance
179:Insulator
174:Gauss law
124:Conductor
101:Phenomena
96:Textbooks
76:Magnetism
3021:Category
2816:Elsevier
2630:(1970).
2288:See also
2239:magnetic
2228:electric
2179:infrared
2123:term to
1746:magnetic
1008:electron
904:and the
873:EM field
827:Wiechert
782:Poynting
672:Einstein
519:DC motor
514:AC motor
349:Lenz law
134:Electret
2612:Sources
1475:is the
1444:is the
1130:tensors
943:History
875:) is a
812:Thomson
787:Ritchie
777:Poisson
762:Neumann
757:Maxwell
752:Lorentz
747:Liénard
677:Faraday
662:Coulomb
489:Voltage
464:Ohm law
86:History
2975:
2939:
2879:. 1996
2860:. 2018
2822:
2793:
2774:
2755:
2738:
2732:226900
2730:
2697:
2672:
2644:
2345:Photon
2253:, and
2249:tags,
2209:dipole
2193:, and
2191:X-rays
2155:, and
2098:
2095:
2089:
2086:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1818:. The
1728:, and
1479:, and
1397:where
1067:) and
887:and a
871:(also
797:Singer
792:Savart
772:Ørsted
737:Larmor
727:Kelvin
682:Fizeau
652:Ampère
574:Stator
81:Optics
2973:S2CID
2906:(PDF)
2895:(PDF)
2736:S2CID
2728:JSTOR
2557:§20.1
2530:§13.6
996:light
822:Weber
817:Volta
807:Tesla
722:Joule
707:Hertz
702:Henry
687:Gauss
569:Rotor
2937:ISBN
2820:ISBN
2812:ICRP
2791:ISBN
2772:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2711:Isis
2695:ISBN
2670:ISBN
2642:ISBN
2503:§4.1
2384:§1.2
2247:RFID
1877:and
1772:and
1655:and
1584:and
1513:and
1489:The
923:and
742:Lenz
667:Davy
657:Biot
2965:doi
2961:155
2720:doi
2255:MRI
1814:in
1094:).
867:An
767:Ohm
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1080:,
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2035:c
2030:1
2020:2
2011:(
1989:0
1980:=
1970:E
1965:)
1956:2
1952:t
1942:2
1928:2
1923:c
1918:1
1908:2
1899:(
1880:J
1835:B
1825:E
1692:.
1688:J
1682:0
1674:=
1670:B
1643:0
1640:=
1636:B
1609:,
1606:0
1603:=
1599:E
1568:0
1555:=
1551:E
1482:J
1461:0
1430:0
1379:t
1370:E
1358:0
1348:0
1340:+
1336:J
1330:0
1322:=
1318:B
1282:t
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1260:=
1256:E
1223:0
1220:=
1216:B
1179:0
1166:=
1162:E
1110:B
1100:E
1090:(
1088:)
1086:t
1082:z
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1074:x
1072:(
1070:B
1063:(
1061:)
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