294:
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1961:
speed/torque curve is important and is high ratio for a servomotor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are important; these factors limit performance. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics tends to favor permanent magnet synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive approaches.
572:
International
Electrotechnical Exhibition, the first long distance three-phase system was successfully presented. It was rated 15 kV and extended over 175 km from the Lauffen waterfall on the Neckar river. The Lauffen power station included a 240 kW 86 V 40 Hz alternator and a step-up transformer while at the exhibition a step-down transformer fed a 100-hp three-phase induction motor that powered an artificial waterfall, representing the transfer of the original power source. The three-phase induction is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications.
1880:, the rotor is constructed without an iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only wire and bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the motor housing, and provides a return path for the flux.
689:, which has a specified magnetic permeability, hysteresis, and saturation. Laminations reduce losses that would result from induced circulating eddy currents that would flow if a solid core were used. Mains powered AC motors typically immobilize the wires within the windings by impregnating them with varnish in a vacuum. This prevents the wires in the winding from vibrating against each other which would abrade the wire insulation and cause premature failures. Resin-packed motors, used in deep well submersible pumps, washing machines, and air conditioners,
1608:
1989:
motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it moves in steps—starting and then stopping—advancing from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down at any time.
1869:
609:
773:
192:
9877:
3107:". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back EMF of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the motor slows down; a lower back EMF results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This increased current provides the additional torque to balance the load.
1456:
1380:
1503:
control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.
45:
8072:
8062:
2008:, where the precision and speed they offered could correctly position the read/write head. As drive density increased, precision and speed limitations made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a cone-type
640:
9937:
9925:
9913:
4105:
4091:
1638:
1406:). The magnetic field produced interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields rotates the shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the poles from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor keeps turning as long as power is applied.
1980:
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283:
1810:
synchronous motor is like an induction motor except that the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, as made by
Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks, and in older
5400:
1942:
zero winding overhang; 100 percent of the windings are active. This is enhanced with the use of rectangular-crosssection copper wire. The motors can be stacked to work in parallel. Instabilities are minimized by ensuring that the two rotor discs put equal and opposing forces onto the stator disc. The rotors are connected directly to one another via a shaft ring, cancelling out the magnetic forces.
6848:
1795:
or from a magnetic pickup and depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current. If the engine slows down relative to the desired speed, the current increases, producing more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor reduces the current, allowing the return spring to pull back and reduce the throttle.
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9901:
1431:. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance or replacement. The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the rotor.
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1930:(torque variations caused by changing attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC because of decreased
5704:
3437:
efficiency is usually at 75% of the rated load. So (as an example) a 10 HP motor is most efficient when driving a load that requires 7.5 HP. Efficiency also depends on motor size; larger motors tend to be more efficient. Some motors can not operate continually for more than a specified period of time (e.g. for more than an hour per run)
1666:
demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds typically combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to
3785:
continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum, such as bursts to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by
445:), allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided control systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley system in 1887–88 in
1542:(CEMF) waveform is derived partly from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside-out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use
3827:-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible operation period before destruction by overheating of windings or permanent magnet damage.
6320:
3560:
3808:
The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires
3784:
When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors/generators exhibit virtually the same maximum
1964:
A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that position feedback is continuous while the motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop—relying on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy—with any feedback such as a "home" switch or position encoder
1937:
These motors were invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices.
1817:
Hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a
1790:
is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage (delivering a higher torque), torque motors can achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering
1748:
the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current reaches the interior. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, a variable resistance is effectively inserted in the rotor circuit. However, most such motors employ uniform bars.
1747:
Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to stay in the outer parts of the cage. As the motor accelerates,
1715:
An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor
1437:
Large brushes create a large contact area, which maximizes motor output, while small brushes have low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without excessive sparking. (Small brushes are desirable for their lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can be used to make brushes of a given mass
4204:
The universal and repulsion motors are part of a class of motors known as AC commutator motors, which also includes the following now largely obsolete motor types: Single-phase – straight and compensated series motors, railway motor; three-phase – various repulsion motor types, brush-shifting series
3804:
Electric machines that rely on induction or asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Torque bursts two to
3436:
Various national regulatory authorities have enacted legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher-efficiency motors. Electric motors have efficiencies ranging from around 15%-20% for shaded pole motors, up to 98% for permanent magnet motors, with efficiency also dependent on load. Peak
1960:
is a motor that is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have predictable characteristics for speed, torque, and power. The
1895:
of cellular phones can be generated by cylindrical permanent-magnet motors, or disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor
1794:
Another common application is to control the throttle of an internal combustion engine with an electronic governor. The motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accord with the governor output. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system
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Motor speed can be changed because the motor's torque curve is effectively modified by the amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing resistance lowers the speed of maximum torque. If the resistance is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the
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on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control device can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although dissipating significant power. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted
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An advantage is that AC power may be used on motors that specifically have high starting torque and compact design if high running speeds are used. By contrast, maintenance is higher and lifetimes are shortened. Such motors are used in devices that are not heavily used, and have high starting-torque
1502:
A permanent magnet (PM) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, relying instead on PMs to provide the magnetic field. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. This field is fixed and cannot be adjusted for speed
753:
Electric machines come in salient- and nonsalient-pole configurations. In a salient-pole motor the rotor and stator ferromagnetic cores have projections called poles that face each other. Wire is wound around each pole below the pole face, which become north or south poles when current flows through
389:
created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834. It developed remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years later in
September 1838. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was also in
3777:
Electromagnetic motors derive torque from the vector product of the interacting fields. Calculating torque requires knowledge of the fields in the air gap. Once these have been established, the torque is the integral of all the force vectors multiplied by the vector's radius. The current flowing in
1941:
Another approach (Magnax) is to use a single stator sandwiched between two rotors. One such design has produced peak power of 15 kW/kg, sustained power around 7.5 kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux motor offers a shorter flux path, keeping the magnets further from the axis. The design allows
1899:
Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers, it is still loosely
1673:
Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also commonly used in
1615:
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are
1409:
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to maintain contact with the commutator, creating friction. The brushes create sparks while crossing the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, the brushes may create
952:
In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two fields gives rise to a force and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One or both of these fields changes as the rotor turns. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time,
547:
to help Tesla; however, Tesla left for other pursuits in 1889. The constant speed AC induction motor was found not to be suitable for street cars, but
Westinghouse engineers successfully adapted it to power a mining operation in Telluride, Colorado in 1891. Westinghouse achieved its first practical
3813:
and slip for synchronous operation during operation while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum
1988:
Stepper motors are typically used to provide precise rotations. An internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of electronically switched external magnets. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric
1918:
The armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin, rigid disc. The armature does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes move directly on the armature surface making the whole
1841:
Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual
1809:
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor. It includes a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same frequency as the AC and produces a magnetic field to drive it. It has zero slip under typical operating conditions. By contrast induction motors must slip to produce torque. One type of
1759:
WRIMs are used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current
829:
direction in the rotor windings with each half turn (180°), so the torque applied to the rotor is always in the same direction. Without this reversal, the direction of torque on each rotor winding would reverse with each half turn, stopping the rotor. Commutated motors have been mostly replaced by
4186:
The term 'electronic commutator motor' (ECM) is identified with the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry, the distinction between BLDC and BLAC being in this context seen as a function of degree of ECM drive complexity with BLDC drives typically being with simple single-phase
3800:
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as induction machines, induction doubly-fed electric machines, and induction or synchronous wound-rotor doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, permit torque bursts because the EMF-induced active current on either side of the transformer oppose each
1514:
synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved
711:
An air gap between the stator and rotor allows it to turn. The width of the gap has a significant effect on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap weakens performance. Conversely, gaps that are too small may create friction in addition to
404:
first described the ring armature (although initially conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo). This featured symmetrically grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The first commercially
1922:
An alternative design is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate, mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are
1767:
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor operates at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load causes the motor to speed up, while increasing the load causes the motor to slow down until the load and
1641:
Modern low-cost universal motor, from a vacuum cleaner. Field windings are dark copper-colored, toward the back, on both sides. The rotor's laminated core is gray metallic, with dark slots for winding the coils. The commutator (partly hidden) has become dark from use; it is toward the front. The
465:
Electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead, every machine could be equipped with its own power source, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving
2082:
An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead
3822:
The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation.
3796:
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as that of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot provide torque bursts without saturating the magnetic core. At that point, additional current cannot increase torque. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably damaged.
1619:
The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic sending the flux through rotor poles that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings are energized,
1534:
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85%+ efficient, reaching up to 96.5%, while
1391:
mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that touch the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.
571:
developed larger models, namely a 20-hp squirrel cage and a 100-hp wound rotor with a starting rheostat. These were the first three-phase asynchronous motors suitable for practical operation. Since 1889, similar developments of three-phase machinery were started Wenström. At the 1891 Frankfurt
1646:
A commutated, electrically excited, series or parallel wound motor is referred to as a universal motor because it can be designed to operate on either AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant
1553:
BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or video cassette recorders. The spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products, such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over
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Without a commutator, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer compared to a brushed DC motor with a commutator. Commutation tends to cause electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or
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causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit opens, increasing the sparking. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their
1232:
Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are typically with either six-step or sinusoidal-waveform output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and trapezoidal PM machines is, however, identical in terms of their fundamental
754:
the wire. In a nonsalient-pole (distributed field or round-rotor) motor, the ferromagnetic core is a smooth cylinder, with the windings distributed evenly in slots around the circumference. Supplying alternating current in the windings creates poles in the core that rotate continuously. A
1914:
The printed armature or pancake motor has windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor spaced to form an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its flat profile.
1842:
armature) are the maximum provided in a single package without topology duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors have an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as
623:
An electric motor has two mechanical parts: the rotor, which moves, and the stator, which does not. Electrically, the motor consists of two parts, the field magnets and the armature, one of which is attached to the rotor and the other to the stator. Together they form a
466:
power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing
2083:
employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by
Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Electrostatic motors find frequent use in micro-electro-mechanical systems (
1996:
drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between cog points and rotate smoothly. Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile positioning systems, particularly as part of a digital
457:". Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry. The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the extreme importance of an
428:
of
Siemens & Halske to replace Pacinotti's ring armature in 1872, thus improving the machine efficiency. The laminated rotor was introduced by Siemens & Halske the following year, achieving reduced iron losses and increased induced voltages. In 1880,
2613:
An electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy through the force between two opposed magnetic fields. At least one of the two magnetic fields must be created by an electromagnet through the magnetic field caused by an electrical current.
440:
invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking device that maintained relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other
Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution (prior work done while employed by
2026:
So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as
1814:, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.
1849:
A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties affect controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.
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press against the commutator. The brushes make sliding contact with successive commutator segments as the rotator turns, supplying current to the rotor. The windings on the rotor are connected to the commutator segments. The commutator reverses the
267:, and sent copies of his paper along with pocket-sized models of his device to colleagues around the world so they could also witness the phenomenon of electromagnetic rotations. This motor is often demonstrated in physics experiments, substituting
461:
between the rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparatively small air gap. The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is inefficient for the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor.
1696:
AC induction and synchronous motors are optimized for operation on single-phase or polyphase sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal waveform power such as supplied for fixed-speed applications by the AC power grid or for variable-speed application from
2087:) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. The molecular machinery that runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.
3957:
The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant torque speed range. Electric motors can achieve densities of up to 20 kW/kg, meaning 20 kilowatts of output power per kilogram.
1887:
under one millisecond. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than (heavier) copper. The rotor has no metal mass to act as a heat sink; even small motors must be cooled. Overheating can be an issue for these designs.
599:
In 2022, electric motor sales were estimated to be 800 million units, increasing by 10% annually. Electric motors consume ≈50% of the world's electricity. Since the 1980s, the market share of DC motors has declined in favor of AC motors.
260:
was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. Faraday published the results of his discovery in the
3460:
2127:
An electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer space. Most systems are based on electrically accelerating propellant to high speed, while some systems are based on
416:
A benefit to DC machines came from the discovery of the reversibility of the electric machine, which was announced by
Siemens in 1867 and observed by Pacinotti in 1869. Gramme accidentally demonstrated it on the occasion of the
1337:
RLA – Rated-load amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating conditions. Often mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe, incorrectly, that the motor should always pull these
1438:
work at a higher speed, despite greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.
1785:
A common application is the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven by a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors apply a steady light tension to the tape whether or not the
1983:
A stepper motor with a soft iron rotor, with active windings shown. In 'A' the active windings tend to hold the rotor in position. In 'B' a different set of windings are carrying a current, which generates torque and
684:
that passes through the rotor armature, exerting force on the rotor windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets that are insulated from each other, called laminations. These laminations are made of
148:
Applications include industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, vehicles, and disk drives. Small motors may be found in electric watches. In certain applications, such as in
1818:
permanent magnet synchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.
470:) of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy produced in the US.
966:
either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufactured with a frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many household and industrial motors are in the fractional-horsepower class.
2942:
4988:
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Variable-speed, traditionally, low-performance variable-torque pumps, fans, blowers and compressors. Variable-speed, increasingly, other high-performance constant-torque and constant-power or dynamic loads.
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511:
published
Ferraris's research detailing the foundations of motor operation, while concluding at that time that "the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor."
805:
that supplies current to the rotor. It periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. It consists of a cylinder composed of multiple metal contact segments on the
4045:: IEEE Std 841 Standard for Petroleum and Chemical Industry – Premium Efficiency Severe Duty Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – Up to and Including 370 kW (500 Hp)
3184:
1782:
A torque motor can operate indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor applies a steady torque to the load.
543:, who had already acquired rights from Ferraris (US$ 1,000), promptly bought Tesla's patents (US$ 60,000 plus US$ 2.50 per sold hp, paid until 1897), employed Tesla to develop his motors, and assigned
378:, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and bankrupted the Davenports. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors, but all encountered the same battery cost issues. As no
327:, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for teaching, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical
339:
and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings.
3103:
The movement of armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor through a magnetic field, induce a voltage in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "
2723:
1670:
and, as such, are a choice for devices such as domestic washing machines. The motor can agitate the drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature.
658:
The rotor is the moving part that delivers the mechanical power. The rotor typically holds conductors that carry currents, on which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force to turn the shaft.
2113:
vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the way a caterpillar moves.
6863:
226:
in 1785, who published it so that it is now known with his name. Due to the difficulty of generating the high voltages they required, electrostatic motors were never used for practical purposes.
3814:
operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.
884:
AC motors' commutation can be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation. It can be fixed-speed or variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous.
5974:
500:. In the 1880s many inventors were trying to develop workable AC motors because AC's advantages in long-distance high-voltage transmission were offset by the inability to operate motors on AC.
7108:
1821:
Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque.
959:
AC motors can be either asynchronous or synchronous. Synchronous motors require the rotor to turn at the same speed as the stator's rotating field. Asynchronous rotors relax this constraint.
1589:
Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC motors rated up to about 100 kW are used in electric vehicles. They also find use in electric
6404:
1740:(WRIM). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, electrically connected by rings at the ends of the rotor. The bars and rings as a whole are much like
1383:
Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and PM stator. ("N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities.)
449:, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally-controlled cars. The latter were first installed in 1892 in Chicago by the
1900:(and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much like that of a loudspeaker.
4503:
1768:
motor torque are again equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is poor.
1579:
BLDC motors do not spark, making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Sparking also generates ozone, which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings.
4064:
3670:
3628:
2786:
583:
began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General
Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the
850:
The motor shaft extends outside of the motor, where it satisfies the load. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung.
3344:
2976:
1558:
They are more efficient than AC fans using shaded-pole motors, running much cooler than the AC equivalents. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
1573:
signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running speed feedback.
3110:
In AC machines, it is sometimes useful to consider a back EMF source within the machine; this is of particular concern for close speed regulation of induction motors on VFDs.
3305:
7489:
4954:
4586:
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induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, but these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors.
2063:, where the train "flies" over the ground. On a smaller scale, the 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the X and Y axes.
2059:
or stepper motors. Linear motors are commonly found in roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. They are also used in
5002:
4634:
3781:
A figure relating the current to the torque can inform motor selection. The maximum torque for a motor depends on the maximum current, absent thermal considerations.
3720:
From this, he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, the equation only directly relates to non PM motors.
3714:
3427:
2809:
1674:
portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed
3208:
2655:
1923:
highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound insulated with 180 °C (356 °F), Class H rating.
3997:
3692:
1510:; most are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed
5769:
1662:
heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron. They are now rarely used.
3555:{\displaystyle G={\frac {\omega }{{\text{resistance}}\times {\text{reluctance}}}}={\frac {\omega \mu \sigma A_{\text{m}}A_{\text{e}}}{l_{\text{m}}l_{\text{e}}}}}
6084:
3586:
3407:
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3367:
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393:
In 1827–1828, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model
6129:
539:
with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. One of the patents Tesla filed in 1887, however, also described a shorted-winding-rotor induction motor.
1938:
Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.
4717:
3809:
a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control
3086:
s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor.
2367:
Fixed or variable single-phase AC, variable speed being derived, typically, by full-wave phase-angle control with triac(s); closed-loop control optional.
2004:
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in early
8382:
374:, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the high cost of
1992:
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions.
5332:
4191:
voltage-regulated trapezoidal current waveform output involving surface PM motor construction and BLAC drives tending towards more complex three-phase
5981:
202:
Before modern electromagnetic motors, experimental motors that worked by electrostatic force were investigated. The first electric motors were simple
7223:
7101:
5365:
4042:
4036:
4030:
2015:
Stepper motors are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the active element, the print head carriage (
8108:
9475:
6408:
5210:
1655:
7076:
5185:
4467:
106:
Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type, construction, application and type of motion output. They can be
1654:, universal motors are often used in sub-kilowatt applications. Universal motors formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
1334:
LRA – Locked-rotor amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage. It occurs instantly during start-up.
4060:
3125:
in windings, core losses and mechanical losses in bearings, and aerodynamic losses, particularly where cooling fans are present, also occur.
8313:
6389:
5869:
2034:
Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors, stepper motors and SRMs are classified as variable reluctance motor type.
1642:
large brown molded-plastic piece in the foreground supports the brush guides and brushes (both sides), as well as the front motor bearing.
293:
9011:
8755:
8535:
2895:
6589:
6232:
Ionel, D.M. (2010). "High-Efficiency Variable-Speed Electric Motor Drive Technologies for Energy Savings in the US Residential Sector".
6199:
Ionel, D.M. (2010). "High-Efficiency Variable-Speed Electric Motor Drive Technologies for Energy Savings in the US Residential Sector".
3429:
is output angular velocity. It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less than 1/2 the
559:
invented the three-phase induction motor in 1889, of both types cage-rotor and wound rotor with a starting rheostat, and the three-limb
519:, who invented independently his induction motor in 1887 and obtained a patent in May 1888. In the same year, Tesla presented his paper
237:
discovered in 1820 that an electric current creates a magnetic field, which can exert a force on a magnet. It only took a few weeks for
2122:
524:
1647:
magnetic fields) synchronously reverse polarity, and hence the resulting mechanical force occurs in a constant direction of rotation.
4078:: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operated Three Phase a.c. Motors (IE CODE) "Efficiency Classes and Performance Specification" (Third Revision)
4054:
4048:
2515:
except more robust, more efficient, runs cooler, smaller footprint Competes with PM synchronous motor without demagnetization issues
868:, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis by transferring the force of axial and radial loads from the shaft to the motor housing.
576:
claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work.
9411:
3010:
5229:"Account of the Repetition of M. Arago's Experiments on the Magnetism Manifested by Various Substances during the Act of Rotation"
1883:
Because the rotor is much lower mass than a conventional rotor, it can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical
421:, when he connected two such DC devices up to 2 km from each other, using one of them as a generator and the other as motor.
7496:
7024:
5484:
4962:
4594:
3885:
where—specific torque density is normalized to 1.0 for the surface permanent magnet (SPM)—brushless ac, 180° current conduction.
6923:
4824:
3142:
168:. They are generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its size.
2746:
1402:
core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an
418:
84:
is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in reverse, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
7619:
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4757:
4569:
1827:
clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor.
527:
that described three patented two-phase four-stator-pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting
385:
After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus Prussian/Russian
2689:
157:, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction.
9989:
8199:
8101:
7675:
6794:
Roters, Herbert C. (January 1947). "The hysteresis motor –Advances which permit economical fractional horsepower ratings".
6761:
Vukosavic, Slobodan; Stefanovic, Victor R. (November–December 1991). "SRM Inverter Topologies: A Comparative Evaluation".
9974:
5108:
3004:
In an asynchronous or induction motor, the relationship between motor speed and air gap power is given by the following:
2109:
is applied. Piezoelectric motors make use of the converse piezoelectric effect whereby the material produces acoustic or
289:'s "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.
137:
Standardized motors provide power for industrial use. The largest are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and
3793:
rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum differs significantly across motor/generator types.
7791:
6948:
6044:
5777:
5718:
1287:
1125:
6674:
2680:
8342:
7217:
6778:
6456:
6368:
6091:
4843:
3888:
Torque density is approximately four times greater for liquid cooled motors, compared to those which are air cooled.
3830:
Other sources state that various e-machine topologies have differing torque density. One source shows the following:
3778:
the winding produces the fields. For a motor using a magnetic material the field is not proportional to the current.
807:
496:, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive
7362:
1245:
A cage winding is a short-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected externally through slip rings.
366:
in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor was built by American inventors
245:, that described the production of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a magnetic field.
9642:
9191:
7801:
7134:"Traction motors｜Transportation Systems Products｜Transportation Systems｜Products Information｜Toyo Denki Seizo K.K."
4441:
3801:
other and thus contribute nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, avoiding core saturation.
9888:
6135:
2292:
Variable single-phase AC, half-wave or full-wave phase-angle control with triac(s); closed-loop control optional.
8748:
8357:
8094:
4660:
4260:
Tom McInally, The Sixth Scottish University. The Scots Colleges Abroad: 1575 to 1799 (Brill, Leiden, 2012) p. 115
1658:. In this application, using AC power on a motor designed to run on DC would experience efficiency losses due to
1497:
138:
17:
3128:
Losses also occur in commutation, mechanical commutators spark; electronic commutators and also dissipate heat.
1582:
BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to remove heat.
1239:
In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induction-machine applications.
9140:
8271:
7748:
5076:
3635:
3593:
2324:
Fixed-speed, traditionally, SCIM the world's workhorse especially in low-performance applications of all types
507:
in 1885. Ferraris was able to improve his first design by producing more advanced setups in 1886. In 1888, the
5896:
4689:
2333:
Variable-speed, traditionally, WRIM drives or fixed-speed V/Hz-controlled VSDs. Variable-speed, increasingly,
9994:
9813:
9796:
9695:
9533:
8925:
8661:
8372:
7826:
568:
425:
181:
8266:
1451:
Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which DC can be derived.
198:
electromagnetic experiment, 1821, the first demonstration of the conversion of electrical energy into motion
9404:
9273:
8457:
4148:
4024:
4018:
4012:
3949:
Another source notes that PMSM up to 1 MW have considerably higher torque density than induction machines.
3313:
3211:
3118:
1428:
896:
DC motors can be operated at variable speeds by adjusting the voltage applied to the terminals or by using
450:
263:
7194:
5350:
4408:
2954:
9984:
9283:
8996:
8969:
8675:
8184:
7901:
6447:
Lander, Cyril W. (1993). "§9–8 'Slip Ring Induction Motor Control' in Chapter 9 – A.C. Machine Control".
6060:
5279:
5228:
3136:
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input power:
2200:
1843:
1836:
1539:
1529:
1266:
1260:
963:
922:
544:
379:
367:
223:
207:
115:
2048:
A linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing
9979:
9867:
9829:
9819:
9685:
9594:
9293:
9288:
8741:
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123:
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6422:
5942:§7-1 'General Picture of a Synchronous Machine' in Sec. 7 – Alternating-Current Generators and Motors
4463:
4069:
3274:
2235:
2223:
Synchronous; single-phase or three-phase with PM rotor and trapezoidal stator winding; VFD typically
2172:
2101:
A piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based upon the change in shape of a
1931:
1602:
1374:
1305:
1073:
1003:
926:
636:. The field magnet is usually on the stator and the armature on the rotor, but these may be reversed.
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119:
9338:
6286:§274–§287 'AC Commutator Motors' sub-section of Sec. 7 – Alternating-Current Generators and Motors
6267:§274–§287 'AC Commutator Motors' sub-section of Sec. 7 – Alternating-Current Generators and Motors
5922:
5171:
5147:
3996:
The latter source, which can be responsible for the "whining noise" of electric motors, is called
3244:
3217:
2660:
1876:
The coreless or ironless DC motor is a specialized permanent magnet DC motor. Optimized for rapid
587:. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-
242:
234:
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9690:
9397:
9278:
8829:
8597:
8556:
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internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation.
758:
has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.
489:
238:
6385:
4750:
Patently Female: From AZT to TV Dinners, Stories of Women Inventors and Their Breakthrough Ideas
2486:
1576:
The motor can be synchronized to an internal or external clock, providing precise speed control.
1434:
While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat, segmented discs mounted on an insulator.
390:
1839/40 that other developers managed to build motors with similar and then higher performance.
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5170:. Trans. and ed. from the French by E. Atkinson (14th ed.). William Wood and Co. pp.
5146:. Trans. and ed. from the French by E. Atkinson (14th ed.). William Wood and Co. pp.
4192:
4008:
The following are major design, manufacturing, and testing standards covering electric motors:
2334:
2227:
2056:
1547:
1506:
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with
1396:
897:
835:
31:
7611:
Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters: Operation, Control, and Performance
7468:
6513:
6304:
5688:
5635:. Vol. 17 – Television Technology to Wire Antennas. New York: Marcel Dekker. p. 36.
5555:
5394:
5304:
5090:
4882:
1716:(rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used in industry.
591:
induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor in 1897.
323:. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of continuous rotation with the invention of the
9715:
9659:
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8814:
8794:
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8520:
8472:
8347:
7567:
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6007:
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4239:
4015:: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 375 kW (500 Horsepower) and Larger
3985:
3790:
3786:
3699:
3412:
2794:
2532:
2129:
1388:
826:
798:
776:
767:
727:
690:
375:
354:
324:
100:
7419:
7107:. E3 Equipment Energy Efficiency. Governments of Australia and New Zealand. September 2013.
6830:
6423:"Tesla Model 3 Motor – Everything I've Been Able To Learn About It (Welcome To The Machine)"
6234:
12th International Conference on Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (OPTIM)
6201:
12th International Conference on Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (OPTIM)
6034:
903:
AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through
9781:
9632:
9227:
9120:
8869:
8844:
8717:
8301:
7871:
7806:
7336:
7159:
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3193:
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1993:
865:
859:
743:
721:
493:
437:
382:
system was available at the time, no practical commercial market emerged for these motors.
320:
150:
73:
6514:"Magnax prepares to manufacture radically high-powered, compact axial flux electric motor"
4177:
Ganot provides a superb illustration of one such early electric motor designed by Froment.
3677:
1585:
They make little noise, which is an advantage in equipment that is affected by vibrations.
433:
provided the rotor with slots for housing the winding, further increasing the efficiency.
8:
9740:
9725:
9653:
9647:
9578:
9465:
9333:
9036:
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7414:, American Technical Book Company 1897, published by P.F. Collier and Sons New York, 1902
5165:
5141:
4502:]. trans., ed. & rev. from the French by Sylvanus P. Thompson. Macmillan and Co.
3757:
3104:
3098:
2096:
2077:
1751:
In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to
1733:
1296:
946:
942:
811:
584:
540:
203:
96:
38:
7409:
7242:
3rd IEEE International Symposium on Sensorless Control for Electrical Drives (SLED 2012)
7163:
6090:. USDOE – Europump – Hydraulic Institute. May 2004. p. 9, Fig. ES–7. Archived from
5320:
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7263:
7175:
6979:§27 to §35A Electromagnetic Induction of EMF in Sec. 2 – Electric and Magnetic Circuits
6811:
6579:"A High-Quality Digital X-Y Plotter Designed for Reliability, Flexibility and Low Cost"
6494:
5536:
5446:
4387:
4335:
4300:
4153:
4123:
4096:
4027:: API 547 General-purpose Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 250 Hp and Larger
3571:
3392:
3372:
3352:
2983:
2864:
2842:
2820:
2620:
1543:
1210:
In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed.
1063:
904:
831:
706:
458:
454:
446:
81:
5488:
172:
also convert electrical power to mechanical motion, but over only a limited distance.
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2735:
The most general approaches to calculating the forces in motors use tensor notation.
2455:
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1804:
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1329:
1323:
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1111:
1090:
755:
628:. The magnets create a magnetic field that passes through the armature. These can be
549:
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401:
386:
272:
253:
211:
131:
61:
57:
9268:
7267:
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6357:
Liu, Chen-Ching; et al. (1997). "§66.1 Generators". In Dorf, Richard C. (ed.).
5540:
5450:
5328:
4391:
4339:
4304:
4033:: IEEE Std 112 Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and Generators
1220:
systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be used to vary load speed.
485:
430:
241:
to develop the first formulation of the electromagnetic interaction and present the
9599:
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7338:
Electric Traction – Motive Power and Energy Supply: Basics and Practical Experience
7245:
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5248:
4904:
4887:
4722:
4540:
4523:
4377:
4369:
4327:
4292:
4143:
3989:
2508:
2110:
2102:
1909:
1424:
1395:
The rotating armature consists of one or more wire coils wound around a laminated,
1362:
1311:
1278:
1138:
881:
A DC motor is usually supplied through a split ring commutator as described above.
816:
791:
686:
677:
653:
633:
625:
612:
528:
504:
394:
363:
336:
257:
230:
215:
127:
69:
9308:
7438:
6641:
Shafik, Amro; Ben Mrad, Ridha (2016). "Piezoelectric Motor Technology: A Review".
5519:
Alger, P.L.; Arnold z, R.E. (1976). "The History of Induction Motors in America".
5396:
Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World
5046:
4734:
2500:
Clocks, timers, sound producing or recording equipment, hard drive, capstan drive
2242:
Low maintenance High efficiency No permanent magnets Low cost Simple construction
1445:
Armature circuit – A winding that carries the load, either stationary or rotating.
672:
The stator surrounds the rotor, and usually holds field magnets, which are either
406:
275:
was an early refinement to this Faraday demonstration, although these and similar
9844:
9771:
9611:
9538:
9492:
9459:
9444:
9348:
9298:
9160:
8981:
8959:
8947:
8915:
8819:
8707:
8697:
8587:
8223:
7931:
7861:
7609:
7588:
7546:
7525:
7389:
6996:
Stoelting, Hans-Dieter; Kallenbach, Eberhard; Amrhein, Wolfgang (29 April 2008).
4774:
4493:
4138:
4133:
4075:
3451:
3446:
2305:
2275:
2016:
2005:
1892:
1710:
1632:
1299:
1217:
1083:
1030:
1022:
885:
839:
780:
532:
497:
371:
276:
249:
219:
195:
111:
9323:
7150:
Laithwaite, E.R. (February 1975). "Linear electric machines – A personal view".
6807:
6650:
2285:
Shorter lifespan Usually acoustically noisy Only small ratings are economical
1607:
316:
286:
9893:
9839:
9791:
9750:
9584:
9502:
9439:
9420:
9343:
9242:
9212:
9074:
9026:
8974:
8839:
8782:
8617:
8607:
8525:
8389:
8320:
7846:
7841:
7732:
7728:
7385:
7209:
6763:
Conference Record of the 1990 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting
6241:
6208:
6085:"Variable Speed Pumping, A Guide to Successful Applications, Executive Summary"
5091:"The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America"
4726:
4195:
current-regulated sinusoidal waveform involving interior PM motor construction.
4158:
4128:
3891:
A source comparing direct current, induction motors (IM), PMSM and SRM showed:
2886:
2536:
2478:
2474:
2253:
2249:
2224:
2106:
1998:
1927:
1590:
1411:
1399:
911:
735:
681:
410:
328:
154:
88:
65:
7249:
5116:
1868:
9963:
9917:
9905:
9730:
9720:
9563:
9528:
9454:
9353:
9021:
8712:
8644:
8622:
8482:
8394:
8291:
8243:
8213:
8174:
8075:
8014:
7999:
7979:
7906:
7743:
7713:
6490:
5871:
Motors for Makers: A Guide to Steppers, Servos, and Other Electrical Machines
5434:
5161:
5137:
4373:
4331:
4296:
4110:
3978:
3122:
2729:
2577:
2133:
1974:
1884:
1811:
1741:
1414:
between adjacent sections—and hence coil ends. Furthermore, the rotor coils'
1403:
1157:
772:
747:
739:
731:
673:
629:
608:
503:
The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motor was invented by
442:
107:
8086:
7240:
Klatt, Frederick W. (September 2012). "Sensorless Real Time Control (RTC)".
6952:
6770:
5722:
5532:
4995:
Electrical machinery in the 18th and 19th centuries – a small thesaurus
4205:
motor, brush-shifting polyphase shunt or Schrage motor, Fynn-Weichsel motor.
191:
9834:
9605:
9378:
9313:
9001:
8602:
8467:
8447:
8432:
8367:
8308:
8296:
7984:
7921:
7891:
7886:
7171:
6682:
5253:
4839:
4626:("Electrical machinery in the 18th and 19th centuries – a small thesaurus")
3810:
3430:
2060:
2043:
2028:
1877:
1777:
1659:
516:
64:. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's
7641:
7467:
Stölting, Hans-Dieter D.; Kallenbach, Eberhard; Amrhein, W., eds. (2008).
7192:
6339:§2.1 Motors with Commutator in Chapter 2 – Motors with Continuous Rotation
5820:"This Axial-Flux Motor With a PCB Stator Is Ripe for an Electrified World"
5557:
Icons of Invention: The Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates
5464:
Ferraris, G. (1888). "Atti della Reale Academia delle Science di Torino".
4990:
Elektrisiermaschinen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert – Ein kleines Lexikon
2266:
PWM and various other drive types, which tend to be used in specialized /
921:
The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated
409:
who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design and adopted some solutions by
9705:
9664:
9568:
9155:
9086:
8452:
8166:
8143:
8065:
7989:
7962:
7957:
7821:
7811:
7495:. RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines. Archived from
7195:"The "Goodness" of Small Contemporary Permanent Magnet Electric Machines"
6705:
6703:
6701:
6699:
5442:
4868:
Electricity and magnetism, translated from the French of Amédée Guillemin
4382:
4057:: IEC 60072 Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical machines
2594:
Positioning in printers and floppy disc drives; industrial machine tools
2009:
1667:
1566:
1420:
1379:
560:
302:
298:
9876:
7636:
7193:
Patterson, D.J.; Brice, C.W.; Dougal, R.A.; Kovuri, D. (1–4 June 2003).
6880:
6481:
Krishnan, R. (March 1987). "Selection Criteria for Servo Motor Drives".
4433:
1455:
248:
The first demonstration of the effect with a rotary motion was given by
164:) intended to propel some external mechanism. This makes them a type of
44:
9046:
9016:
8887:
8849:
8047:
8009:
7851:
7684:
6576:
5819:
5628:
4931:
4686:"Battery and Energy Technologies, Technology and Applications Timeline"
4685:
4271:
Electrostatic Motors, Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation
4228:"On Some New Electro-Magnetical Motion, and on the Theory of Magnetism"
3966:
Acoustic noise and vibrations are usually classified in three sources:
1957:
1951:
1756:
into the power system through an inverter or separate motor-generator.
1570:
1415:
588:
92:
6715:
6696:
6577:
Fenoglio, John A.; Chin, Bessie W.C.; Cobb, Terry R. (February 1979).
5024:
4656:
4624:
Elektrisiermaschinen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert – Ein kleines Lexikon
279:
remained unsuited to practical application until late in the century.
233:
in 1799 made possible the production of persistent electric currents.
9523:
9328:
9081:
8859:
8632:
8627:
8612:
8437:
8409:
8404:
8194:
8189:
8125:
8004:
7994:
7916:
7881:
4909:
4545:
4518:
2337:
VSDs displacing DC, WRIM and single-phase AC induction motor drives.
1823:
1752:
1507:
1361:
Most DC motors are small permanent magnet (PM) types. They contain a
938:
639:
313:
8733:
5746:
The Fundamentals of Nuclear Power Generation Questions & Answers
5072:
4360:
Guarnieri, M. (2018). "Revolving and Evolving – Early dc Machines".
3454:
proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor:
2289:
Handheld power tools, blenders, vacuum cleaners, insulation blowers
256:. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a
9924:
9849:
9110:
8954:
8910:
8702:
8497:
8487:
7796:
7644:, hosted by Karlsrushe Institute of Technology's Martin Doppelbauer
7587:
Fitzgerald, A.E.; Kingsley, Charles Jr.; Umans, Stephen D. (2003).
4842:. Elektrotechnischen Instituts. Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.
4090:
3824:
3588:
is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient)
2937:{\displaystyle P_{\text{em}}={\frac {\omega _{\text{rpm}}T}{5252}}}
2191:
Paper making machines Treadmill exercisers Automotive accessories
1691:
1637:
1356:
479:
348:
169:
165:
9936:
4961:(in German). Zwickau: Falkutat der Kraftfahrzeugen. Archived from
3805:
three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.
3630:
are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit
1546:
mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost
1204:
Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed).
9912:
9389:
9186:
9181:
8571:
8551:
8421:
8286:
8156:
7363:"Equipmake announces the world's most power-dense electric motor"
7052:"Magnax Yokeless Axial Flux Motor Promises 98 Percent Efficiency"
4283:
Guarnieri, M. (2014). "Electricity in the age of Enlightenment".
4104:
4039:: IEEE Std 115 Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines
1448:
Field circuit – A set of windings that produces a magnetic field.
1387:
A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an
1341:
FLA – Full-load amps: Changed in 1976 to "RLA – rated-load amps".
467:
310:
5845:
Electric motors and drives: fundamentals, types and applications
5690:
Networks of Power: Electrification in Western society, 1880–1930
2503:
Single-phase AC, two-phase capacitor-start, capacitor run motor
2380:
High starting torque No starting switch Comparatively long life
2052:(rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length.
1979:
1719:
9481:
8864:
8788:
8692:
8442:
7967:
7781:
7648:
MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Anything
5421:
Guarnieri, M. (2018). "The Development of ac Rotary Machines".
2049:
2020:
910:
AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various
821:
802:
667:
616:
362:
capable of turning machinery was invented by English scientist
332:
282:
161:
77:
37:"Electric engine" redirects here. For the railroad engine, see
6760:
6560:
6558:
6336:
5774:
Verband der Elektrotechnik, Elektronik und Informationstechnik
4318:
Guarnieri, M. (2014). "The Big Jump from the Legs of a Frog".
2314:
Low cost Robust Reliable Ratings to 1+ MW Standardized types.
1569:
sensors that provide the commutation can provide a convenient
1423:, limits the motor's output. Crossing the gaps also generates
1108:
Auxiliary winding (split-phase: resistance or capacitor start)
27:
Machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
9854:
7952:
7856:
7653:
7650:, slow motion gifs and oscillograms for many kinds of motors.
6109:
5039:
4021:: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and Larger
3062:{\displaystyle P_{\text{airgap}}={\frac {R_{r}}{s}}I_{r}^{2}}
2597:
Not a VFD. Stepper position is determined by pulse counting.
2473:
Fixed or variable speed, three-phase; VFD typically six-step
1926:
The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is the absence of
937:
Electric motors operate on one of three physical principles:
694:
268:
6386:"Tokai University Unveils 100W DC Motor with 96% Efficiency"
2463:
Inherently more efficient induction motor, low power factor
7974:
7490:"Electrical Machine I: Basics, Design, Function, Operation"
6555:
2084:
1198:
Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage.
734:
core. Electric current passing through the wire causes the
142:
9900:
7569:
Modeling and High-Performance Control of Electric Machines
6995:
6831:"§9.3 'Hysteresis Motors' in Chapter 9 – Special Machines"
6537:
Patrick, Dale R.; Fardo, Stephen W. (1997). "Chapter 11".
6306:
Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motor Drives
5792:
3179:{\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {P_{\text{m}}}{P_{\text{e}}}}}
2195:
Rectifier, linear transistor(s) or DC chopper controller.
750:
so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.
8462:
7695:
7466:
6886:
6732:
6730:
6721:
6709:
6344:
6181:
4810:
Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology
2267:
521:
A New System of Alternate Current Motors and Transformers
6951:. National Instruments. 30 November 2011. Archived from
6536:
6405:"Dyson vacuums 104,000 rpm brushless DC technology"
5482:
5281:
Polyphase Electric Currents and Alternate-Current Motors
5204:"Buying an Energy-Efficient Electric Motor – Fact Sheet"
4680:
4678:
2331:
Fixed-speed, low-performance applications of all types.
7586:
7548:
Power Electronics and Motor Drives: Advances and Trends
7202:
Electric Machines and Drives Conference, 2003. IEMDC'03
5762:
5284:(1st ed.). London: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 261
5226:
4776:
A History of Engineering and Technology: Artful Methods
4752:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 28.
956:
Motors operate on either DC or AC current (or either).
555:
Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development,
6742:
6727:
6176:§1.3.1.1 Motor Systematics in Chapter 1 – Introduction
6155:
6153:
5799:
Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, M. (1891). "Alternating current".
4711:
Gee, William (2004). "Sturgeon, William (1783–1850)".
4456:
3984:
magnetic sources (e.g. due to magnetic forces such as
3756:
by adding general information and discuss at the
2718:{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =I\ell \times \mathbf {B} }
2572:
Drives can typically be brushed or brushless DC type.
2527:
Electric vehicles Textile mills Aircraft applications
2262:
Electric Vehicles Textile mills Aircraft applications
9865:
6332:
6330:
5952:
5633:
The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications
4675:
4232:
Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts
3702:
3680:
3672:
are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits
3638:
3596:
3574:
3463:
3415:
3395:
3375:
3355:
3316:
3277:
3247:
3220:
3196:
3145:
3013:
2986:
2957:
2898:
2867:
2845:
2823:
2797:
2749:
2692:
2663:
2643:
2623:
531:, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting
214:
in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind them,
9012:
Dual-rotor permanent magnet induction motor (DRPMIM)
6892:
6855:
5770:"150. Geburtstag von Michael von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky"
5596:
Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology
5186:"Photo of a traditional form of the St. Louis motor"
4487:
4485:
4086:
2219:
CD/DVD players Electric vehicles RC Vehicles UAVs
697:
to prevent corrosion and/or reduce conducted noise.
676:(wire windings around a ferromagnetic iron core) or
6476:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6468:
6170:
6168:
6150:
5626:
4426:
2441:Low starting torque Small ratings low efficiency
1863:
1685:
1616:sequentially energized to rotate the stator field.
1283:
IPMSM – Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor
7436:
7186:
6972:
6970:
6828:
6327:
5798:
5065:
3708:
3686:
3664:
3622:
3580:
3554:
3421:
3401:
3381:
3361:
3338:
3299:
3260:
3233:
3202:
3178:
3061:
2992:
2970:
2936:
2873:
2851:
2829:
2803:
2780:
2717:
2671:
2649:
2629:
1535:brushed DC motors are typically 75–80% efficient.
1292:SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor
515:Possible industrial development was envisioned by
405:successful DC motors followed the developments by
222:in 1771. This law was discovered independently by
7593:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 688 pages.
7523:
6754:
6645:. Springer International Publishing. p. 39.
5933:
5903:. United States: MJH life sciences. March 7, 2015
5721:. Tesla Society of USA and Canada. Archived from
5620:
5388:
5386:
4957:[Electrical machinery in motor vehicles]
4482:
4403:
4401:
4043:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
4037:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
4031:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
2549:
2139:
9961:
7642:The Invention of the Electric Motor 1800 to 1893
7070:"Determining Electric Motor Load and Efficiency"
6904:
6465:
6296:
6194:
6192:
6190:
6165:
5547:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5508:
5506:
5457:
5268:
5047:"Exhibition on the History of Hungarian Science"
4766:
4748:Vare, Ethlie Ann; Ptacek, Greg (November 2001).
3961:
2568:Fans/Pumps, fast industrial and military servos
2320:Lower efficiency due to need for magnetization.
2213:Requires EC controller with closed-loop control
1368:
229:The invention of the electrochemical battery by
160:Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (
6967:
6530:
6036:Electric Motor Control: DC, AC, and BLDC Motors
5693:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 117.
5233:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
5220:
4553:
3977:aerodynamic sources (e.g. due to shaft-mounted
3716:is the angular frequency the motor is driven at
2889:a motor's mechanical power output is given by,
2185:Medium lifespan Costly commutator and brushes
1903:
1623:SRMs are used in some appliances and vehicles.
746:wires, wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron,
7437:Rosenblatt, Jack; Friedman, M. Harold (1984).
7233:
6787:
6640:
6539:Rotating Electrical Machines and Power Systems
6440:
6377:
6258:
6077:
5680:
5649:
5466:Atti della R. Academia delle Science di Torino
5383:
5296:
5227:Babbage, C.; Herschel, J.F.W. (January 1825).
4589:[Electric Machines in Motor Vehicles]
4398:
4219:
1830:
1511:
552:later developed a rotating bar winding rotor.
9405:
8749:
8116:
8102:
7669:
7417:
6837:(4th ed.). Technical Publications Pune.
6407:. Electronics Weekly Magazine. Archived from
6277:
6187:
5939:
5518:
5503:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5130:
4578:
4061:National Electrical Manufacturers Association
3992:forces acting on stator and rotor structures)
1518:
1459:A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil
7143:
6396:
6350:
6225:
5817:
5659:The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology
5344:
5342:
5154:
4924:
4721:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
4355:
4353:
4351:
4349:
3852:SPM – brushless ac, 120° current conduction
3844:SPM – brushless ac, 180° current conduction
3823:Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or
3817:
2493:Low noise No vibration High starting torque
2256:* Parallel operation Requires EC controller
1596:
1538:The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal
563:in 1890. After an agreement between AEG and
8536:Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
7341:. Oldenbourg Industrieverlag. p. 142.
5842:
5586:
5358:The Serbian Journal of Electrical Engineers
4800:
3952:
2280:High starting torque, compact, high speed.
252:on 3 September 1821 in the basement of the
9412:
9398:
8756:
8742:
8109:
8095:
7676:
7662:
7460:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
7391:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
7149:
6483:IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
6337:Weiβmantel, H; Oesingmann, P.; Möckel, A.
6121:
6012:. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 82.
5889:
5476:
5407:
4955:"Elektrische Maschinen in Kraftfahrzeugen"
4859:
4747:
4587:"Elektrische Maschinen in Kraftfahrzeugen"
3998:electromagnetically induced acoustic noise
2248:possible High iron losses Not possible: *
2123:Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
1846:, which have only one active winding set.
1251:Mostly single-phase with some three-phase.
1014:
453:, where it became popularly known as the "
206:described in experiments by Scottish monk
134:, and may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled.
7411:Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery
7384:
6363:(3rd ed.). CRC Press. p. 1456.
5980:. Gates Corporation. 2017. Archived from
5861:
5776:(in German). January 2012. Archived from
5592:
5420:
5339:
5252:
5025:"History of Batteries (and other things)"
4908:
4544:
4491:
4381:
4359:
4346:
4317:
4282:
4055:International Electrotechnical Commission
4049:International Electrotechnical Commission
3723:
3665:{\displaystyle l_{\text{m}},l_{\text{e}}}
3623:{\displaystyle A_{\text{m}},A_{\text{e}}}
2781:{\displaystyle P_{\text{em}}=T\omega =Fv}
1250:
1244:
1238:
1231:
1225:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1093:
1086:
1026:
1009:
994:
742:) on it, turning the rotor. Windings are
400:A major turning point came in 1864, when
7565:
7470:Handbook of Fractional-Horsepower Drives
7457:
7440:Direct and Alternating Current Machinery
7424:Lessons In Electric Circuits – Volume II
7204:. Vol. 2. IEEE. pp. 1195–200.
6999:Handbook of Fractional-Horsepower Drives
6984:
6480:
6302:
6291:
6272:
5947:
5867:
5553:
5487:. The Franklin Institute. Archived from
5463:
5348:
5274:
4865:
4772:
4273:, Electret Scientific Company. pp. 22–45
4072:: UL 1004 – Standard for Electric Motors
4051:: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines
3083:– square of current induced in the rotor
2743:Electric motor output power is given as
2543:
2449:
2296:
2166:
1978:
1867:
1718:
1636:
1626:
1606:
1463:The five types of brushed DC motor are:
1454:
1378:
1345:
820:made of a soft conductive material like
771:
638:
607:
292:
281:
190:
141:applications, with output exceeding 100
91:(DC) sources, such as from batteries or
43:
7487:
7334:
7314:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 1042.
7022:
6913:"Class Notes 1: Electromagnetic Forces"
6910:
6887:Stölting, Kallenbach & Amrhein 2008
6822:
6722:Stölting, Kallenbach & Amrhein 2008
6710:Stölting, Kallenbach & Amrhein 2008
6451:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill 480 pages.
6345:Stölting, Kallenbach & Amrhein 2008
6182:Stölting, Kallenbach & Amrhein 2008
6159:
5958:
5944:. pp. 646–47, figs. 7–1 & 7–2.
5897:"Permanent magnet vs. induction motors"
5743:
4837:
4718:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
4713:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
4564:. Oxford University Press. p. 36.
4559:
4510:
4434:"The Development of the Electric Motor"
4225:
3876:VRM, doubly salient reluctance machine
3868:IPM, interior permanent magnet machine
2603:
2031:, contain more than one stepper motor.
1727:
918:or electronic commutator technologies.
594:
218:, was discovered but not published, by
14:
9962:
7307:
7284:Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles
7280:
6976:
6922:. MIT Dept of Electrical Engineering.
6861:
6793:
6446:
6383:
5975:"How belt drives impact overhung load"
5686:
5655:
5593:Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian, eds. (1996).
5392:
5335:from the original on December 1, 2016.
5305:"A Mode of Producing Arago's Rotation"
5101:
5083:
4932:"Technology and Applications Timeline"
4880:
4874:
4516:
4254:
4238:. Royal Institution of Great Britain:
2366:
2116:
1678:, while miniature grinders may exceed
9393:
8763:
8737:
8090:
7657:
7607:
7408:Houston, Edwin J.; Kennelly, Arthur,
7239:
7102:"E3 Product Profile: Electric Motors"
6541:(2nd ed.). Fairmont Press, Inc.
6511:
6231:
6198:
5969:
5967:
5574:from the original on 12 November 2012
5302:
5160:
5136:
5113:Invent Now, Inc. Hall of Fame profile
4952:
3748:one specialized aspect of the subject
3339:{\displaystyle P_{\text{m}}=T\omega }
2400:split-phase, auxiliary start winding
1732:Induction motors may be divided into
953:or varying the strength of the pole.
7544:
6898:
6748:
6736:
6613:
6564:
6402:
6115:
5843:Hughes, Austin; Drury, Bill (2019).
5423:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
5315:(1). Taylor & Francis: 115–120.
4362:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
4320:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
4285:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
3732:
2971:{\displaystyle \omega _{\text{rpm}}}
1798:
1441:DC machines are defined as follows:
99:(AC) sources, such as a power grid,
7443:. C.E. Merrill Publishing Company.
6929:from the original on 4 January 2017
6829:Bakshi, U.A.; Bakshi, M.V. (2009).
6505:
6360:The Electrical Engineering Handbook
6356:
6032:
6005:
5599:. London: Routledge. p. 1204.
5053:from the original on 26 August 2013
4866:Thompson, Silvanus P., ed. (1891).
4806:
4710:
4657:"History of Batteries (inter alia)"
4562:Magnetism A Very Short Introduction
2608:
2509:Synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM)
1491:
1350:
1170:linear transistor(s) or DC chopper
24:
9419:
7792:Continuously variable transmission
7637:SparkMuseum: Early Electric Motors
7524:Bedford, B.D.; Hoft, R.G. (1964).
7516:
7229:from the original on 13 June 2010.
6765:. Vol. 27. pp. 1034–47.
6595:from the original on 27 March 2012
6127:
5964:
5818:Gustes-Pinto, Paulo (2022-03-26).
5349:Vučković, Vladan (November 2006).
3440:
2657:perpendicular to a magnetic field
2412:Starting switch or relay required
2357:Starting switch or relay required
1742:an animal's rotating exercise cage
1704:
1611:6/4 pole switched reluctance motor
1288:Permanent magnet synchronous motor
305:in 1842, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
87:Electric motors can be powered by
25:
10006:
8343:Electric motorcycles and scooters
7630:
7049:
6283:
6264:
5847:(5th ed.). Oxford: Newness.
4692:from the original on 2 March 2013
4663:from the original on May 12, 2011
4584:
4531:(1379). Norman Lockyer: 516–517.
4495:'Le Magnétisme et l'Électricitée'
4470:from the original on 20 July 2013
4444:from the original on 6 March 2013
2477:load-commutated inverter type or
2445:Fans, appliances, record players
2439:Speed slightly below synchronous
2410:Speed slightly below synchronous
2384:Speed slightly below synchronous
2355:Speed slightly below synchronous
2201:Brushless DC motor (BLDC or BLDM)
1853:
1723:Large 4,500 hp AC induction motor
509:Royal Academy of Science of Turin
424:The drum rotor was introduced by
80:applied on the motor's shaft. An
76:to generate force in the form of
9947:
9935:
9923:
9911:
9899:
9887:
9875:
8071:
8070:
8060:
7355:
7328:
7301:
7274:
7126:
7094:
7062:
7043:
7016:
6989:
6941:
6851:from the original on 2018-01-04.
6392:from the original on 2011-01-01.
6388:. Tech-On – Nikkei Electronics.
6323:from the original on 2018-01-04.
6009:Practical Guide to Blow Moulding
5707:from the original on 2016-12-01.
5676:from the original on 2016-12-01.
5403:from the original on 2016-12-01.
5371:from the original on 4 July 2013
5216:from the original on 2011-09-02.
5097:from the original on 2018-01-04.
5079:from the original on 2016-03-05.
5001:. March 31, 2004. Archived from
4838:Richter, Jan (7 February 2013).
4827:from the original on 2013-04-03.
4506:from the original on 2018-01-04.
4103:
4089:
3970:mechanical sources (e.g. due to
3839:Specific torque density (Nm/kg)
3737:
2711:
2694:
2665:
2207:Low maintenance High efficiency
2132:principles of propulsion to the
2090:
2071:
2055:Linear motors are most commonly
1968:
1864:Ironless or coreless rotor motor
1686:Externally commutated AC machine
8390:Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
7527:Principles of Inverter Circuits
7418:Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2000–2006).
7377:
7114:from the original on 2020-03-28
7082:from the original on 2016-11-30
6977:Dwight, Herbert B.; Fink, D.G.
6949:"DC Motor Calculations, part 1"
6862:Lendenmann, Heinz; et al.
6667:
6634:
6607:
6570:
6415:
6134:. U. of Alberta. Archived from
6061:"Electric motor classification"
6053:
6026:
5999:
5915:
5836:
5811:
5737:
5711:
5351:"Interpretation of a Discovery"
5303:Baily, Walter (June 28, 1879).
5196:
5178:
5017:
4980:
4946:
4881:Heller, Augustus (April 1896).
4846:from the original on 2017-05-12
4831:
4741:
4704:
4659:. Electropaedia. June 9, 2010.
4649:
4612:
4517:Heller, Augustus (April 1896).
4198:
4180:
4171:
3694:is the permeability of the core
3300:{\displaystyle P_{\text{e}}=IV}
3241:is electrical input power, and
2521:Not widely available High cost
2236:Switched reluctance motor (SRM)
2066:
1771:
1760:from zero speed to full speed.
1523:
1498:Permanent-magnet electric motor
1487:Separately excited (not shown).
1473:Compound (two configurations):
1025:(AC commutator series or AC/DC)
876:
730:consists of wire windings on a
297:An electric motor presented to
186:
30:For other kinds of motors, see
9141:Timeline of the electric motor
8272:Battery electric multiple unit
7683:
6911:Kirtley, James L. Jr. (2005).
6284:Alger, Philip L.; et al.
6265:Alger, Philip L.; et al.
5940:Mortensen, S.H.; Beckwith, S.
5560:. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 305.
5483:The Case Files: Nikola Tesla.
5167:Elementary Treatise in Physics
5143:Elementary Treatise in Physics
4409:"The birth of electric motion"
4311:
4276:
4263:
3105:back electromotive force (EMF)
2140:Comparison by major categories
1965:external to the motor system.
1734:Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
1548:closed-loop commutator control
783:from a vacuum cleaner. Parts:
13:
1:
9814:Automation and Remote Control
9797:Programmable logic controller
9696:Distributed parameter systems
9534:Closed-loop transfer function
8926:Dahlander pole changing motor
8373:Neighborhood Electric Vehicle
7827:Automated manual transmission
7075:. U.S. Department of Energy.
6617:Ultra-fast Material Metrology
5687:Hughes, Thomas Parke (1983).
5399:. Random House. p. 180.
5027:. Electropaedia. June 9, 2010
4934:. Electropaedia. May 28, 2010
4895:(1379). Norman Lockyer: 516.
4212:
3962:Acoustic noise and vibrations
3746:This section focuses only on
3131:
2550:Pancake or axial rotor motors
2456:Wound-rotor synchronous motor
2304:squirrel-cage or wound-rotor
1945:
1369:Electrically excited DC motor
1330:Wound-rotor synchronous motor
761:
603:
569:Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown
426:Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck
182:History of the electric motor
48:An industrial electric motor
8662:Who Killed the Electric Car?
8458:Common ethanol fuel mixtures
7462:(8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
7458:Knowlton, A.E., ed. (1949).
7308:Rashid, Muhammad H. (2017).
6643:Nanopositioning Technologies
5901:Turbomachinery International
5662:. Random House. p. 39.
5278:, Silvanus Phillips (1895).
4953:Thein, M. (March 22, 2009).
4735:UK public library membership
4560:Blundel, Stephen J. (2012).
4149:Reciprocating electric motor
4025:American Petroleum Institute
4019:American Petroleum Institute
4013:American Petroleum Institute
4003:
3268:is mechanical output power:
3261:{\displaystyle P_{\text{m}}}
3234:{\displaystyle P_{\text{e}}}
3212:energy conversion efficiency
2679:may be calculated using the
2672:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }
2617:The force between a current
2345:split-phase capacitor-start
1904:Pancake or axial rotor motor
1844:singly-fed electric machines
1738:Wound Rotor Induction Motors
1484:Permanent magnet (not shown)
1312:Synchronous reluctance motor
888:can run on either AC or DC.
488:formulated the existence of
473:
451:South Side Elevated Railroad
342:
264:Quarterly Journal of Science
7:
9990:Magnetic propulsion devices
9855:Supervisory control (SCADA)
8970:Brushless DC electric motor
8676:Revenge of the Electric Car
8267:Battery-electric locomotive
7902:Semi-automatic transmission
6808:10.1109/T-AIEE.1947.5059594
6651:10.1007/978-3-319-23853-1_2
6512:Blain, Loz (May 30, 2018).
6065:en.engineering-solutions.ru
5748:. Authorhouse. p. 27.
5485:"Two-Phase Induction Motor"
4987:"Elektrische Chronologie".
4779:(2nd ed.). CRC Press.
4773:Garrison, Ervan G. (1998).
4593:(in German). Archived from
4082:
3092:
2217:Rigid ("hard") disk drives
1837:Doubly-fed electric machine
1831:Doubly-fed electric machine
1764:torque is further reduced.
1620:keeping the rotor turning.
1540:counter-electromotive force
1530:Brushless DC electric motor
1324:Wound-rotor induction motor
964:fractional-horsepower motor
853:
715:
319:started experimenting with
224:Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
56:is a machine that converts
10:
10011:
9975:Electromagnetic components
9830:Industrial control systems
9820:Distributed control system
9686:Coefficient diagram method
9595:State space representation
7739:Internal combustion engine
7572:(Online ed.). Wiley.
7388:; Beaty, H. Wayne (2000).
7311:Power Electronics Handbook
7210:10.1109/IEMDC.2003.1210392
6920:6.6585 – Electric Machines
6242:10.1109/OPTIM.2010.5510481
6236:. IEEE. pp. 1403–14.
6209:10.1109/OPTIM.2010.5510481
6203:. IEEE. pp. 1403–14.
5868:Scarpino, Matthew (2015).
5719:"Timeline of Nikola Tesla"
5554:Klooster, John W. (2009).
4492:Guillemin, Amédée (1891).
4269:Oleg D. Jefimenko (1973).
4065:MG-1 Motors and Generators
3444:
3096:
2374:split-phase capacitor-run
2246:Mechanical resonance
2145:Comparison of motor types
2120:
2094:
2075:
2041:
1972:
1949:
1907:
1872:A miniature coreless motor
1834:
1802:
1775:
1708:
1689:
1630:
1600:
1527:
1519:Electronic commutator (EC)
1495:
1372:
1354:
1274:EC – Electronic commutator
971:Type of motor commutation
891:
864:The rotor is supported by
857:
765:
719:
704:
665:
651:
574:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
557:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
484:In 1824, French physicist
477:
346:
210:and American experimenter
179:
175:
103:or electrical generators.
36:
29:
9805:
9764:
9746:Perceptual control theory
9681:Artificial neural network
9673:
9638:Digital signal processing
9625:
9516:
9427:
9261:
9200:
9174:
9129:
9060:
8987:Switched reluctance (SRM)
8965:Brushed DC electric motor
8901:
8878:
8803:
8771:
8685:
8669:What Is the Electric Car?
8653:
8580:
8544:
8516:Hydrogen-powered aircraft
8496:
8420:
8252:
8222:
8165:
8142:
8124:
8118:Alternative fuel vehicles
8056:
8038:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
8025:
7940:
7927:Transmission control unit
7867:Limited-slip differential
7832:Electrorheological clutch
7757:
7704:
7691:
7335:Steimel, Andreas (2008).
7250:10.1109/SLED.2012.6422811
7050:Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique.
6620:. John Wiley & Sons.
6118:, pp. 328, 397, 481.
5329:10.1088/1478-7814/3/1/318
5109:"Zénobe Théophile Gramme"
4620:"Elektrische Chronologie"
4500:Electricity and Magnetism
4226:Faraday, Michael (1822).
4070:Underwriters Laboratories
3860:IM, asynchronous machine
3818:Continuous torque density
3728:
3113:
2637:in a conductor of length
2037:
1932:electromagnetic induction
1858:
1603:Switched reluctance motor
1597:Switched reluctance motor
1479:Differentially compounded
1375:Brushed DC electric motor
1306:Switched reluctance motor
1271:BLDM – Brushless DC motor
1226:Variable-speed operation.
1179:
1012:
983:
978:
975:
927:switched reluctance motor
871:
661:
567:, Doliwo-Dobrowolski and
9701:Fractional-order control
9471:Model predictive control
9175:Experimental, futuristic
9092:Variable-frequency drive
8378:Plug-in electric vehicle
8358:Gyro flywheel locomotive
8336:Battery electric vehicle
7817:Dual-clutch transmission
7287:. IET. pp. 68, 69.
7281:Miller, John M. (2008).
7023:Moczala, Helmut (1998).
6835:Electrical Machines – II
6614:Horn, Alexander (2009).
6491:10.1109/TIA.1987.4504902
5435:10.1109/MIE.2018.2874375
4999:University of Regensburg
4631:University of Regensburg
4374:10.1109/MIE.2018.2856546
4332:10.1109/MIE.2014.2361237
4297:10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431
4164:
3953:Continuous power density
3787:magnetic core saturation
2738:
1699:variable-frequency drive
1668:electronic speed control
1318:Variable-frequency drive
932:
916:variable-frequency drive
845:
647:
581:General Electric Company
565:Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon
490:rotating magnetic fields
419:1873 Vienna World's Fair
380:electricity distribution
9711:H-infinity loop-shaping
9691:Control reconfiguration
9192:Superconducting machine
8830:Coil winding technology
8598:Hybrid electric vehicle
8562:Liquid nitrogen vehicle
8557:Hybrid electric vehicle
8363:Hybrid electric vehicle
8326:Electric platform truck
7787:Constant-velocity joint
7566:Chiasson, John (2005).
7545:Bose, Bimal K. (2006).
7152:Proceedings of the IEEE
6771:10.1109/IAS.1990.152299
6675:"Launch Assist Tethers"
6586:Hewlett-Packard Journal
6567:, pp. 569–70, 891.
6384:Nozawa, Tetsuo (2009).
6178:. p. 5, Table 1.1.
6033:Kim, Sang-Hoon (2017).
6006:Lee, Norman C. (2006).
5533:10.1109/PROC.1976.10329
5521:Proceedings of the IEEE
3709:{\displaystyle \omega }
3422:{\displaystyle \omega }
2804:{\displaystyle \omega }
2728:Note: X denotes vector
2491:Accurate speed control
2418:Stationary power tools
2363:Stationary Power Tools
2297:AC asynchronous motors
2167:Self-commutated motors
836:permanent magnet motors
535:, and the third a true
9777:Closed-loop controller
9450:Energy-shaping control
8723:Zero-emissions vehicle
8239:Compressed-air vehicle
8180:Solar-powered aircraft
7767:Automatic transmission
7614:. Wiley-Interscience.
7420:"Chapter 13 AC Motors"
7244:. IEEE. pp. 1–6.
7172:10.1109/PROC.1975.9734
5744:Hubbell, M.W. (2011).
5656:Mattox, D. M. (2003).
5309:Philosophical Magazine
5254:10.1098/rstl.1825.0023
4807:Nye, David E. (1990).
4727:10.1093/ref:odnb/26748
4633:. 2004. Archived from
4129:Electric vehicle motor
3836:Electric machine type
3724:Performance parameters
3710:
3688:
3666:
3624:
3582:
3556:
3423:
3409:is output torque, and
3403:
3383:
3363:
3340:
3301:
3262:
3235:
3204:
3180:
3063:
2994:
2978:, shaft angular speed
2972:
2938:
2875:
2853:
2831:
2805:
2782:
2719:
2673:
2651:
2631:
2582:Precision positioning
2519:Requires a controller
2450:AC synchronous motors
2318:High starting current
2283:Maintenance (brushes)
2183:Maintenance (brushes)
2162:Typical drive, output
2130:electrodynamic tethers
2103:piezoelectric material
1985:
1873:
1724:
1652:power line frequencies
1643:
1612:
1460:
1384:
987:Electronic commutator
984:Mechanical commutator
979:Externally commutated
898:pulse-width modulation
794:
700:
693:the stator in plastic
644:
620:
306:
290:
199:
49:
32:Motor (disambiguation)
9716:Hankel singular value
9660:System identification
9608:analysis & design
9233:Power-to-weight ratio
9097:Direct torque control
8593:Flexible-fuel vehicle
8521:Hydrogen-powered ship
8473:Flexible-fuel vehicle
8348:Electric kick scooter
7488:Hameyer, Kay (2001).
7026:Small Electric Motors
6485:. IA-23 (2): 270–75.
6309:. CRC. p. xvii.
6303:Krishnan, R. (2008).
5923:"Resin-Packed Motors"
5627:Froehlich, Fritz E.;
5393:Jonnes, Jill (2004).
4968:on September 14, 2013
4466:. travelhungary.com.
4438:Early Electric Motors
3791:operating temperature
3711:
3689:
3667:
3625:
3583:
3557:
3424:
3404:
3384:
3364:
3341:
3302:
3263:
3236:
3205:
3203:{\displaystyle \eta }
3181:
3064:
2995:
2973:
2939:
2876:
2854:
2832:
2806:
2783:
2720:
2674:
2652:
2650:{\displaystyle \ell }
2632:
2590:Require a controller
2556:Simple speed control
2392:Industrial machinery
2386:Slightly more costly
2351:high starting torque
2177:Simple speed control
1982:
1871:
1722:
1640:
1627:Universal AC/DC motor
1610:
1554:conventional motors:
1458:
1427:; sparking generates
1382:
1346:Self-commutated motor
1153:Hysteresis-reluctance
1069:Ferromagnetic rotor:
775:
768:Commutator (electric)
642:
611:
376:primary battery power
321:electromagnetic coils
296:
285:
271:for (toxic) mercury.
258:permanent magnet (PM)
235:Hans Christian Ørsted
204:electrostatic devices
194:
47:
9995:Hungarian inventions
9806:Control applications
9782:Lead-lag compensator
9633:Discrete-time signal
9228:Open-loop controller
9121:Ward Leonard control
8845:DC injection braking
8718:Wind-powered vehicle
8302:Battery electric bus
7872:Locking differential
7807:Direct-shift gearbox
7608:Pelly, B.R. (1971).
6403:Bush, Steve (2009).
5987:on February 22, 2016
4870:. London: MacMillan.
4600:on 14 September 2013
4119:Compensation winding
3754:improve this article
3700:
3687:{\displaystyle \mu }
3678:
3636:
3594:
3572:
3461:
3413:
3393:
3373:
3353:
3314:
3275:
3245:
3218:
3194:
3143:
3011:
2984:
2955:
2896:
2865:
2843:
2821:
2795:
2747:
2690:
2661:
2641:
2621:
2604:Operating principles
2584:High holding torque
2531:VFD can be standard
2497:Very low efficiency
2406:Low starting torque
2211:Higher initial cost
2159:Typical application
1728:Cage and wound rotor
1650:Operating at normal
860:Bearing (mechanical)
722:Electromagnetic coil
595:Twenty-first century
438:Frank Julian Sprague
151:regenerative braking
9772:Embedded controller
9741:Minor loop feedback
9674:Advanced techniques
9466:Intelligent control
9131:History, education,
8777:Alternating current
8567:Natural gas vehicle
7897:Preselector gearbox
7877:Manual transmission
7530:. New York: Wiley.
7502:on 10 February 2013
7164:1975IEEEP..63..250L
7137:www.toyodenki.co.jp
6097:on October 27, 2011
5780:on 25 February 2013
5491:on 18 November 2012
5321:1879PPSL....3..115B
5245:1825RSPT..115..467B
5073:"Antonio Pacinotti"
4997:] (in German).
4901:1896Natur..53..516H
4537:1896Natur..53..516H
4464:"The first dinamo?"
3099:Electromotive force
3058:
2588:Some can be costly
2539:inverter PWM type.
2513:Equivalent to SCIM
2481:PWM inverter type.
2390:Industrial blowers
2146:
2117:Electric propulsion
2097:Piezoelectric motor
2078:Electrostatic motor
1701:(VFD) controllers.
1544:Hall effect sensors
1476:Cumulative compound
1397:magnetically "soft"
1165:Simple electronics
1116:Asymmetrical stator
972:
905:motor soft starters
812:electrical contacts
585:squirrel-cage rotor
541:George Westinghouse
97:alternating current
39:Electric locomotive
9985:British inventions
9736:Lyapunov stability
9549:Frequency response
9508:Stochastic control
9294:Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
9253:Voltage controller
9208:Blocked-rotor test
9146:Ball bearing motor
9116:Motor soft starter
9070:AC-to-AC converter
8931:Wound-rotor (WRIM)
8893:Electric generator
8234:Compressed-air car
8200:List of prototypes
8043:Electric generator
7948:Wheel hub assembly
7590:Electric Machinery
7551:. Academic Press.
6955:on 12 October 2007
6751:, pp. 569–70.
6739:, pp. 480–81.
6341:. pp. 13–160.
6288:. pp. 755–63.
6269:. pp. 755–63.
4154:Regenerative brake
4124:Electric generator
4097:Electronics portal
3706:
3684:
3662:
3620:
3578:
3552:
3419:
3399:
3389:is input current,
3379:
3369:is input voltage,
3359:
3336:
3297:
3258:
3231:
3200:
3176:
3121:are mainly due to
3076:– rotor resistance
3059:
3044:
2990:
2968:
2934:
2871:
2849:
2827:
2801:
2778:
2715:
2669:
2647:
2627:
2470:Industrial motors
2461:Synchronous speed
2144:
1986:
1874:
1725:
1644:
1613:
1461:
1385:
1043:Separately excited
970:
923:brushless DC motor
795:
748:ferromagnetic core
738:to exert a force (
707:Air gap (magnetic)
645:
643:Salient-pole rotor
621:
447:Richmond, Virginia
307:
291:
243:Ampère's force law
239:André-Marie Ampère
200:
82:electric generator
50:
9980:Energy conversion
9954:Telecommunication
9863:
9862:
9787:Numerical control
9617:Transfer function
9590:Signal-flow graph
9574:Positive feedback
9559:Negative feedback
9554:Laplace transform
9544:Fourier transform
9517:System properties
9498:Real-time control
9488:Nonlinear control
9387:
9386:
9223:Open-circuit test
9062:Motor controllers
8943:Synchronous motor
8765:Electric machines
8731:
8730:
8640:Electric aircraft
8506:Fuel cell vehicle
8353:Fuel cell vehicle
8277:Electric aircraft
8209:Electric aircraft
8134:Fuel cell vehicle
8084:
8083:
7837:Epicyclic gearing
7706:Automotive engine
7621:978-0-471-67790-1
7600:978-0-07-366009-7
7579:978-0-471-68449-7
7558:978-0-12-088405-6
7537:978-0-471-06134-2
7480:978-3-540-73128-3
7450:978-0-675-20160-5
7401:978-0-07-022005-8
7348:978-3-8356-3132-8
7321:978-0-12-811408-7
7294:978-0-86341-915-7
7259:978-1-4673-2967-5
7036:978-0-85296-921-2
7009:978-3-540-73129-0
6981:. pp. 36–41.
6844:978-81-8431-189-1
6660:978-3-319-23853-1
6627:978-3-527-62793-6
6548:978-0-88173-239-9
6449:Power electronics
6316:978-0-8247-5384-9
6251:978-1-4244-7019-8
6218:978-1-4244-7019-8
6131:Electric Machines
6019:978-1-85957-513-0
5927:Nidec Corporation
5881:978-0-13-403132-3
5854:978-0-08-102615-1
5755:978-1-4634-2441-1
5700:978-0-8018-2873-7
5669:978-0-8155-1495-4
5642:978-0-8247-2902-8
5606:978-0-203-02829-2
5567:978-0-313-34746-7
4820:978-0-262-64030-5
4813:. The MIT Press.
4786:978-0-8493-9810-0
4759:978-0-471-02334-0
4733:(Subscription or
4571:978-0-19-960120-2
4413:Royal Institution
4193:vector-controlled
4189:scalar-controlled
3947:
3946:
3883:
3882:
3775:
3774:
3659:
3646:
3617:
3604:
3581:{\displaystyle G}
3550:
3546:
3536:
3524:
3514:
3490:
3487:
3479:
3402:{\displaystyle T}
3382:{\displaystyle I}
3362:{\displaystyle V}
3324:
3285:
3255:
3228:
3174:
3171:
3161:
3042:
3021:
2993:{\displaystyle T}
2965:
2932:
2922:
2906:
2874:{\displaystyle v}
2852:{\displaystyle F}
2830:{\displaystyle T}
2757:
2681:Lorentz force law
2630:{\displaystyle I}
2601:
2600:
2544:Specialty motors
2335:vector-controlled
2308:(SCIM) or (WRIM)
2179:Low initial cost
2023:or feed rollers.
1805:Synchronous motor
1799:Synchronous motor
1656:electric railways
1191:
1190:
1186:), when provided
803:electrical switch
756:shaded-pole motor
680:. These create a
678:permanent magnets
634:permanent magnets
537:synchronous motor
494:Arago's rotations
402:Antonio Pacinotti
387:Moritz von Jacobi
359:DC electric motor
254:Royal Institution
212:Benjamin Franklin
62:mechanical energy
58:electrical energy
16:(Redirected from
10002:
9952:
9951:
9950:
9940:
9939:
9928:
9927:
9916:
9915:
9904:
9903:
9892:
9891:
9880:
9879:
9871:
9726:Krener's theorem
9435:Adaptive control
9414:
9407:
9400:
9391:
9390:
9238:Two-phase system
9218:Electromagnetism
9166:Mouse mill motor
9133:recreational use
9007:Permanent magnet
8936:Linear induction
8789:Permanent magnet
8758:
8751:
8744:
8735:
8734:
8531:Hydrogen vehicle
8511:Hydrogen economy
8478:Methanol economy
8331:Electric vehicle
8282:Electric bicycle
8254:Electric battery
8152:Electric bicycle
8111:
8104:
8097:
8088:
8087:
8074:
8073:
8064:
7941:Wheels and tires
7912:Torque converter
7678:
7671:
7664:
7655:
7654:
7625:
7604:
7583:
7562:
7541:
7511:
7509:
7507:
7501:
7494:
7484:
7463:
7454:
7433:
7431:
7430:
7405:
7371:
7370:
7369:. March 4, 2020.
7359:
7353:
7352:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7305:
7299:
7298:
7278:
7272:
7271:
7237:
7231:
7230:
7228:
7199:
7190:
7184:
7183:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7130:
7124:
7123:
7121:
7119:
7113:
7106:
7098:
7092:
7091:
7089:
7087:
7081:
7074:
7066:
7060:
7059:
7047:
7041:
7040:
7020:
7014:
7013:
6993:
6987:
6982:
6974:
6965:
6964:
6962:
6960:
6945:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6934:
6928:
6917:
6908:
6902:
6896:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6873:
6868:
6864:"Motoring Ahead"
6859:
6853:
6852:
6826:
6820:
6819:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6758:
6752:
6746:
6740:
6734:
6725:
6719:
6713:
6707:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6690:
6681:. Archived from
6671:
6665:
6664:
6638:
6632:
6631:
6611:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6594:
6583:
6574:
6568:
6562:
6553:
6552:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6524:
6509:
6503:
6502:
6478:
6463:
6462:
6444:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6434:
6429:. March 11, 2018
6419:
6413:
6412:
6400:
6394:
6393:
6381:
6375:
6374:
6354:
6348:
6342:
6334:
6325:
6324:
6300:
6294:
6289:
6281:
6275:
6270:
6262:
6256:
6255:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6196:
6185:
6179:
6172:
6163:
6157:
6148:
6147:
6145:
6143:
6125:
6119:
6113:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6096:
6089:
6081:
6075:
6074:
6072:
6071:
6057:
6051:
6050:
6030:
6024:
6023:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5994:
5992:
5986:
5979:
5971:
5962:
5956:
5950:
5945:
5937:
5931:
5930:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5893:
5887:
5885:
5865:
5859:
5858:
5840:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5830:
5815:
5809:
5808:
5796:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5730:
5715:
5709:
5708:
5684:
5678:
5677:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5624:
5618:
5617:
5615:
5613:
5590:
5584:
5583:
5581:
5579:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5516:
5501:
5500:
5498:
5496:
5480:
5474:
5473:
5461:
5455:
5454:
5418:
5405:
5404:
5390:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5376:
5370:
5355:
5346:
5337:
5336:
5300:
5294:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5261:
5256:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5215:
5208:
5200:
5194:
5193:
5188:. Archived from
5182:
5176:
5175:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5115:. Archived from
5105:
5099:
5098:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5069:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5043:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5032:
5021:
5015:
5014:
5012:
5010:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4960:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4941:
4939:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4919:
4917:
4912:
4910:10.1038/053516a0
4883:"Anianus Jedlik"
4878:
4872:
4871:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4840:"Jacobi's Motor"
4835:
4829:
4828:
4804:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4745:
4739:
4738:
4730:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4682:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4668:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4616:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4599:
4592:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4557:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4546:10.1038/053516a0
4519:"Anianus Jedlik"
4514:
4508:
4507:
4489:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4475:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4405:
4396:
4395:
4385:
4357:
4344:
4343:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4280:
4274:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4247:
4223:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4184:
4178:
4175:
4144:Motor controller
4113:
4108:
4107:
4099:
4094:
4093:
3990:magnetostriction
3894:
3893:
3833:
3832:
3770:
3767:
3761:
3741:
3740:
3733:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3661:
3660:
3657:
3648:
3647:
3644:
3629:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3615:
3606:
3605:
3602:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3496:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3480:
3477:
3471:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3408:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3345:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3153:
3123:resistive losses
3068:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3057:
3052:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3028:
3023:
3022:
3019:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2977:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2963:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2913:
2908:
2907:
2904:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2697:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2668:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2609:Force and torque
2562:Medium lifespan
2487:Hysteresis motor
2147:
2143:
2057:induction motors
1999:servo-controlled
1919:design compact.
1910:Axial flux motor
1681:
1677:
1492:Permanent magnet
1425:electrical noise
1351:Brushed DC motor
1279:Permanent magnet
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1227:
1221:
1211:
1205:
1199:
976:Self-commutated
973:
969:
947:piezoelectricity
886:Universal motors
840:induction motors
832:brushless motors
687:electrical steel
654:Rotor (electric)
626:magnetic circuit
529:reluctance motor
505:Galileo Ferraris
397:that same year.
395:electric vehicle
368:Thomas Davenport
364:William Sturgeon
361:
360:
277:homopolar motors
231:Alessandro Volta
70:electric current
21:
10010:
10009:
10005:
10004:
10003:
10001:
10000:
9999:
9970:Electric motors
9960:
9959:
9958:
9948:
9946:
9934:
9922:
9910:
9898:
9886:
9874:
9866:
9864:
9859:
9845:Process control
9825:Electric motors
9801:
9760:
9669:
9626:Digital control
9621:
9612:System dynamics
9539:Controllability
9512:
9493:Optimal control
9445:Digital control
9423:
9418:
9388:
9383:
9257:
9196:
9170:
9161:Mendocino motor
9134:
9132:
9125:
9056:
8916:Induction motor
8897:
8874:
8820:Braking chopper
8808:
8806:
8799:
8767:
8762:
8732:
8727:
8708:Wave power ship
8698:Ram air turbine
8681:
8649:
8588:Bi-fuel vehicle
8576:
8540:
8492:
8416:
8256:
8248:
8225:
8224:Compressed-air
8218:
8161:
8138:
8120:
8115:
8085:
8080:
8052:
8021:
7936:
7932:Universal joint
7862:Hotchkiss drive
7753:
7700:
7687:
7682:
7633:
7628:
7622:
7601:
7580:
7559:
7538:
7519:
7517:Further reading
7514:
7505:
7503:
7499:
7492:
7481:
7451:
7428:
7426:
7402:
7394:. McGraw-Hill.
7386:Fink, Donald G.
7380:
7375:
7374:
7361:
7360:
7356:
7349:
7333:
7329:
7322:
7306:
7302:
7295:
7279:
7275:
7260:
7238:
7234:
7226:
7220:
7197:
7191:
7187:
7148:
7144:
7132:
7131:
7127:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7104:
7100:
7099:
7095:
7085:
7083:
7079:
7072:
7068:
7067:
7063:
7048:
7044:
7037:
7021:
7017:
7010:
6994:
6990:
6975:
6968:
6958:
6956:
6947:
6946:
6942:
6932:
6930:
6926:
6915:
6909:
6905:
6897:
6893:
6885:
6881:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6860:
6856:
6845:
6827:
6823:
6792:
6788:
6781:
6759:
6755:
6747:
6743:
6735:
6728:
6720:
6716:
6708:
6697:
6688:
6686:
6679:www.tethers.com
6673:
6672:
6668:
6661:
6639:
6635:
6628:
6612:
6608:
6598:
6596:
6592:
6581:
6575:
6571:
6563:
6556:
6549:
6535:
6531:
6522:
6520:
6510:
6506:
6479:
6466:
6459:
6445:
6441:
6432:
6430:
6421:
6420:
6416:
6401:
6397:
6382:
6378:
6371:
6355:
6351:
6335:
6328:
6317:
6301:
6297:
6282:
6278:
6263:
6259:
6252:
6230:
6226:
6219:
6197:
6188:
6174:
6173:
6166:
6158:
6151:
6141:
6139:
6138:on 18 July 2013
6126:
6122:
6114:
6110:
6100:
6098:
6094:
6087:
6083:
6082:
6078:
6069:
6067:
6059:
6058:
6054:
6047:
6031:
6027:
6020:
6004:
6000:
5990:
5988:
5984:
5977:
5973:
5972:
5965:
5957:
5953:
5938:
5934:
5921:
5920:
5916:
5906:
5904:
5895:
5894:
5890:
5882:
5866:
5862:
5855:
5841:
5837:
5828:
5826:
5816:
5812:
5797:
5793:
5783:
5781:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5756:
5742:
5738:
5728:
5726:
5717:
5716:
5712:
5701:
5685:
5681:
5670:
5654:
5650:
5643:
5631:, eds. (1992).
5625:
5621:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5591:
5587:
5577:
5575:
5568:
5552:
5548:
5517:
5504:
5494:
5492:
5481:
5477:
5462:
5458:
5419:
5408:
5391:
5384:
5374:
5372:
5368:
5353:
5347:
5340:
5301:
5297:
5287:
5285:
5273:
5269:
5259:
5257:
5225:
5221:
5213:
5206:
5202:
5201:
5197:
5184:
5183:
5179:
5159:
5155:
5135:
5131:
5122:
5120:
5107:
5106:
5102:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5071:
5070:
5066:
5056:
5054:
5045:
5044:
5040:
5030:
5028:
5023:
5022:
5018:
5008:
5006:
5005:on June 9, 2011
4986:
4985:
4981:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4958:
4951:
4947:
4937:
4935:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4915:
4913:
4879:
4875:
4864:
4860:
4849:
4847:
4836:
4832:
4821:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4771:
4767:
4760:
4746:
4742:
4732:
4709:
4705:
4695:
4693:
4684:
4683:
4676:
4666:
4664:
4655:
4654:
4650:
4640:
4638:
4637:on June 9, 2011
4618:
4617:
4613:
4603:
4601:
4597:
4590:
4583:
4579:
4572:
4558:
4554:
4515:
4511:
4490:
4483:
4473:
4471:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4447:
4445:
4440:. SparkMuseum.
4432:
4431:
4427:
4417:
4415:
4407:
4406:
4399:
4358:
4347:
4326:(4): 59–61+69.
4316:
4312:
4281:
4277:
4268:
4264:
4259:
4255:
4245:
4243:
4224:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4209:
4203:
4199:
4185:
4181:
4176:
4172:
4167:
4139:Motor capacitor
4134:Goodness factor
4109:
4102:
4095:
4088:
4085:
4076:Indian Standard
4006:
3964:
3955:
3914:Torque density
3897:Characteristic
3820:
3771:
3765:
3762:
3751:
3742:
3738:
3731:
3726:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3656:
3652:
3643:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3614:
3610:
3601:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3529:
3528:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3507:
3497:
3495:
3484:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3452:Eric Laithwaite
3449:
3447:Goodness factor
3443:
3441:Goodness factor
3414:
3411:
3410:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3374:
3371:
3370:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3321:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3282:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3252:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3225:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3154:
3152:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3134:
3116:
3101:
3095:
3082:
3075:
3053:
3048:
3033:
3029:
3027:
3018:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2962:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2903:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2754:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2710:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2611:
2606:
2554:Compact design
2404:Moderate power
2378:Moderate power
2306:induction motor
2276:Universal motor
2230:inverter type.
2142:
2125:
2119:
2099:
2093:
2080:
2074:
2069:
2046:
2040:
2017:inkjet printers
1977:
1971:
1954:
1948:
1912:
1906:
1893:vibrating alert
1866:
1861:
1856:
1839:
1833:
1807:
1801:
1780:
1774:
1730:
1713:
1711:Induction motor
1707:
1705:Induction motor
1694:
1688:
1679:
1675:
1635:
1633:Universal motor
1629:
1605:
1599:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1515:field magnets.
1500:
1494:
1377:
1371:
1359:
1353:
1348:
1300:induction motor
1255:Abbreviations:
1218:energy-recovery
1180:Most elaborate
1174:More elaborate
935:
894:
879:
874:
862:
856:
848:
781:universal motor
770:
764:
724:
718:
709:
703:
670:
664:
656:
650:
606:
597:
533:induction motor
498:induction motor
482:
476:
372:Emily Davenport
358:
357:
351:
345:
250:Michael Faraday
220:Henry Cavendish
189:
184:
178:
155:traction motors
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Electric engine
15:
12:
11:
5:
10008:
9998:
9997:
9992:
9987:
9982:
9977:
9972:
9957:
9956:
9944:
9932:
9920:
9908:
9896:
9884:
9861:
9860:
9858:
9857:
9852:
9847:
9842:
9840:Motion control
9837:
9832:
9827:
9822:
9817:
9809:
9807:
9803:
9802:
9800:
9799:
9794:
9792:PID controller
9789:
9784:
9779:
9774:
9768:
9766:
9762:
9761:
9759:
9758:
9756:Vector control
9753:
9751:State observer
9748:
9743:
9738:
9733:
9728:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9708:
9703:
9698:
9693:
9688:
9683:
9677:
9675:
9671:
9670:
9668:
9667:
9662:
9657:
9651:
9645:
9640:
9635:
9629:
9627:
9623:
9622:
9620:
9619:
9614:
9609:
9603:
9597:
9592:
9587:
9585:Servomechanism
9582:
9576:
9571:
9566:
9561:
9556:
9551:
9546:
9541:
9536:
9531:
9526:
9520:
9518:
9514:
9513:
9511:
9510:
9505:
9503:Robust control
9500:
9495:
9490:
9485:
9479:
9473:
9468:
9463:
9457:
9452:
9447:
9442:
9440:Control theory
9437:
9431:
9429:
9425:
9424:
9421:Control theory
9417:
9416:
9409:
9402:
9394:
9385:
9384:
9382:
9381:
9376:
9371:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9346:
9341:
9336:
9331:
9326:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9306:
9301:
9296:
9291:
9286:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9265:
9263:
9259:
9258:
9256:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9243:Inchworm motor
9240:
9235:
9230:
9225:
9220:
9215:
9213:Circle diagram
9210:
9204:
9202:
9201:Related topics
9198:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9178:
9176:
9172:
9171:
9169:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9151:Barlow's wheel
9148:
9143:
9137:
9135:
9130:
9127:
9126:
9124:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9107:
9106:
9105:
9104:
9102:Vector control
9099:
9084:
9079:
9078:
9077:
9075:Cycloconverter
9066:
9064:
9058:
9057:
9055:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9024:
9019:
9014:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8994:
8989:
8984:
8979:
8978:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8952:
8951:
8950:
8945:
8940:
8939:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8907:
8905:
8899:
8898:
8896:
8895:
8890:
8884:
8882:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8852:
8847:
8842:
8840:Damper winding
8837:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8811:
8809:
8805:Components and
8804:
8801:
8800:
8798:
8797:
8791:
8785:
8783:Direct current
8779:
8772:
8769:
8768:
8761:
8760:
8753:
8746:
8738:
8729:
8728:
8726:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8710:
8705:
8700:
8695:
8689:
8687:
8683:
8682:
8680:
8679:
8672:
8665:
8657:
8655:
8651:
8650:
8648:
8647:
8642:
8637:
8636:
8635:
8630:
8620:
8618:Plug-in hybrid
8615:
8610:
8608:Hybrid vehicle
8605:
8600:
8595:
8590:
8584:
8582:
8578:
8577:
8575:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8559:
8554:
8548:
8546:
8542:
8541:
8539:
8538:
8533:
8528:
8526:Hydrogen train
8523:
8518:
8513:
8508:
8502:
8500:
8494:
8493:
8491:
8490:
8485:
8480:
8475:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8455:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8435:
8429:
8427:
8418:
8417:
8415:
8414:
8413:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8392:
8387:
8386:
8385:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8339:
8338:
8328:
8323:
8321:Electric truck
8318:
8317:
8316:
8306:
8305:
8304:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8263:
8261:
8250:
8249:
8247:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8230:
8228:
8220:
8219:
8217:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8205:
8204:
8203:
8202:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8171:
8169:
8163:
8162:
8160:
8159:
8154:
8148:
8146:
8140:
8139:
8137:
8136:
8130:
8128:
8122:
8121:
8114:
8113:
8106:
8099:
8091:
8082:
8081:
8079:
8078:
8068:
8057:
8054:
8053:
8051:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8033:Electric motor
8029:
8027:
8023:
8022:
8020:
8019:
8018:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7972:
7971:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7950:
7944:
7942:
7938:
7937:
7935:
7934:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7889:
7884:
7879:
7874:
7869:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7847:Friction drive
7844:
7842:Fluid coupling
7839:
7834:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7814:
7809:
7804:
7799:
7794:
7789:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7763:
7761:
7755:
7754:
7752:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7736:
7733:Plug-in hybrid
7726:
7721:
7716:
7710:
7708:
7702:
7701:
7692:
7689:
7688:
7681:
7680:
7673:
7666:
7658:
7652:
7651:
7645:
7639:
7632:
7631:External links
7629:
7627:
7626:
7620:
7605:
7599:
7584:
7578:
7563:
7557:
7542:
7536:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7512:
7485:
7479:
7464:
7455:
7449:
7434:
7415:
7406:
7400:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7373:
7372:
7354:
7347:
7327:
7320:
7300:
7293:
7273:
7258:
7232:
7218:
7185:
7142:
7125:
7093:
7061:
7042:
7035:
7015:
7008:
6988:
6966:
6940:
6903:
6901:, p. 389.
6891:
6879:
6854:
6843:
6821:
6802:(1): 1419–30.
6786:
6779:
6753:
6741:
6726:
6714:
6695:
6666:
6659:
6633:
6626:
6606:
6569:
6554:
6547:
6529:
6504:
6464:
6457:
6439:
6414:
6411:on 2012-04-11.
6395:
6376:
6369:
6349:
6326:
6315:
6295:
6276:
6257:
6250:
6224:
6217:
6186:
6164:
6149:
6128:Knight, Andy.
6120:
6108:
6076:
6052:
6046:97-80128123195
6045:
6025:
6018:
5998:
5963:
5951:
5932:
5914:
5888:
5880:
5860:
5853:
5835:
5810:
5791:
5761:
5754:
5736:
5710:
5699:
5679:
5668:
5648:
5641:
5619:
5605:
5585:
5566:
5546:
5527:(9): 1380–83.
5502:
5475:
5456:
5406:
5382:
5338:
5295:
5267:
5219:
5195:
5192:on 2011-04-11.
5177:
5174:–08, sec. 899.
5162:Ganot, Adolphe
5153:
5150:–08, sec. 899.
5138:Ganot, Adolphe
5129:
5100:
5082:
5064:
5038:
5016:
4979:
4945:
4923:
4873:
4858:
4830:
4819:
4799:
4785:
4765:
4758:
4740:
4703:
4674:
4648:
4611:
4577:
4570:
4552:
4509:
4481:
4455:
4425:
4397:
4345:
4310:
4275:
4262:
4253:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4197:
4179:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4159:Traction motor
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4100:
4084:
4081:
4080:
4079:
4073:
4067:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4040:
4034:
4028:
4022:
4016:
4005:
4002:
3994:
3993:
3982:
3975:
3963:
3960:
3954:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3931:Power density
3928:
3927:
3924:
3921:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3864:
3861:
3857:
3856:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3819:
3816:
3773:
3772:
3745:
3743:
3736:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3718:
3717:
3705:
3695:
3683:
3673:
3655:
3651:
3642:
3631:
3613:
3609:
3600:
3589:
3577:
3563:
3562:
3542:
3532:
3520:
3510:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3494:
3483:
3474:
3469:
3466:
3445:Main article:
3442:
3439:
3418:
3398:
3378:
3358:
3347:
3346:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3320:
3308:
3307:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3281:
3251:
3224:
3199:
3188:
3187:
3167:
3157:
3151:
3148:
3133:
3130:
3115:
3112:
3097:Main article:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3017:
3002:
3001:
2989:
2979:
2961:
2946:
2945:
2931:
2927:
2918:
2911:
2902:
2887:Imperial units
2883:
2882:
2870:
2860:
2848:
2838:
2826:
2816:
2800:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2753:
2740:
2737:
2726:
2725:
2713:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2667:
2646:
2626:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2540:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2459:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2421:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2402:
2395:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2340:
2339:
2329:
2322:
2316:
2312:Self-starting
2310:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2270:applications.
2264:
2258:
2254:vector control
2244:
2240:Long lifespan
2238:
2232:
2231:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2205:Long lifespan
2203:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2156:Disadvantages
2154:
2151:
2141:
2138:
2121:Main article:
2118:
2115:
2107:electric field
2095:Main article:
2092:
2089:
2076:Main article:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2042:Main article:
2039:
2036:
1973:Main article:
1970:
1967:
1950:Main article:
1947:
1944:
1908:Main article:
1905:
1902:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1854:Advanced types
1852:
1835:Main article:
1832:
1829:
1812:Hammond organs
1803:Main article:
1800:
1797:
1776:Main article:
1773:
1770:
1729:
1726:
1709:Main article:
1706:
1703:
1690:Main article:
1687:
1684:
1631:Main article:
1628:
1625:
1601:Main article:
1598:
1595:
1591:model aircraft
1587:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1563:
1559:
1528:Main article:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1496:Main article:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1471:
1468:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1412:short circuits
1373:Main article:
1370:
1367:
1355:Main article:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1263:
1189:
1188:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1150:SyRM-PM hybrid
1136:
1135:
1132:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1104:Single-phase:
1096:
1095:
1088:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1028:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
997:
996:
991:
988:
985:
981:
980:
977:
943:electrostatics
934:
931:
929:applications.
912:power inverter
893:
890:
878:
875:
873:
870:
858:Main article:
855:
852:
847:
844:
810:. Two or more
766:Main article:
763:
760:
736:magnetic field
717:
714:
705:Main article:
702:
699:
682:magnetic field
674:electromagnets
666:Main article:
663:
660:
652:Main article:
649:
646:
630:electromagnets
605:
602:
596:
593:
486:François Arago
478:Main article:
475:
472:
431:Jonas Wenström
411:Werner Siemens
347:Main article:
344:
341:
273:Barlow's wheel
188:
185:
180:Main article:
177:
174:
139:pumped-storage
89:direct current
66:magnetic field
54:electric motor
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10007:
9996:
9993:
9991:
9988:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9978:
9976:
9973:
9971:
9968:
9967:
9965:
9955:
9945:
9943:
9938:
9933:
9931:
9926:
9921:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9907:
9902:
9897:
9895:
9890:
9885:
9883:
9878:
9873:
9872:
9869:
9856:
9853:
9851:
9848:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9826:
9823:
9821:
9818:
9816:
9815:
9811:
9810:
9808:
9804:
9798:
9795:
9793:
9790:
9788:
9785:
9783:
9780:
9778:
9775:
9773:
9770:
9769:
9767:
9763:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9742:
9739:
9737:
9734:
9732:
9731:Least squares
9729:
9727:
9724:
9722:
9721:Kalman filter
9719:
9717:
9714:
9712:
9709:
9707:
9704:
9702:
9699:
9697:
9694:
9692:
9689:
9687:
9684:
9682:
9679:
9678:
9676:
9672:
9666:
9663:
9661:
9658:
9655:
9652:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9641:
9639:
9636:
9634:
9631:
9630:
9628:
9624:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9607:
9604:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9586:
9583:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9572:
9570:
9567:
9565:
9564:Observability
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9530:
9529:Block diagram
9527:
9525:
9522:
9521:
9519:
9515:
9509:
9506:
9504:
9501:
9499:
9496:
9494:
9491:
9489:
9486:
9483:
9480:
9477:
9476:Multivariable
9474:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9464:
9461:
9458:
9456:
9455:Fuzzy control
9453:
9451:
9448:
9446:
9443:
9441:
9438:
9436:
9433:
9432:
9430:
9426:
9422:
9415:
9410:
9408:
9403:
9401:
9396:
9395:
9392:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9342:
9340:
9337:
9335:
9332:
9330:
9327:
9325:
9322:
9320:
9317:
9315:
9312:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9297:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
9275:
9272:
9270:
9267:
9266:
9264:
9260:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9236:
9234:
9231:
9229:
9226:
9224:
9221:
9219:
9216:
9214:
9211:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9203:
9199:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9179:
9177:
9173:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9138:
9136:
9128:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9103:
9100:
9098:
9095:
9094:
9093:
9090:
9089:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9076:
9073:
9072:
9071:
9068:
9067:
9065:
9063:
9059:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9037:Piezoelectric
9035:
9033:
9032:Electrostatic
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9018:
9015:
9013:
9010:
9008:
9005:
9003:
9000:
8998:
8995:
8993:
8990:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8957:
8956:
8953:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8918:
8917:
8914:
8913:
8912:
8909:
8908:
8906:
8904:
8900:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8885:
8883:
8881:
8877:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8843:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8812:
8810:
8802:
8796:
8792:
8790:
8786:
8784:
8780:
8778:
8774:
8773:
8770:
8766:
8759:
8754:
8752:
8747:
8745:
8740:
8739:
8736:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8713:Windmill ship
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8690:
8688:
8684:
8678:
8677:
8673:
8671:
8670:
8666:
8664:
8663:
8659:
8658:
8656:
8654:Documentaries
8652:
8646:
8645:Electric boat
8643:
8641:
8638:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8625:
8624:
8623:Solar vehicle
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8585:
8583:
8581:Multiple-fuel
8579:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8549:
8547:
8543:
8537:
8534:
8532:
8529:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8519:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8507:
8504:
8503:
8501:
8499:
8495:
8489:
8486:
8484:
8483:Methanol fuel
8481:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8454:
8451:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8430:
8428:
8426:
8423:
8419:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8403:
8401:
8398:
8397:
8396:
8395:Solar vehicle
8393:
8391:
8388:
8384:
8381:
8380:
8379:
8376:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8364:
8361:
8359:
8356:
8354:
8351:
8349:
8346:
8344:
8341:
8337:
8334:
8333:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8315:
8312:
8311:
8310:
8307:
8303:
8300:
8299:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8292:Electric boat
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8264:
8262:
8260:
8255:
8251:
8245:
8244:Tesla turbine
8242:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8231:
8229:
8227:
8221:
8215:
8214:Electric boat
8212:
8210:
8207:
8201:
8198:
8197:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8177:
8176:
8175:Solar vehicle
8173:
8172:
8170:
8168:
8164:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8149:
8147:
8145:
8141:
8135:
8132:
8131:
8129:
8127:
8123:
8119:
8112:
8107:
8105:
8100:
8098:
8093:
8092:
8089:
8077:
8069:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8058:
8055:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8030:
8028:
8024:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7977:
7976:
7973:
7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7955:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7945:
7943:
7939:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7908:
7907:Shift-by-wire
7905:
7903:
7900:
7898:
7895:
7893:
7890:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7878:
7875:
7873:
7870:
7868:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7845:
7843:
7840:
7838:
7835:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7764:
7762:
7760:
7756:
7750:
7747:
7745:
7744:Petrol engine
7742:
7740:
7737:
7734:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7714:Diesel engine
7712:
7711:
7709:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7697:
7690:
7686:
7679:
7674:
7672:
7667:
7665:
7660:
7659:
7656:
7649:
7646:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7634:
7623:
7617:
7613:
7612:
7606:
7602:
7596:
7592:
7591:
7585:
7581:
7575:
7571:
7570:
7564:
7560:
7554:
7550:
7549:
7543:
7539:
7533:
7529:
7528:
7522:
7521:
7498:
7491:
7486:
7482:
7476:
7472:
7471:
7465:
7461:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7442:
7441:
7435:
7425:
7421:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7407:
7403:
7397:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7383:
7382:
7368:
7364:
7358:
7350:
7344:
7340:
7339:
7331:
7323:
7317:
7313:
7312:
7304:
7296:
7290:
7286:
7285:
7277:
7269:
7265:
7261:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7236:
7225:
7221:
7219:0-7803-7817-2
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7196:
7189:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7158:(2): 250–90.
7157:
7153:
7146:
7138:
7135:
7129:
7110:
7103:
7097:
7078:
7071:
7065:
7057:
7053:
7046:
7038:
7032:
7028:
7027:
7019:
7011:
7005:
7001:
7000:
6992:
6986:
6985:Knowlton 1949
6980:
6973:
6971:
6954:
6950:
6944:
6925:
6921:
6914:
6907:
6900:
6895:
6889:, p. 10.
6888:
6883:
6865:
6858:
6850:
6846:
6840:
6836:
6832:
6825:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6790:
6782:
6780:0-87942-553-9
6776:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6757:
6750:
6745:
6738:
6733:
6731:
6723:
6718:
6711:
6706:
6704:
6702:
6700:
6685:on 2017-11-16
6684:
6680:
6676:
6670:
6662:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6637:
6629:
6623:
6619:
6618:
6610:
6591:
6587:
6580:
6573:
6566:
6561:
6559:
6550:
6544:
6540:
6533:
6519:
6515:
6508:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6477:
6475:
6473:
6471:
6469:
6460:
6458:0-07-707714-8
6454:
6450:
6443:
6428:
6427:CleanTechnica
6424:
6418:
6410:
6406:
6399:
6391:
6387:
6380:
6372:
6370:0-8493-8574-1
6366:
6362:
6361:
6353:
6346:
6340:
6333:
6331:
6322:
6318:
6312:
6308:
6307:
6299:
6293:
6292:Knowlton 1949
6287:
6280:
6274:
6273:Knowlton 1949
6268:
6261:
6253:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6228:
6220:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6183:
6177:
6171:
6169:
6161:
6156:
6154:
6137:
6133:
6132:
6124:
6117:
6112:
6093:
6086:
6080:
6066:
6062:
6056:
6048:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6029:
6021:
6015:
6011:
6010:
6002:
5983:
5976:
5970:
5968:
5961:, p. 62.
5960:
5955:
5949:
5948:Knowlton 1949
5943:
5936:
5928:
5924:
5918:
5902:
5898:
5892:
5886:Section 1.2.2
5883:
5877:
5873:
5872:
5864:
5856:
5850:
5846:
5839:
5825:
5824:IEEE Spectrum
5821:
5814:
5806:
5802:
5795:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5757:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5725:on 8 May 2012
5724:
5720:
5714:
5706:
5702:
5696:
5692:
5691:
5683:
5675:
5671:
5665:
5661:
5660:
5652:
5644:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5623:
5608:
5602:
5598:
5597:
5589:
5573:
5569:
5563:
5559:
5558:
5550:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5515:
5513:
5511:
5509:
5507:
5490:
5486:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5443:11577/3286584
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5402:
5398:
5397:
5389:
5387:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5352:
5345:
5343:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5283:
5282:
5277:
5271:
5255:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5223:
5212:
5205:
5199:
5191:
5187:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5163:
5157:
5149:
5145:
5144:
5139:
5133:
5119:on 2012-11-01
5118:
5114:
5110:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5052:
5048:
5042:
5026:
5020:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4991:
4983:
4964:
4956:
4949:
4933:
4927:
4911:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4889:
4884:
4877:
4869:
4862:
4845:
4841:
4834:
4826:
4822:
4816:
4812:
4811:
4803:
4788:
4782:
4778:
4777:
4769:
4761:
4755:
4751:
4744:
4736:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4719:
4714:
4707:
4691:
4687:
4681:
4679:
4662:
4658:
4652:
4636:
4632:
4629:(in German).
4628:
4625:
4621:
4615:
4596:
4588:
4581:
4573:
4567:
4563:
4556:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4513:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4496:
4488:
4486:
4469:
4465:
4459:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4402:
4393:
4389:
4384:
4383:11577/3282911
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4314:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4272:
4266:
4257:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4222:
4218:
4201:
4194:
4190:
4183:
4174:
4170:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4111:Energy portal
4106:
4101:
4098:
4092:
4087:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4050:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4020:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4001:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3959:
3950:
3942:
3939:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3815:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3779:
3769:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3744:
3735:
3734:
3721:
3703:
3696:
3681:
3674:
3653:
3649:
3640:
3632:
3611:
3607:
3598:
3590:
3575:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3540:
3530:
3518:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3492:
3481:
3472:
3467:
3464:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3448:
3438:
3434:
3432:
3416:
3396:
3376:
3356:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3318:
3310:
3309:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3279:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3249:
3222:
3213:
3197:
3165:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3100:
3085:
3078:
3071:
3070:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3024:
3015:
3007:
3006:
3005:
2987:
2980:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2929:
2925:
2916:
2909:
2900:
2892:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2881:: velocity, .
2868:
2861:
2846:
2839:
2824:
2817:
2814:
2813:angular speed
2798:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2751:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:cross product
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2644:
2624:
2615:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2579:
2578:Stepper motor
2576:
2575:
2571:
2569:
2566:Office Equip
2565:
2563:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2424:AC induction
2423:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2364:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2330:
2328:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2302:AC polyphase
2301:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2137:
2135:
2134:magnetosphere
2131:
2124:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2091:Piezoelectric
2088:
2086:
2079:
2072:Electrostatic
2064:
2062:
2061:maglev trains
2058:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2002:
2000:
1995:
1994:Microstepping
1990:
1981:
1976:
1975:Stepper motor
1969:Stepper motor
1966:
1962:
1959:
1953:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1886:
1885:time constant
1881:
1879:
1870:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1819:
1815:
1813:
1806:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1693:
1683:
1671:
1669:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1639:
1634:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1609:
1604:
1594:
1592:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1404:electromagnet
1401:
1400:ferromagnetic
1398:
1393:
1390:
1381:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1358:
1340:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:Squirrel-cage
1294:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1187:
1185:
1182:electronics (
1177:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:Three-phase:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1037:Electrically
1036:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
999:
998:
995:
992:
990:Asynchronous
989:
986:
982:
974:
968:
965:
960:
957:
954:
950:
948:
944:
940:
930:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
908:
906:
901:
899:
889:
887:
882:
869:
867:
861:
851:
843:
841:
837:
833:
828:
823:
819:
818:
813:
809:
804:
800:
793:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
759:
757:
751:
749:
745:
741:
740:Lorentz force
737:
733:
732:ferromagnetic
729:
723:
713:
708:
698:
696:
692:
688:
683:
679:
675:
669:
659:
655:
641:
637:
635:
631:
627:
618:
614:
610:
601:
592:
590:
586:
582:
577:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
553:
551:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
510:
506:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
481:
471:
469:
463:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
443:Thomas Edison
439:
434:
432:
427:
422:
420:
414:
412:
408:
407:Zénobe Gramme
403:
398:
396:
391:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
356:
350:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
315:
312:
304:
300:
295:
288:
284:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
265:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
216:Coulomb's law
213:
209:
208:Andrew Gordon
205:
197:
193:
183:
173:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
146:
144:
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
46:
40:
33:
19:
9835:Mechatronics
9824:
9812:
9643:Quantization
9606:Steady state
8902:
8674:
8667:
8660:
8603:Hybrid train
8468:Ethanol fuel
8448:Butanol fuel
8433:Alcohol fuel
8368:Hybrid train
8309:Electric car
8297:Electric bus
8258:
8032:
7985:Racing slick
7922:Transfer box
7892:Park-by-wire
7887:Parking pawl
7802:Differential
7777:Direct-drive
7759:Transmission
7749:Steam engine
7694:Part of the
7693:
7610:
7589:
7568:
7547:
7526:
7504:. Retrieved
7497:the original
7473:. Springer.
7469:
7459:
7439:
7427:. Retrieved
7423:
7410:
7390:
7378:Bibliography
7366:
7357:
7337:
7330:
7310:
7303:
7283:
7276:
7241:
7235:
7201:
7188:
7155:
7151:
7145:
7136:
7128:
7116:. Retrieved
7096:
7084:. Retrieved
7064:
7055:
7045:
7025:
7018:
7002:. Springer.
6998:
6991:
6978:
6957:. Retrieved
6953:the original
6943:
6931:. Retrieved
6919:
6906:
6894:
6882:
6870:. Retrieved
6857:
6834:
6824:
6799:
6795:
6789:
6762:
6756:
6744:
6724:, p. 5.
6717:
6712:, p. 9.
6687:. Retrieved
6683:the original
6678:
6669:
6642:
6636:
6616:
6609:
6597:. Retrieved
6585:
6572:
6538:
6532:
6521:. Retrieved
6518:newatlas.com
6517:
6507:
6482:
6448:
6442:
6431:. Retrieved
6426:
6417:
6409:the original
6398:
6379:
6359:
6352:
6338:
6305:
6298:
6285:
6279:
6266:
6260:
6233:
6227:
6200:
6175:
6160:Hameyer 2001
6140:. Retrieved
6136:the original
6130:
6123:
6111:
6101:February 19,
6099:. Retrieved
6092:the original
6079:
6068:. Retrieved
6064:
6055:
6039:. Elsevier.
6035:
6028:
6008:
6001:
5989:. Retrieved
5982:the original
5959:Hameyer 2001
5954:
5941:
5935:
5926:
5917:
5905:. Retrieved
5900:
5891:
5870:
5863:
5844:
5838:
5827:. Retrieved
5823:
5813:
5804:
5800:
5794:
5782:. Retrieved
5778:the original
5773:
5764:
5745:
5739:
5727:. Retrieved
5723:the original
5713:
5689:
5682:
5658:
5651:
5632:
5622:
5610:. Retrieved
5595:
5588:
5578:10 September
5576:. Retrieved
5556:
5549:
5524:
5520:
5493:. Retrieved
5489:the original
5478:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5429:(4): 28–32.
5426:
5422:
5395:
5373:. Retrieved
5361:
5357:
5312:
5308:
5298:
5286:. Retrieved
5280:
5270:
5258:. Retrieved
5236:
5232:
5222:
5198:
5190:the original
5180:
5166:
5156:
5142:
5132:
5121:. Retrieved
5117:the original
5112:
5103:
5085:
5067:
5055:. Retrieved
5041:
5029:. Retrieved
5019:
5007:. Retrieved
5003:the original
4994:
4989:
4982:
4970:. Retrieved
4963:the original
4948:
4936:. Retrieved
4926:
4914:. Retrieved
4892:
4886:
4876:
4867:
4861:
4848:. Retrieved
4833:
4809:
4802:
4790:. Retrieved
4775:
4768:
4749:
4743:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4694:. Retrieved
4665:. Retrieved
4651:
4639:. Retrieved
4635:the original
4627:
4623:
4614:
4602:. Retrieved
4595:the original
4580:
4561:
4555:
4528:
4522:
4512:
4499:
4494:
4472:. Retrieved
4458:
4446:. Retrieved
4437:
4428:
4416:. Retrieved
4412:
4368:(3): 38–43.
4365:
4361:
4323:
4319:
4313:
4291:(3): 60–63.
4288:
4284:
4278:
4270:
4265:
4256:
4244:. Retrieved
4235:
4231:
4221:
4200:
4182:
4173:
4007:
3995:
3965:
3956:
3948:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3829:
3821:
3811:torque angle
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3763:
3752:Please help
3747:
3719:
3564:
3450:
3435:
3431:stall torque
3348:
3189:
3135:
3127:
3119:Motor losses
3117:
3109:
3102:
3003:
2947:
2944:(horsepower)
2884:
2742:
2734:
2727:
2616:
2612:
2589:
2583:
2567:
2561:
2560:Medium cost
2555:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2492:
2467:More costly
2462:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2332:
2325:
2319:
2313:
2303:
2284:
2261:
2247:
2241:
2218:
2212:
2206:
2190:
2189:Steel mills
2184:
2178:
2126:
2100:
2081:
2067:Non-magnetic
2054:
2047:
2044:Linear motor
2033:
2029:chronographs
2025:
2014:
2003:
1991:
1987:
1963:
1955:
1940:
1936:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1898:
1890:
1882:
1878:acceleration
1875:
1848:
1840:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1793:
1784:
1781:
1778:Torque motor
1772:Torque motor
1766:
1762:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1731:
1714:
1695:
1672:
1664:
1660:eddy current
1649:
1645:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1588:
1552:
1537:
1533:
1524:Brushless DC
1505:
1501:
1470:Series-wound
1462:
1440:
1436:
1433:
1408:
1394:
1386:
1360:
1267:Brushless DC
1261:Brushless AC
1254:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1229:
1223:
1216:In non-slip
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1192:
1181:
1176:electronics
1175:
1169:
1156:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1103:
1101:(condenser)
1100:
1097:
1068:
1055:
1038:
961:
958:
955:
951:
936:
920:
909:
902:
895:
883:
880:
877:Power supply
863:
849:
815:
801:is a rotary
796:
788:
787:commutator,
784:
752:
725:
710:
671:
657:
622:
598:
578:
554:
520:
517:Nikola Tesla
514:
508:
502:
483:
464:
435:
423:
415:
399:
392:
384:
352:
331:motors: the
317:Ányos Jedlik
308:
262:
247:
228:
201:
187:Early motors
159:
147:
136:
116:single-phase
105:
86:
74:wire winding
53:
51:
9930:Electronics
9882:Engineering
9765:Controllers
9706:Fuzzy logic
9665:Z-transform
9569:Performance
9156:Lynch motor
8921:Shaded-pole
8807:accessories
8453:Biogasoline
8167:Solar power
8144:Human power
7963:Alloy wheel
7822:Drive wheel
7812:Drive shaft
7772:Chain drive
6796:Trans. AIEE
6347:, p. 5
6184:, p. 5
6142:20 February
5907:November 8,
5807:: 149, 161.
5784:10 February
5375:10 February
5057:13 February
4696:13 February
4604:13 February
4474:12 February
4448:12 February
4246:12 February
3000:: torque, .
2525:Appliances
2426:shaded-pole
2416:Appliances
2361:Appliances
2349:High power
2260:Appliances
2153:Advantages
2019:), and the
2010:loudspeaker
2006:disk drives
1736:(SCIM) and
1567:Hall effect
1467:Shunt-wound
1421:resistivity
1168:Rectifier,
1143:Hysteresis
1112:Shaded-pole
993:Synchronous
691:encapsulate
615:(left) and
561:transformer
303:James Joule
132:radial flux
124:three-phase
9964:Categories
9942:Technology
9579:Root locus
9052:Axial flux
9042:Ultrasonic
9017:Servomotor
8997:Doubly fed
8992:Reluctance
8888:Alternator
8880:Generators
8850:Field coil
8835:Commutator
8795:commutated
8793:SC - Self-
8048:Alternator
7696:Automobile
7685:Powertrain
7506:11 January
7429:2006-04-11
6959:7 December
6689:2017-09-15
6599:9 February
6523:2018-06-18
6433:2018-06-18
6070:2021-05-31
5829:2022-04-26
5629:Allen Kent
5612:2 December
5495:2 December
5288:2 December
5260:2 December
5239:: 467–96.
5123:2012-09-19
5031:August 23,
5009:August 23,
4972:August 23,
4938:August 23,
4916:August 23,
4737:required.)
4667:August 23,
4641:August 23,
4585:Thein, M.
4213:References
3766:March 2012
3486:reluctance
3478:resistance
3132:Efficiency
2837:: torque,
2435:Long life
2173:Brushed DC
2111:ultrasonic
1958:servomotor
1952:Servomotor
1946:Servomotor
1753:slip rings
1680:30,000 rpm
1676:10,000 rpm
1571:tachometer
1562:computers.
1512:singly-fed
1416:inductance
1098:Two-phase
1060:PM rotor:
799:commutator
777:Commutator
762:Commutator
720:See also:
604:Components
589:horsepower
550:B.G. Lamme
545:C.F. Scott
355:commutator
353:The first
325:commutator
93:rectifiers
9648:Real time
9600:Stability
9524:Bode plot
9369:Steinmetz
9284:Davenport
9082:Amplidyne
8982:Universal
8960:Homopolar
8948:Repulsion
8860:Slip ring
8633:Solar bus
8628:Solar car
8613:Multifuel
8438:Biodiesel
8410:Solar bus
8405:Solar car
8195:Solar car
8190:Solar bus
8126:Fuel cell
7917:Transaxle
7882:Manumatic
7852:Gearshift
7724:Fuel cell
7367:New Atlas
7056:InsideEVs
6899:Bose 2006
6872:April 18,
6749:Bose 2006
6737:Bose 2006
6565:Bose 2006
6116:Bose 2006
5472:: 360–75.
5209:. USDoE.
4242:–96 (§IX)
4004:Standards
3855:0.9–1.15
3758:talk page
3704:ω
3682:μ
3505:σ
3502:μ
3499:ω
3482:×
3473:ω
3417:ω
3334:ω
3198:η
3147:η
2960:ω
2917:ω
2859:: force,
2799:ω
2767:ω
2708:×
2705:ℓ
2645:ℓ
2433:Low cost
1984:rotation.
1824:Telechron
1565:The same
1508:neodymium
1128:or BLAC:
1039:excited:
1031:Repulsion
1023:Universal
939:magnetism
492:, termed
474:AC motors
468:ice boxes
436:In 1886,
343:DC motors
314:physicist
311:Hungarian
309:In 1827,
196:Faraday's
170:Solenoids
143:megawatts
120:two-phase
112:brushless
101:inverters
9850:Robotics
9650:software
9428:Branches
9374:Sturgeon
9304:Ferraris
9289:Davidson
9111:Metadyne
9027:Traction
8975:Unipolar
8955:DC motor
8911:AC motor
8815:Armature
8703:Vactrain
8686:See also
8498:Hydrogen
8488:Wood gas
8400:aircraft
8076:Category
8015:Tubeless
8000:Run-flat
7980:Off-road
7797:Coupling
7719:Electric
7268:25815578
7224:Archived
7180:20400221
7109:Archived
7077:Archived
6933:15 March
6924:Archived
6849:Archived
6816:51670991
6590:Archived
6499:14777000
6390:Archived
6321:Archived
5991:July 28,
5705:Archived
5674:Archived
5572:Archived
5541:42191157
5451:56597952
5401:Archived
5366:Archived
5333:Archived
5276:Thompson
5211:Archived
5164:(1881).
5140:(1881).
5095:Archived
5077:Archived
5051:Archived
4844:Archived
4825:Archived
4690:Archived
4661:Archived
4504:Archived
4468:Archived
4442:Archived
4392:52899118
4340:39105914
4305:34246664
4083:See also
3972:bearings
3879:0.7–1.0
3871:0.6–0.8
3863:0.7–1.0
3825:samarium
3789:or safe
3093:Back EMF
3069:, where
2811:: shaft
2535:type or
2398:AC SCIM
2372:AC SCIM
2343:AC SCIM
2105:when an
2001:system.
1791:wheels.
1692:AC motor
1389:armature
1357:DC motor
1233:aspects.
1146:Hybrid:
1052:Compound
866:bearings
854:Bearings
808:armature
728:armature
716:Armature
480:AC motor
349:DC motor
166:actuator
95:, or by
9894:Physics
9868:Portals
9654:Sampled
9484:control
9478:control
9462:control
9364:Sprague
9359:Siemens
9334:Maxwell
9299:Faraday
9248:Starter
9187:Railgun
9182:Coilgun
9022:Stepper
8870:Winding
8572:Propane
8552:Autogas
8422:Biofuel
8287:Pedelec
8157:Pedelec
7160:Bibcode
7118:22 July
7086:22 July
5874:. Que.
5317:Bibcode
5241:Bibcode
4897:Bibcode
4533:Bibcode
4418:19 July
3986:Maxwell
3565:Where:
2948:where:
2788:where:
2458:(WRSM)
1928:cogging
1896:coils.
1788:capstan
1363:brushed
1328:WRSM –
1322:WRIM –
1310:SyRM –
1295:SCIM –
1286:PMSM –
1265:BLDC –
1259:BLAC –
1193:Notes:
1158:Stepper
900:(PWM).
892:Control
827:current
817:brushes
814:called
712:noise.
619:(right)
523:to the
459:air gap
176:History
108:brushed
9918:Energy
9906:Trains
9602:theory
9482:Neural
9460:Hybrid
9354:Saxton
9339:Ørsted
9324:Jedlik
9319:Jacobi
9309:Gramme
9274:Barlow
9262:People
9087:Drives
9002:Linear
8903:Motors
8865:Stator
8693:Maglev
8545:Others
8443:Biogas
8226:engine
8066:Portal
8026:Hybrid
7990:Radial
7968:Hubcap
7782:Clutch
7729:Hybrid
7698:series
7618:
7597:
7576:
7555:
7534:
7477:
7447:
7398:
7345:
7318:
7291:
7266:
7256:
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7033:
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6841:
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6657:
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6497:
6455:
6367:
6313:
6248:
6215:
6043:
6016:
5878:
5851:
5752:
5729:5 July
5697:
5666:
5639:
5603:
5564:
5539:
5449:
4888:Nature
4850:14 May
4817:
4792:May 7,
4783:
4756:
4731:
4568:
4524:Nature
4390:
4338:
4303:
3729:Torque
3349:where
3190:where
3114:Losses
3020:airgap
2429:motor
2050:torque
2038:Linear
2021:platen
1859:Rotary
1316:VFD –
1304:SRM –
1046:Series
872:Inputs
838:, and
822:carbon
744:coiled
668:Stator
662:Stator
617:stator
333:stator
299:Kelvin
287:Jedlik
162:torque
78:torque
9581:ethod
9379:Tesla
9349:Pixii
9314:Henry
9279:Botto
9269:Arago
8855:Rotor
8825:Brush
8787:PM -
8781:DC -
8775:AC -
8259:motor
8185:boats
8010:Spare
7953:Wheel
7857:Giubo
7500:(PDF)
7493:(PDF)
7264:S2CID
7227:(PDF)
7198:(PDF)
7176:S2CID
7112:(PDF)
7105:(PDF)
7080:(PDF)
7073:(PDF)
6927:(PDF)
6916:(PDF)
6867:(PDF)
6812:S2CID
6593:(PDF)
6582:(PDF)
6495:S2CID
6095:(PDF)
6088:(PDF)
5985:(PDF)
5978:(PDF)
5537:S2CID
5470:XXIII
5447:S2CID
5369:(PDF)
5364:(2).
5354:(PDF)
5214:(PDF)
5207:(PDF)
4993:[
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4959:(PDF)
4856:>.
4598:(PDF)
4591:(PDF)
4498:[
4388:S2CID
4336:S2CID
4301:S2CID
4165:Notes
3906:PMSM
2739:Power
2150:Type
1338:amps.
1277:PM –
1134:SPMSM
1131:IPMSM
1049:Shunt
933:Types
846:Shaft
792:brush
779:in a
695:resin
648:Rotor
613:Rotor
337:rotor
269:brine
153:with
128:axial
122:, or
72:in a
60:into
9656:data
9344:Park
9329:Lenz
9047:TEFC
8383:List
8314:List
8257:and
8005:Snow
7995:Rain
7975:Tire
7616:ISBN
7595:ISBN
7574:ISBN
7553:ISBN
7532:ISBN
7508:2013
7475:ISBN
7445:ISBN
7396:ISBN
7343:ISBN
7316:ISBN
7289:ISBN
7254:ISBN
7214:ISBN
7120:2021
7088:2021
7031:ISBN
7004:ISBN
6961:2012
6935:2013
6874:2012
6839:ISBN
6775:ISBN
6655:ISBN
6622:ISBN
6601:2012
6543:ISBN
6453:ISBN
6365:ISBN
6311:ISBN
6246:ISBN
6213:ISBN
6144:2013
6103:2018
6041:ISBN
6014:ISBN
5993:2017
5909:2021
5876:ISBN
5849:ISBN
5786:2013
5750:ISBN
5731:2012
5695:ISBN
5664:ISBN
5637:ISBN
5614:2012
5601:ISBN
5580:2012
5562:ISBN
5497:2012
5377:2013
5290:2012
5262:2012
5059:2013
5033:2010
5011:2010
4974:2010
4940:2010
4918:2010
4852:2017
4815:ISBN
4794:2009
4781:ISBN
4754:ISBN
4698:2013
4669:2010
4643:2010
4606:2013
4566:ISBN
4476:2013
4450:2013
4420:2022
4248:2013
3988:and
3979:fans
3943:3.5
3920:3.5
3909:SRM
3847:1.0
2930:5252
2250:Open
2085:MEMS
1891:The
1139:SyRM
1126:PMSM
1122:WRSM
1091:WRIM
1084:SCIM
1064:BLDC
945:and
925:and
726:The
579:The
525:AIEE
370:and
68:and
8463:E85
8425:ICE
7958:Rim
7246:doi
7206:doi
7168:doi
6983:in
6804:doi
6767:doi
6647:doi
6487:doi
6343:in
6290:in
6271:in
6238:doi
6205:doi
6180:in
5946:in
5801:ETZ
5529:doi
5439:hdl
5431:doi
5325:doi
5249:doi
5237:115
5172:907
5148:907
4905:doi
4723:doi
4541:doi
4378:hdl
4370:doi
4328:doi
4293:doi
4236:XII
3903:IM
3900:dc
3210:is
2964:rpm
2921:rpm
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2268:OEM
2252:or
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