592:
373:
987:) is the agency responsible for providing the research and recommendations regarding workplace safety, while OSHA is more of an enforcement body. NIOSH is responsible for producing the science that can result in recommended exposure limits (REL), which can be lower than the PEL. OSHA is tasked with enforcement and defending the enforceable limits (PELs). In 1992, when OSHA reduced the PEL for TDI to the NIOSH REL, the PEL reduction was challenged in court, and the reduction was reversed.
38:
630:
sealants due to weather-resistant properties. Isocyanates, both MDI and TDI are widely used in as spraying applications of insulation due to the speed and flexibility of applications. Foams can be sprayed into structures and harden in place or retain some flexibility as required by the application. HDI is commonly utilized in high-performance surface-coating applications, including automotive paints.
1017:(ECHA) provides regulatory oversight of chemicals used within the European Union. ECHA has been implementing policy aimed at limiting worker exposure through elimination by lower allowable concentrations in products and mandatory worker training, an administrative control. Within the European Union, many nations set their own occupational exposure limits for isocyanates.
796:
some regions there are limits on total isocyanate, which recognizes some of the uncertainty regarding the safety of mixtures of chemicals as compared to pure chemical exposures. For example, while there is no OEL for HDI, NIOSH has a REL of 5 ppb for an 8-hour TWA and a ceiling limit of 20 ppb, consistent with the recommendations for MDI.
795:
Exposure limits can be expressed as ceiling limits, a maximal value, short-term exposure limits (STEL), a 15-minute exposure limit or an 8-hour time-weighted average limit (TWA). Below is a sampling, not exhaustive, as less common isocyanates also have specific limits within the United States, and in
699:
Isocyanates can present respiratory hazards as particulates, vapors or aerosols. Autobody shop workers are a very commonly examined population for isocyanate exposure as they are repeatedly exposed when spray painting automobiles and can be exposed when installing truck bed liners. Hypersensitivity
629:
MDI is commonly used in the manufacture of rigid foams and surface coating. Polyurethane foam boards are used in construction for insulation. TDI is commonly used in applications where flexible foams are used, such as furniture and bedding. Both MDI and TDI are used in the making of adhesives and
716:
Dermal exposures can occur via mixing, spraying coatings or applying and spreading coatings manually. Dermal exposures to isocyanates is known to lead to respiratory sensitization. Even when the right personal protective equipment (PPE) is used, exposures can occur to body areas not completely
743:
Industrial science attempts to minimize the hazards of isocyanates through multiple techniques. The EPA has sponsored ongoing research on polyurethane production without isocyanates. Where isocyanates are unavoidable but interchangeable, substituting a less hazardous isocyanate may control
712:
physicians. Occupational asthma is much like asthma in that it causes episodic shortness of breath and wheezing. Both the dose and duration of exposure to isocyanates can lead to respiratory sensitization. Dermal exposures to isocyanates can sensitize an exposed person to respiratory disease.
1265:
Manov-Yuvenskii, V. I.; Redoshkin, B. A.; Belyaeva, G. P.; Nefedov, B. K. (March 1981) . "Effect of carbon monoxide pressure, pyridine concentration, and temperature on synthesis of 1-methylbenzene 2,4-diisocyanate by carbonylation of 2,4-dinitrotoluene".
2228:
Ceballos, Diana M.; Fent, Kenneth W.; Whittaker, Stephen G.; Gaines, Linda G. T.; Thomasen, Jennifer M.; Flack, Sheila L.; Nylander-French, Leena A.; Yost, Michael G.; Reeb-Whitaker, Carolyn K. (2011-08-10). "Survey of Dermal
Protection in Washington State Collision Repair Industry".
1048:
The IARC evaluates the hazard data on chemicals and assigns a rating on the risk of carcinogenesis. In the case of TDI, the final evaluation is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). For MDI, the final evaluation is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3).
667:
Since they are used in spraying applications, the properties of their aerosols have attracted attention. In the U.S., OSHA conducted a
National Emphasis Program on isocyanates starting in 2013 to make employers and workers more aware of the health risks. Polyurethanes have variable
700:
pneumonitis has slower onset and features chronic inflammation that can be seen on imaging of the lungs. Occupational asthma is a worrisome outcome of respiratory sensitization to isocyanates as it can be acutely fatal. Diagnosis of occupational asthma is generally performed using
683:(IARC) have evaluated TDI as a potential human carcinogen and Group 2B "possibly carcinogenic to humans". MDI appears to be relatively safer and is unlikely a human carcinogen. The IARC evaluates MDI as Group 3 "not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity in humans".
1192:
Byrn, Marianne P.; Curtis, Carol J.; Hsiou, Yu; Khan, Saeed I.; Sawin, Philip A.; Tendick, S. Kathleen; Terzis, Aris; Strouse, Charles E. (1993). "Porphyrin sponges: conservative of host structure in over 200 porphyrin-based lattice clathrates".
1293:
Manov-Yuvenskii, V. I.; Redoshkin, B. A.; Belyaeva, G. P.; Nefedov, B. K. (January 1980) . "Synthesis of aromatic diisocyanates by carbonylation of dinitro compounds with carbon monoxide on palladium catalysts".
1618:
2531:
1836:
579:
1894:
Reeb-Whitaker, Carolyn; Whittaker, Stephen G.; Ceballos, Diana M.; Weiland, Elisa C.; Flack, Sheila L.; Fent, Kenneth W.; Thomasen, Jennifer M.; Trelles Gaines, Linda G.; Nylander-French, Leena A. (2012).
656:
of 0.07 mg/m is the legal limit for all isocyanates (except methyl isocyanate: 0.02 mg/m) in the United
Kingdom. These limits are set to protect workers from chronic health effects such as
725:
Methyl isocyanate (MIC) is highly flammable. MDI and TDI are much less flammable. Flammability of materials is a consideration in furniture design. The specific flammability hazard is noted on the
2662:
Hu, Jimmy; Cantrell, Phillip; Nand, Aklesh (2017-07-29). "Comprehensive
Biological Monitoring to Assess Isocyanates and Solvents Exposure in the NSW Australia Motor Vehicle Repair Industry".
1777:
762:(OSHA) requires frequent training to ensure isocyanate hazards are appropriately minimized. Moreover, OSHA requires standardized isocyanate concentration measurements to avoid violating
1374:
Li, Zhen; Mayer, Robert J.; Ofial, Armin R.; Mayr, Herbert (2020-04-27). "From
Carbodiimides to Carbon Dioxide: Quantification of the Electrophilic Reactivities of Heteroallenes".
980:(OSHA) is the regulatory body covering worker safety. OSHA puts forth permissible exposure limit (PEL) 20 ppb for MDI and detailed technical guidance on exposure assessment.
1619:"CSB Issues Report on 2008 Bayer CropScience Explosion: Finds Multiple Deficiencies Led to Runaway Chemical Reaction; Recommends State Create Chemical Plant Oversight Regulation"
2921:
2524:
1829:
1052:
The
International Isocyanate Institute is an international industry consortium that seeks promote the safe utilization of isocyanates by promulgating best practices.
2039:
Kimber, Ian; Dearman, Rebecca J.; Basketter, David A. (2014-07-25). "Diisocyanates, occupational asthma and IgE antibody: implications for hazard characterization".
998:
2171:
Bello, Dhimiter; Herrick, Christina A.; Smith, Thomas J.; Woskie, Susan R.; Streicher, Robert P.; Cullen, Mark R.; Liu, Youcheng; Redlich, Carrie A. (2006-11-28).
4479:
4144:
3081:
783:
is a complex process of preparation and should be considered in a setting where a release of bulk chemicals may threaten the well-being of the public. In the
182:). Owing to the hazardous nature of phosgene, the production of isocyanates requires special precautions. A laboratory-safe variation masks the phosgene as
4363:
1867:
984:
2313:
4251:
4218:
4131:
751:(PPE) can reduce their intake. In general, workers wear eye protection and gloves and coveralls to reduce dermal exposure For some autobody paint and
4246:
1045:(IPCS) to publish summary documents on chemicals. The IPCS published one such document in 2000 summarizing the status of scientific knowledge on MDI.
4173:
4073:
1093:
717:
covered. Isocyanates can also permeate improper PPE, necessitating frequent changes of both disposable gloves and suits if they become over exposed.
3262:
3258:
1766:
4320:
4315:
3067:
1541:
Baumgarten, Henry; Smith, Howard; Staklis, Andris (1975). "Reactions of amines. XVIII. Oxidative rearrangement of amides with lead tetraacetate".
787:, an uncontrolled MIC release killed thousands, affected hundreds of thousands more, and spurred the development of modern disaster preparation.
3193:
3162:
2494:
4368:
4108:
3913:
3937:
3929:
991:
977:
759:
2723:
3321:
686:
All major producers of MDI and TDI are members of the
International Isocyanate Institute, which promotes the safe handling of MDI and TDI.
2607:"Changes in rates and severity of compensation claims for asthma due to diisocyanates: a possible effect of medical surveillance measures"
4588:
1802:
1473:
680:
407:
This reaction is exploited in tandem with the production of polyurethane to give polyurethane foams. The carbon dioxide functions as a
1042:
2386:
1958:
994:) is also involved in the regulation of isocyanates with regard to the environment and also non-worker persons that might be exposed.
5507:
3107:
2914:
3043:
69:. An organic compound with two isocyanate groups is known as a diisocyanate. Diisocyanates are manufactured for the production of
1594:
205:
to alkenes. Complementarily, alkyl isocyanates form by displacement reactions involving alkyl halides and alkali metal cyanates.
5512:
766:. In the case of MDI, OSHA expects sampling with glass-fiber filters at standard air flow rates, and then liquid chromatography.
582:
1066:
2362:
2957:
2894:
1577:
1501:
1428:
1176:
1143:
2387:"Final Report | Isocyanate-Free Polyurethane Coatings | Research Project Database | Grantee Research Project | ORD | US EPA"
1038:
458:
Reaction between a di-isocyanate and a compound containing two or more amine groups produces long polymer chains known as
2338:
2281:
652:
for isocyanates are typically several hundred milligrams per kilogram. Despite this low acute toxicity, an extremely low
1491:
4032:
3290:
1110:
2413:
2306:
1667:
1338:
1034:
3314:
1860:
2831:
4581:
3249:, website of the UK Health and Safety Executive, useful search terms on this site — isocyanates, MVR, asthma
1897:"Airborne Isocyanate Exposures in the Collision Repair Industry and a Comparison to Occupational Exposure Limits"
602:
646:. In 2008, the same chemical was involved in an explosion at a pesticide manufacturing plant in West Virginia.
2437:
Ceballos, Diana; Reeb-Whitaker, Carolyn; Glazer, Patricia; Murphy-Robinson, Helen; Yost, Michael (2014-03-28).
617:(IPDI), and 1.2% was the total for various others. A monofunctional isocyanate of industrial significance is
5411:
748:
5545:
1001:(ACGIH) is a non-government organization that publishes guidance known as threshold limit values (TLV) for
738:
17:
3307:
3294:
763:
676:
653:
1948:"Preventing Asthma and Death from MDI Exposure During Spray-on Truck Bed Liner and Related Applications"
5540:
4984:
4574:
701:
610:
468:
are produced by the decarboxylation of alkyl and aryl isocyanate using phosphine oxides as a catalyst:
355:
groups. If a diisocyanate is treated with a compound containing two or more hydroxyl groups, such as a
3186:
3155:
2502:
5550:
3082:"Restriction proposal on diisocyanates and several authorisation applications agreed by RAC and SEAC"
2414:"Isocyanates – Controlling hazardous substances – Managing occupational health risks in construction"
1668:"Isocyanates – Controlling hazardous substances – Managing occupational health risks in construction"
1030:
1014:
128:). The C−N=C=O unit that defines isocyanates is planar, and the N=C=O linkage is nearly linear. In
4010:
3028:
1643:
1360:
5021:
3277:
Health and Safety
Executive, Guidance Note (EH16) Isocyanates: Toxic Hazards and Precautions (1984)
2580:
2555:
744:
hazards. Ventilation and automation can also minimizes worker exposure to the isocyanates used.
527:
3271:
3132:
2716:
5494:
1524:
614:
595:
2581:"Sampling and Analytical Methods | Methylene Bisphenyl Isocyanate (MDI) – (Organic Method #047)"
601:
The global market for diisocyanates in the year 2000 was 4.4 million tonnes, of which 61.3% was
5394:
4025:
3816:
3361:
2116:"Occupational asthma risk from exposures to toluene diisocyanate: A review and risk assessment"
1795:
1470:
5501:
5389:
3892:
3795:
3411:
3015:
2495:"Chemical Resistant Gloves > Painters and Repairers Education Program | Internal Medicine"
1717:"Isocyanate Exposure, Reaction and Protection – Quick Tips #233 – Grainger Industrial Supply"
709:
550:
294:
256:
1947:
1688:
5535:
5470:
4915:
3827:
3808:
3606:
3594:
3133:"Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 27: DIPHENYLMETHANE DIISOCYANATE (MDI)"
2439:"Understanding Factors That Influence Protective Glove Use Among Automotive Spray Painters"
780:
769:
Combined industrial hygiene and medical surveillance can significantly reduce occupational
606:
270:
8:
4776:
3835:
3800:
3551:
657:
578:
1740:
1518:
4204:
3843:
3706:
3543:
3243:, from the website of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
3187:"4,4′-METHYLENEDIPHENYL DIISOCYANATE AND POLYMERIC 4,4′-METHYLENEDIPHENYL DIISOCYANATE"
2781:
2748:
2695:
2639:
2606:
2471:
2438:
2262:
2205:
2172:
2148:
2115:
2072:
2016:
1983:
1921:
1896:
1741:"OSHA announces new National Emphasis Program for occupational exposure to isocyanates"
1399:
1348:
669:
661:
523:
511:
507:
175:
3280:
The
Society of the Plastics Industry – Technical Bulletin AX119 MDI-Based Polyurethane
591:
5460:
5430:
5188:
4810:
4168:
4018:
3719:
3061:
2997:
2953:
2890:
2786:
2768:
2687:
2679:
2644:
2626:
2476:
2458:
2254:
2246:
2210:
2192:
2153:
2135:
2064:
2056:
2021:
2003:
1926:
1716:
1573:
1497:
1424:
1403:
1391:
1334:
1210:
1172:
1139:
1106:
726:
643:
618:
566:
129:
46:
2266:
2076:
1982:
Bogaert, Pieter; Tournoy, Kurt G.; Naessens, Thomas; Grooten, Johan (January 2009).
1644:
MDI and TDI: safety, health & the environment: a source book and practical guide
5165:
4659:
4597:
4087:
3988:
3767:
3662:
3587:
3459:
3001:
2776:
2760:
2699:
2671:
2634:
2618:
2466:
2450:
2238:
2200:
2184:
2143:
2127:
2048:
2011:
1995:
1916:
1908:
1550:
1453:
1383:
1326:
1303:
1275:
1202:
1164:
1131:
1098:
752:
519:
515:
238:
62:
54:
3287:
An occupational hygiene assessment of the use and control of isocyanates in the UK
2998:"Request for assistance in preventing asthma and death from diisocyanate exposure"
5384:
5143:
5138:
5121:
5104:
4905:
4654:
3950:
3752:
3650:
3286:
3266:
2454:
2242:
2091:
1912:
1477:
1418:
784:
639:
558:
327:
274:
242:
183:
3240:
2747:
Rose, Dale A.; Murthy, Shivani; Brooks, Jennifer; Bryant, Jeffrey (2017-09-11).
1642:
Allport D. C., Gilbert, D. S. and
Outterside S. M. (eds) (2003).
1330:
5455:
5450:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5109:
5076:
4860:
4842:
4832:
4287:
4126:
4057:
3904:
3859:
3851:
3531:
3518:
3496:
3395:
1999:
1061:
1026:
383:
326:, and even water having a higher reactivity compared to structurally analogous
250:
216:
202:
2973:
2859:
2804:
1655:
642:, which caused the death of nearly 4000 people from the accidental release of
5529:
5475:
5423:
5354:
5240:
5230:
5225:
5215:
5210:
5160:
5155:
5071:
5066:
5056:
4910:
4865:
4827:
4815:
4786:
4664:
3968:
3867:
3730:
3714:
3685:
3374:
2772:
2764:
2683:
2630:
2462:
2250:
2196:
2139:
2060:
2007:
1540:
1457:
1214:
1102:
408:
311:
212:
81:
70:
2749:"The Evolution of Public Health Emergency Management as a Field of Practice"
2675:
638:
The risks of isocyanates was brought to the world's attention with the 1984
542:
Isocyanates are common intermediates in the synthesis of primary amines via
5406:
5293:
5288:
5265:
5016:
4855:
4781:
4718:
4713:
4691:
4647:
4632:
4622:
3976:
3921:
3875:
3739:
3563:
3539:
3501:
3289:
by Hilary A Cowie et al. HSE Research Report RR311/2005. Prepared by the
3006:
2805:"CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Hexamethylene diisocyanate"
2790:
2691:
2648:
2480:
2258:
2214:
2157:
2068:
2025:
1930:
1395:
1003:
chemicals based research as constant work exposure level without ill-effect
465:
364:
315:
264:
149:
121:
2436:
1168:
1135:
116:
In terms of bonding, isocyanates are closely related to carbon dioxide (CO
5465:
5418:
5379:
5260:
5148:
5133:
5128:
5116:
4681:
4676:
4642:
4637:
4627:
4605:
3883:
3669:
3618:
3582:
1387:
705:
562:
372:
3044:"Spray Polyurethane Foam (SPF) Insulation and How to Use it More Safely"
2717:"MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE PROCEDURES MANUAL AND MEDICAL MATRIX (EDITION 11)"
2622:
1554:
1206:
1005:. The TLV is not an OSHA-enforceable value, unless the PEL is the same.
773:
incidence. Biological tests exist to identify isocyanate exposure; the
5374:
5365:
5245:
5200:
5096:
5051:
4991:
4927:
4850:
4798:
2131:
1307:
1292:
1279:
1264:
672:
times, and the presence of free isocyanates in foams vary accordingly.
543:
531:
286:
260:
101:
85:
31:
1595:"Chemicals and Production of Spray Polyurethane Foam – Why It Matters"
777:
uses regular pulmonary function testing and screening questionnaires.
5341:
5255:
5220:
5205:
5193:
5036:
5011:
4820:
4040:
3964:
3694:
3637:
3477:
3383:
2188:
2052:
1893:
1420:
Fundamentals of Polymer Science: An Introductory Text, Second Edition
334:
224:
4566:
5349:
5303:
5270:
4966:
4872:
4746:
4701:
4686:
3972:
3658:
3469:
3353:
3330:
3299:
459:
319:
282:
234:
Three rearrangement reactions involving nitrenes give isocyanates:
153:
133:
74:
37:
2092:"Do You Have Work-Related Asthma? A Guide for YOU and YOUR DOCTOR"
132:, the C=N and C=O distances are respectively 1.195 and 1.173
5311:
5235:
5086:
5081:
5046:
5031:
5026:
4996:
4979:
4803:
4730:
4696:
4098:
4042:
3994:
3982:
3958:
3625:
3570:
3513:
3486:
3464:
3454:
3369:
3345:
1830:"Health Effects of Diisocyanates: Guidance for Medical Personnel"
774:
246:
228:
220:
195:
89:
3217:
1444:
Campbell, T. W.; Monagle, J. J. (1963). "Diphenylcarbodiimide".
5399:
5331:
5175:
4884:
4877:
4771:
4752:
4741:
4725:
4671:
3252:
2556:"Safety and Health Topics | Isocyanates – Additional Resources"
1984:"Where Asthma and Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Meet and Differ"
770:
437:
360:
323:
145:
3283:
Foam Systems: Guidelines for Safe Handling and Disposal (1993)
3105:
5280:
5250:
5183:
5041:
5006:
5001:
4974:
4922:
4889:
4793:
4617:
3446:
3441:
3433:
3403:
3274:, Swedish National Institute for Working Life Workshop (1999)
2525:"Guidance for Selection of Protective Clothing for MDI Users"
1981:
1689:"CDC – Isocyanates – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic"
1091:
Christian Six; Frank Richter (2005). "Isocyanates, Organic".
747:
If human workers must enter isocyanate-contaminated regions,
554:
348:
191:
3130:
136:. The C−N=C angle is 134.9° and the N=C=O angle is 173.1°.
4708:
4000:
3272:
Isocyanates – Measurement Methodology, Exposure and Effects
2227:
1471:
http://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/orgchem/CH20Handout.pdf
866:
0.02 mg/m (approximately 2.5 ppb for comparison)
649:
415:
356:
352:
278:
208:
187:
2885:
Allport, D. C.; Gilbert, D. S.; Outterside, S. M. (2003).
1767:"Risk of isocyanate exposure in the construction industry"
1130:. The Chemistry of Functional Groups. Vol. 1. Wiley.
1090:
877:
0.07 mg/m (approximately 10 ppb for comparison)
3259:
Safe Working Procedure for Isocyanate-Containing Products
3041:
999:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
3246:
2884:
1774:
CPWR – the Center for Construction Research and Training
1246:
376:
Synthesis of polyurethane from a diisocyanate and a diol
2170:
621:(MIC), which is used in the manufacture of pesticides.
2746:
2605:
Tarlo, S. M.; Liss, G. M.; Yeung, K. S. (2002-01-01).
2522:
2038:
755:
spraying applications, a full-face mask is required.
333:
Upon treatment with an alcohol, an isocyanate forms a
297:, but typically hydrolyzes under reaction conditions.
2952:. United Kingdom: The Stationery Office. p. 17.
227:
catalyst is necessary to avoid side-reactions of the
96:) is arranged differently from the isocyanate group (
2889:. England: John Wiley & Sons, LTD. p. 346.
1234:
314:, and as such they are reactive toward a variety of
65:
that contain an isocyanate group are referred to as
3218:"Welcome to the International Isocyanate Institute"
2173:"Skin Exposure to Isocyanates: Reasons for Concern"
1191:
1163:. The Chemistry of Functional Groups. Vol. 2.
587:
numbering of the ring atoms shown with blue numbers
293:An isocyanate is also the immediate product of the
1296:Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Khimicheskaya
1268:Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Khimicheskaya
1201:(21). American Chemical Society (ACS): 9480–9497.
174:These reactions proceed via the intermediacy of a
2832:"1910.1000 TABLE Z-1 Limits for Air Contaminants"
2443:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
2231:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
1901:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
1480:, Ch20Handout, University of Massachusetts Boston
830:Recommended exposure limit (REL) – ceiling limit
201:Another route to isocyanates entails addition of
5527:
1796:"Safety Data Sheet – TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE (TDI)"
1373:
436:The addition of an isocyanate to a urea gives a
363:, polymer chains are formed, which are known as
2912:
2887:MDI and TDI: Safety, Health and the Environment
2838:. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2587:. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2562:. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
1747:. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
1443:
790:
2722:. Navy And Marine Corps Public Health Center.
2661:
2604:
1523:. London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. p.
1416:
1094:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
522:resins (PIR) which are commonly used as rigid
4582:
4026:
3315:
1282:. UDC 542.91:541.12.034:546.262.3-31:547.546.
978:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
760:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
518:groups. This can be seen in the formation of
88:, very different families of compounds. The
3066:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2363:"Finding a substitute for methyl isocyanate"
1764:
1489:
506:Isocyanates also can react with themselves.
186:. Also, oxalyl chloride can be used to form
108:, lacking the oxygen of the cyanate groups.
2336:
1656:http://www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/priced/eh40.pdf
1410:
1320:
681:International Agency for Research on Cancer
414:Isocyanates also react with amines to give
277:to an isocyanate via the formation of an O-
4589:
4575:
4033:
4019:
3322:
3308:
3241:NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Isocyanates
2307:"Dealing with fires involving MDI and TDI"
1310:. UDC 542.91:541.128:547.546:546.263.3-31.
1043:International Programme on Chemical Safety
664:, or irritation of the respiratory tract.
537:
3005:
2780:
2638:
2501:. Yale School of Medicine. Archived from
2470:
2204:
2147:
2015:
1920:
1529:Practical Organic Chemistry Cohen Julius.
1086:
1084:
1082:
194:, which phosgene typically dehydrates to
3253:International Isocyanate Institute | dii
3042:US EPA, OCSPP, OPPT, EETD (2015-06-06).
2826:
2824:
1376:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1195:Journal of the American Chemical Society
590:
577:
371:
111:
80:Isocyanates should not be confused with
36:
3108:"Proposed restriction of diisocyanates"
2611:Occupational and Environmental Medicine
2408:
2406:
2120:American Journal of Industrial Medicine
2113:
1567:
1020:
841:Recommended exposure limit (REL) – TWA
14:
5528:
4063:
4041:Salts and covalent derivatives of the
1942:
1940:
1592:
1252:
1240:
1158:
1125:
1079:
1067:Polymethylene polyphenylene isocyanate
732:
624:
144:Isocyanates are usually produced from
4596:
4570:
4450:
4014:
3303:
3131:Sekizawa J., Greenberg M. M. (2000).
2992:
2990:
2943:
2941:
2908:
2906:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2854:
2852:
2821:
2711:
2709:
1889:
1887:
1824:
1822:
1711:
1709:
1683:
1681:
1561:
1516:
1490:Mann, F. G.; Saunders, B. C. (1960).
1152:
1119:
990:The Environmental Protection Agency (
800:Methylene bisphenyl isocyanate (MDI)
573:
382:Isocyanates react with water to form
3329:
3106:Vincentz Network GmbH & Co. KG.
2403:
2337:Weiss-Hills, Samantha (2018-05-28).
1758:
1321:Everett, Wallis; Lane, John (1946).
1039:United Nations Environment Programme
633:
583:Methylene diphenyl 4,4'-diisocyanate
305:
211:isocyanates can be synthesized from
2950:EH40/2005 Workplace exposure limits
2947:
2664:Annals of Work Exposures and Health
2279:
1937:
1493:Practical Organic Chemistry, 4th Ed
1417:Coleman, M.M.; Painter, P. (2019).
1161:Cyanates and Their Thio Derivatives
1128:Cyanates and Their Thio Derivatives
983:The National Institutes of Health (
569:to form an isocyanate intermediate.
24:
3291:Institute of Occupational Medicine
3255:International Isocyanate Institute
2987:
2938:
2903:
2873:
2849:
2706:
1884:
1819:
1706:
1678:
1520:Practical Organic Chemistry 2nd Ed
893:Heath & Safety Executive (UK)
882:Heath & Safety Executive (UK)
92:(cyanate ester) functional group (
25:
5562:
3234:
2753:American Journal of Public Health
2304:
2177:Environmental Health Perspectives
2114:Daniels, Robert D. (2018-02-01).
1988:The American Journal of Pathology
1325:. Vol. 3. pp. 267–306.
1035:International Labour Organization
1008:
936:Recommended exposure limit (REL)
2860:"Methylene bisphenyl isocyanate"
2089:
1793:
1783:from the original on 2014-04-08.
1543:The Journal of Organic Chemistry
1496:. London: Longman. p. 128.
971:
729:(SDS) for specific isocyanates.
654:short-term exposure limit (STEL)
553:, a reaction in which a primary
3210:
3199:from the original on 2018-11-25
3179:
3168:from the original on 2018-11-25
3148:
3124:
3099:
3074:
3035:
2966:
2927:from the original on 2018-11-25
2915:"Guide to handling isocyanates"
2797:
2740:
2729:from the original on 2016-12-08
2655:
2598:
2573:
2548:
2537:from the original on 2013-08-09
2516:
2487:
2430:
2379:
2355:
2330:
2319:from the original on 2015-09-19
2298:
2273:
2221:
2164:
2107:
2083:
2032:
1975:
1964:from the original on 2006-09-21
1873:from the original on 2017-03-16
1853:
1842:from the original on 2013-08-09
1808:from the original on 2018-04-17
1787:
1733:
1660:
1649:
1636:
1611:
1586:
1534:
1510:
1483:
1464:
1437:
1367:
1314:
906:Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (TDI)
720:
603:methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
41:The isocyanate functional group
2339:"Is Your Couch Poisoning You?"
1835:. American Chemistry Council.
1286:
1258:
1221:
1185:
609:(TDI), 3.4% was the total for
501:
449:NC(O)N(H)R' + R''NCO → R
13:
1:
2041:Journal of Applied Toxicology
1072:
966:
749:personal protective equipment
526:. Isocyanates participate in
300:
139:
2523:American Chemistry Council.
2455:10.1080/15459624.2013.862592
2243:10.1080/15459624.2011.602623
1913:10.1080/15459624.2012.672871
1593:US EPA, OCSPP (2015-08-14).
946:Threshold limit value (TLV)
852:Threshold limit value (TLV)
791:Occupational exposure limits
764:occupational exposure limits
739:Hierarchy of hazard controls
342:ROH + R'NCO → ROC(O)N(H)R'
7:
3295:Health and Safety Executive
3247:Health and Safety Executive
1331:10.1002/0471264180.or003.07
1055:
1041:(UNEP), collaborate on the
694:
677:National Toxicology Program
10:
5567:
4452:
2974:"Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate"
2000:10.2353/ajpath.2009.071151
1159:Patai, Saul, ed. (1977b).
1126:Patai, Saul, ed. (1977a).
736:
702:pulmonary function testing
689:
611:hexamethylene diisocyanate
29:
5484:
5443:
5363:
5340:
5302:
5279:
5174:
5095:
4965:
4942:
4898:
4841:
4764:
4739:
4604:
4065:
4050:
3949:
3788:
3530:
3426:
3338:
1423:. CRC Press. p. 39.
1229:March's Organic Chemistry
1031:World Health Organization
1015:European Chemicals Agency
190:isocyanates from primary
2765:10.2105/ajph.2017.303947
2286:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1458:10.15227/orgsyn.043.0031
1103:10.1002/14356007.a14_611
1033:(WHO) together with the
30:Not to be confused with
5495:chemical classification
3156:"TOLUENE DIISOCYANATES"
1097:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
896:All isocyanates – STEL
874:All isocyanates – STEL
704:(PFT) and performed by
615:isophorone diisocyanate
596:Isophorone diisocyanate
538:Rearrangement reactions
253:yielding an isocyanate.
27:Chemical group (–N=C=O)
3023:Cite journal requires
3007:10.26616/NIOSHPUB96111
1570:The Polyurethanes Book
1517:Cohen, Julius (1900).
911:Organization (region)
885:All isocyanates – TWA
871:Safe Work (Australia)
863:All isocyanates – TWA
860:Safe Work (Australia)
805:Organization (region)
598:
588:
377:
273:, the conversion of a
104:have the connectivity
42:
5502:chemical nomenclature
2913:Safe Work Australia.
2676:10.1093/annweh/wxx064
1765:Riedlich, C. (2010).
1646:. Chichester, Wiley.
1169:10.1002/9780470771532
1136:10.1002/9780470771525
710:occupational medicine
594:
581:
551:Hofmann rearrangement
528:Diels–Alder reactions
453:NC(O)NR'C(O)NHR''
375:
295:Hofmann rearrangement
263:to an isocyanate and
257:Curtius rearrangement
241:, a reaction where a
152:, i.e. treating with
112:Structure and bonding
40:
2343:Architectural Digest
1568:Randall, D. (2002).
1388:10.1021/jacs.0c01960
1323:The Hofmann Reaction
1021:International groups
781:Emergency management
607:toluene diisocyanate
514:to from substituted
271:Lossen rearrangement
5546:Commodity chemicals
4958:not C, H or O)
2623:10.1136/oem.59.1.58
2282:"Methyl isocyanate"
1861:"SAFETY DATA SHEET"
1555:10.1021/jo00912a019
1302:. Plenum: 133–136.
1274:. Plenum: 614–617.
1255:, pp. 619–818.
1207:10.1021/ja00074a013
907:
801:
733:Hazard minimization
658:occupational asthma
625:Common applications
347:where R and R' are
5400:Hypervalent iodine
3265:2016-03-09 at the
2132:10.1002/ajim.22815
1476:2006-09-11 at the
1308:10.1007/BF00951891
1280:10.1007/BF00949595
905:
799:
662:contact dermatitis
599:
589:
574:Common isocyanates
557:is treated with a
524:thermal insulation
510:diisocyanates can
378:
259:degradation of an
176:carbamoyl chloride
43:
5541:Functional groups
5523:
5522:
5461:Sulfenyl chloride
5439:
5438:
4938:
4937:
4757:(only C, H and O)
4598:Functional groups
4564:
4563:
4558:
4557:
4008:
4007:
3112:European Coatings
2959:978-0-7176-6703-1
2896:978-0-471-95812-3
2759:(S2): S126–S133.
2499:medicine.yale.edu
2047:(10): 1073–1077.
1579:978-0-470-85041-1
1549:(24): 3554–3561.
1503:978-0-582-44407-2
1446:Organic Syntheses
1430:978-1-351-44639-6
1382:(18): 8383–8402.
1231:, rxn. 16-7.
1178:978-0-470-77153-2
1145:978-0-470-77152-5
964:
963:
903:
902:
727:safety data sheet
644:methyl isocyanate
634:Health and safety
619:methyl isocyanate
605:(MDI), 34.1% was
567:lead tetraacetate
530:, functioning as
306:With nucleophiles
169:→ RNCO + 2 HCl
130:phenyl isocyanate
63:Organic compounds
57:with the formula
47:organic chemistry
16:(Redirected from
5558:
5551:Chemical hazards
5490:
5395:Trifluoromethoxy
4963:
4962:
4959:
4762:
4761:
4758:
4611:
4591:
4584:
4577:
4568:
4567:
4485:
4374:
4326:
4257:
4210:
4179:
4150:
4137:
4114:
4101:
4094:
4054:
4053:
4035:
4028:
4021:
4012:
4011:
3998:
3986:
3962:
3951:Oxidation states
3780:
3779:
3748:
3747:
3682:
3681:
3646:
3645:
3634:
3633:
3579:
3578:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3301:
3300:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3198:
3191:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3167:
3160:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3065:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3026:
3021:
3019:
3011:
3009:
2994:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2945:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2926:
2919:
2910:
2901:
2900:
2882:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2856:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2828:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2784:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2728:
2721:
2713:
2704:
2703:
2670:(8): 1015–1023.
2659:
2653:
2652:
2642:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2536:
2529:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2474:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2410:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2318:
2311:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2189:10.1289/ehp.9557
2168:
2162:
2161:
2151:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2053:10.1002/jat.3041
2036:
2030:
2029:
2019:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1963:
1952:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1924:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1841:
1834:
1826:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1807:
1800:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1771:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1721:www.grainger.com
1713:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1664:
1658:
1653:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1487:
1481:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1352:
1344:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1088:
1004:
908:
904:
888:0.02 mg/m3
802:
798:
520:polyisocyanurate
516:isocyanuric acid
497:
454:
432:
427:NH + R'NCO → R
403:
343:
310:Isocyanates are
245:is treated with
239:Schmidt reaction
231:intermediate.
181:
170:
107:
99:
95:
60:
55:functional group
21:
5566:
5565:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5526:
5525:
5524:
5519:
5488:
5480:
5435:
5390:Trichloromethyl
5385:Trifluoromethyl
5359:
5336:
5298:
5275:
5170:
5139:Phosphine oxide
5091:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4934:
4894:
4837:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4735:
4609:
4608:
4600:
4595:
4565:
4560:
4559:
4484:
4480:
4373:
4369:
4325:
4321:
4256:
4252:
4209:
4205:
4178:
4174:
4149:
4145:
4136:
4132:
4113:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4092:
4088:
4046:
4039:
4009:
4004:
3992:
3980:
3956:
3945:
3941:
3933:
3925:
3917:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3887:
3879:
3871:
3863:
3855:
3847:
3839:
3831:
3821:
3812:
3804:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3734:
3727:
3723:
3710:
3702:
3698:
3689:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3666:
3654:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3614:
3610:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3547:
3526:
3522:
3509:
3505:
3481:
3473:
3450:
3437:
3422:
3416:
3407:
3399:
3391:
3387:
3378:
3365:
3357:
3349:
3334:
3328:
3267:Wayback Machine
3237:
3232:
3231:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3171:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3129:
3125:
3116:
3114:
3104:
3100:
3091:
3089:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3059:
3058:
3052:
3050:
3040:
3036:
3024:
3022:
3013:
3012:
2996:
2995:
2988:
2979:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2946:
2939:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2883:
2874:
2865:
2863:
2858:
2857:
2850:
2841:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2822:
2813:
2811:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2745:
2741:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2707:
2660:
2656:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2588:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2565:
2563:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2508:
2506:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2435:
2431:
2422:
2420:
2412:
2411:
2404:
2395:
2393:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2367:Chemistry World
2361:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2345:
2335:
2331:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2290:
2288:
2278:
2274:
2226:
2222:
2169:
2165:
2112:
2108:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2088:
2084:
2037:
2033:
1980:
1976:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1938:
1892:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1820:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1750:
1748:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1725:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1698:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1679:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1628:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1603:
1601:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1566:
1562:
1539:
1535:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1488:
1484:
1478:Wayback Machine
1469:
1465:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1415:
1411:
1372:
1368:
1356:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1319:
1315:
1291:
1287:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1089:
1080:
1075:
1058:
1023:
1011:
1002:
974:
969:
899:0.07 mg/m
793:
785:Bhopal disaster
741:
735:
723:
697:
692:
640:Bhopal disaster
636:
627:
586:
576:
561:such as sodium
559:strong oxidizer
540:
504:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
452:
448:
444:
430:
426:
422:
402:
398:
394:
390:
341:
328:isothiocyanates
308:
303:
275:hydroxamic acid
243:carboxylic acid
184:oxalyl chloride
179:
168:
164:
160:
142:
127:
119:
114:
105:
97:
93:
58:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5564:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5510:
5498:
5491:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5478:
5476:Sulfinylamines
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5456:Phosphoramides
5453:
5451:Isothiocyanate
5447:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5433:
5428:
5427:
5426:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5404:
5403:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5371:
5369:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5357:
5352:
5346:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5334:
5329:
5327:Selenenic acid
5324:
5322:Seleninic acid
5319:
5317:Selenonic acid
5314:
5308:
5306:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5296:
5291:
5285:
5283:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5186:
5180:
5178:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5114:
5113:
5112:
5110:Phosphodiester
5101:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4971:
4969:
4960:
4956:(one element,
4940:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4913:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4847:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4835:
4833:Methylenedioxy
4830:
4825:
4824:
4823:
4818:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4801:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4779:
4774:
4768:
4766:
4759:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4662:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4614:
4612:
4610:(only C and H)
4602:
4601:
4594:
4593:
4586:
4579:
4571:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4540:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4522:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4444:
4441:
4438:
4435:
4432:
4429:
4426:
4423:
4420:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4389:
4388:
4385:
4382:
4379:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4358:
4355:
4352:
4349:
4346:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4221:
4216:
4213:
4207:
4201:
4198:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4119:
4116:
4111:
4096:
4090:
4085:
4082:
4079:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4052:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4038:
4037:
4030:
4023:
4015:
4006:
4005:
3955:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3819:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3790:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3782:
3776:
3769:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3732:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3678:
3671:
3664:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3642:
3630:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3585:
3575:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3536:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3327:
3326:
3319:
3312:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3269:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3236:
3235:External links
3233:
3230:
3229:
3209:
3178:
3161:. IARC. 1987.
3147:
3123:
3098:
3086:echa.europa.eu
3073:
3034:
3025:|journal=
3000:. 1996-03-01.
2986:
2965:
2958:
2937:
2902:
2895:
2872:
2848:
2820:
2796:
2739:
2705:
2654:
2597:
2572:
2547:
2515:
2486:
2449:(5): 306–313.
2429:
2418:www.hse.gov.uk
2402:
2378:
2354:
2329:
2297:
2272:
2237:(9): 551–560.
2220:
2183:(3): 328–335.
2163:
2126:(4): 282–292.
2106:
2082:
2031:
1974:
1936:
1907:(5): 329–339.
1883:
1852:
1818:
1786:
1757:
1732:
1705:
1677:
1672:www.hse.gov.uk
1659:
1648:
1635:
1610:
1585:
1578:
1560:
1533:
1509:
1502:
1482:
1463:
1436:
1429:
1409:
1366:
1357:|journal=
1339:
1313:
1285:
1257:
1245:
1243:, p. 447.
1233:
1227:Smith (2020),
1220:
1184:
1177:
1151:
1144:
1118:
1112:978-3527306732
1111:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1062:Isothiocyanate
1057:
1054:
1029:, through the
1027:United Nations
1022:
1019:
1010:
1009:European Union
1007:
973:
970:
968:
965:
962:
961:
958:
957:Ceiling limit
955:
951:
950:
947:
944:
940:
939:
937:
934:
930:
929:
926:
925:Ceiling limit
923:
919:
918:
915:
912:
901:
900:
897:
894:
890:
889:
886:
883:
879:
878:
875:
872:
868:
867:
864:
861:
857:
856:
853:
850:
846:
845:
842:
839:
835:
834:
831:
828:
824:
823:
820:
819:Ceiling limit
817:
813:
812:
809:
806:
792:
789:
734:
731:
722:
719:
696:
693:
691:
688:
635:
632:
626:
623:
575:
572:
571:
570:
539:
536:
503:
500:
499:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
456:
455:
450:
446:
434:
433:
428:
424:
405:
404:
400:
396:
392:
384:carbon dioxide
380:
379:
345:
344:
307:
304:
302:
299:
291:
290:
268:
254:
251:hydrazoic acid
203:isocyanic acid
172:
171:
166:
162:
141:
138:
125:
117:
113:
110:
82:cyanate esters
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5563:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5533:
5531:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5487:
5486:
5483:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5446:
5442:
5432:
5429:
5425:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5417:
5413:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5405:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5377:
5376:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5368:
5367:
5362:
5356:
5355:Telluroketone
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5345:
5343:
5339:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5241:Sulfonic acid
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5231:Sulfinic acid
5229:
5227:
5226:Thiosulfonate
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5216:Thiosulfinate
5214:
5212:
5211:Sulfenic acid
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5173:
5167:
5166:Phosphaallene
5164:
5162:
5161:Phosphaalkyne
5159:
5157:
5156:Phosphaalkene
5154:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5111:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5094:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4964:
4961:
4941:
4929:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4908:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4828:Ethylenedioxy
4826:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4809:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4795:
4792:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4760:
4754:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4674:
4673:
4670:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4657:
4656:
4653:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4592:
4587:
4585:
4580:
4578:
4573:
4572:
4569:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4412:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4386:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4359:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4277:
4274:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4237:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4202:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4162:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4106:
4102:
4097:
4095:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4067:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4049:
4044:
4036:
4031:
4029:
4024:
4022:
4017:
4016:
4013:
4002:
3997:
3996:
3990:
3985:
3984:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3960:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3942:
3936:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3920:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3903:
3901:
3891:
3889:
3882:
3880:
3874:
3872:
3866:
3864:
3858:
3856:
3850:
3848:
3842:
3840:
3834:
3832:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3815:
3813:
3807:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3781:
3765:
3751:
3749:
3738:
3736:
3728:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3703:
3693:
3691:
3683:
3667:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3635:
3623:
3617:
3615:
3605:
3603:
3592:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3568:
3562:
3560:
3550:
3548:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3476:
3474:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3417:
3410:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3382:
3380:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3352:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3325:
3320:
3318:
3313:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3261:, June 200.
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3219:
3213:
3195:
3188:
3182:
3164:
3157:
3151:
3134:
3127:
3113:
3109:
3102:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3069:
3063:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3030:
3017:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2993:
2991:
2975:
2969:
2961:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2942:
2923:
2916:
2909:
2907:
2898:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2861:
2855:
2853:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2825:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2725:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
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2505:on 2017-11-23
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2018:
2013:
2009:
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1989:
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535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
471:
470:
469:
467:
466:Carbodiimides
463:
461:
443:
442:
441:
439:
421:
420:
419:
417:
412:
410:
409:blowing agent
389:
388:
387:
385:
374:
370:
369:
368:
366:
365:polyurethanes
362:
358:
354:
350:
340:
339:
338:
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
312:electrophiles
298:
296:
289:intermediate.
288:
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269:
266:
262:
258:
255:
252:
248:
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237:
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222:
221:nitrosoarenes
218:
214:
213:carbonylation
210:
206:
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199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
177:
159:
158:
157:
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151:
147:
137:
135:
131:
123:
122:carbodiimides
109:
103:
91:
87:
83:
78:
76:
73:, a class of
72:
71:polyurethanes
68:
64:
56:
52:
48:
39:
33:
19:
5500:
5493:
5407:Vinyl halide
5364:
5294:Borinic acid
5289:Boronic acid
5266:Thioxanthate
5061:
4606:Hydrocarbons
4203:
4104:
3999:(a strongly
3993:
3981:
3957:
3817:
3491:
3412:
3221:. Retrieved
3212:
3201:. Retrieved
3181:
3170:. Retrieved
3150:
3139:. Retrieved
3126:
3115:. Retrieved
3111:
3101:
3090:. Retrieved
3085:
3076:
3051:. Retrieved
3047:
3037:
3016:cite journal
2978:. Retrieved
2968:
2949:
2948:HSE (2018).
2929:. Retrieved
2886:
2864:. Retrieved
2840:. Retrieved
2836:www.osha.gov
2835:
2812:. Retrieved
2808:
2799:
2756:
2752:
2742:
2731:. Retrieved
2667:
2663:
2657:
2617:(1): 58–62.
2614:
2610:
2600:
2589:. Retrieved
2585:www.osha.gov
2584:
2575:
2564:. Retrieved
2560:www.osha.gov
2559:
2550:
2539:. Retrieved
2518:
2507:. Retrieved
2503:the original
2498:
2489:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2421:. Retrieved
2417:
2394:. Retrieved
2390:
2381:
2370:. Retrieved
2366:
2357:
2346:. Retrieved
2342:
2332:
2321:. Retrieved
2300:
2289:. Retrieved
2285:
2275:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2123:
2119:
2109:
2098:. Retrieved
2085:
2044:
2040:
2034:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1966:. Retrieved
1954:
1904:
1900:
1875:. Retrieved
1866:. Everchem.
1855:
1844:. Retrieved
1810:. Retrieved
1789:
1773:
1760:
1749:. Retrieved
1745:www.osha.gov
1744:
1735:
1724:. Retrieved
1720:
1697:. Retrieved
1695:. 2018-11-09
1692:
1671:
1662:
1651:
1638:
1627:. Retrieved
1622:
1613:
1602:. Retrieved
1598:
1588:
1569:
1563:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1528:
1519:
1512:
1492:
1485:
1466:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1419:
1412:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1322:
1316:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1248:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1160:
1154:
1127:
1121:
1092:
1051:
1047:
1024:
1012:
996:
989:
982:
975:
960:20 ppb
954:ACGIH (USA)
943:ACGIH (USA)
933:NIOSH (USA)
928:20 ppb
849:ACGIH (USA)
838:NIOSH (USA)
833:20 ppb
827:NIOSH (USA)
822:20 ppb
794:
779:
768:
757:
746:
742:
724:
721:Flammability
715:
698:
685:
675:Both the US
674:
666:
648:
637:
628:
600:
541:
505:
464:
457:
435:
413:
406:
381:
346:
332:
316:nucleophiles
309:
292:
265:nitrogen gas
233:
207:
200:
173:
150:phosgenation
143:
115:
79:
66:
50:
44:
18:Diisocyanate
5536:Isocyanates
5471:Thiocyanate
5466:Sulfonamide
5431:Perchlorate
5419:Acyl halide
5380:Fluoroethyl
5261:Thionoester
5149:Phosphonium
5134:Phosphinate
5129:Phosphonous
5117:Phosphonate
4816:Hydroperoxy
4638:Cyclopropyl
2809:www.cdc.gov
1994:(1): 3–13.
1955:www.cdc.gov
1693:www.cdc.gov
1623:www.csb.gov
1253:Patai 1977b
1241:Patai 1977a
949:5 ppb
922:OSHA (USA)
855:5 ppb
844:5 ppb
816:OSHA (USA)
706:pulmonology
563:hypobromite
532:dienophiles
502:Cyclization
431:NC(O)N(H)R'
102:Isocyanides
86:isocyanides
67:isocyanates
5530:Categories
5375:Haloalkane
5246:Thioketone
5201:Persulfide
5097:Phosphorus
5062:Isocyanate
5052:Isonitrile
4953:or oxygen
4951:hydrogen,
4947:not being
4928:Orthoester
4821:Dioxiranes
4799:Enol ether
4687:1-Propenyl
3223:2018-11-18
3203:2018-11-18
3172:2018-11-18
3141:2018-11-18
3117:2018-11-22
3092:2018-11-22
3053:2018-11-22
2980:2018-11-24
2931:2018-11-21
2866:2018-11-24
2842:2018-11-24
2814:2018-12-08
2733:2018-11-21
2591:2018-11-22
2566:2018-11-21
2541:2018-11-21
2509:2018-11-21
2423:2018-11-21
2396:2018-12-07
2372:2018-11-21
2348:2018-12-08
2323:2018-11-21
2291:2018-11-21
2100:2018-11-21
1968:2018-12-07
1877:2018-11-24
1846:2018-11-24
1812:2018-11-24
1751:2018-11-21
1726:2018-11-21
1699:2018-11-21
1629:2018-11-21
1604:2018-12-08
1073:References
1037:(ILO) and
967:Regulation
753:clear-coat
737:See also:
679:(NTP) and
613:(HDI) and
544:hydrolysis
481:NCO → (C
318:including
301:Reactivity
287:phosphoryl
261:acyl azide
140:Production
51:isocyanate
32:Isocyanide
5508:inorganic
5342:Tellurium
5256:Thioester
5221:Sulfoxide
5206:Disulfide
5194:Sulfonium
5144:Phosphine
5122:Phosphite
5105:Phosphate
5037:Carbamate
5012:Hydrazone
4945:element,
4943:Only one
4916:Anhydride
4655:Methylene
2773:0090-0036
2684:2398-7308
2631:1351-0711
2463:1545-9624
2280:Pubchem.
2251:1545-9624
2197:0091-6765
2140:0271-3586
2061:0260-437X
2008:0002-9440
1572:. Wiley.
1404:216557447
1359:ignored (
1349:cite book
1215:0002-7863
914:Standard
808:Standard
512:trimerise
508:Aliphatic
460:polyureas
395:O → RNH
337:linkage:
225:palladium
198:instead.
180:RNHC(O)Cl
5489:See also
5424:Chloride
5350:Tellurol
5304:Selenium
5271:Xanthate
4985:Ammonium
4967:Nitrogen
4949:carbon,
4906:Carboxyl
4873:Aldehyde
4861:Acryloyl
4843:carbonyl
4747:hydrogen
4702:Cumulene
3766: /
3729: /
3713: /
3684: /
3668: /
3661: /
3636: /
3624: /
3593: /
3581: /
3569: /
3542: /
3442:>C=NR
3339:Hydrides
3331:Nitrogen
3293:for the
3263:Archived
3194:Archived
3163:Archived
3062:cite web
2922:Archived
2791:28892444
2724:Archived
2692:29028250
2649:11836470
2532:Archived
2481:24215135
2314:Archived
2267:33905218
2259:21830873
2215:17431479
2158:29389014
2077:29989837
2069:25059672
2026:19074616
1959:Archived
1931:22500941
1868:Archived
1837:Archived
1803:Archived
1778:Archived
1474:Archived
1396:32338511
1056:See also
695:Toxicity
493:C + CO
391:RNCO + H
335:urethane
320:alcohols
283:sulfonyl
196:nitriles
154:phosgene
75:polymers
5513:organic
5312:Selenol
5236:Sulfone
5189:Sulfide
5087:NONOate
5082:Nitroso
5072:Nitrite
5067:Nitrate
5057:Cyanate
5047:Nitrile
5032:Amidine
5027:Imidate
4997:Nitrene
4992:Hydrazo
4980:Enamine
4911:Acetoxy
4899:carboxy
4866:Benzoyl
4804:Epoxide
4787:Methoxy
4777:Alcohol
4731:Carbene
4665:Methine
4481:Eu(OCN)
4453:
4370:Pb(OCN)
4322:Ba(OCN)
4253:Sr(OCN)
4206:Co(OCN)
4175:Ca(OCN)
4146:Si(OCN)
4133:Mg(OCN)
4043:cyanate
3789:Halides
3427:Organic
3333:species
2782:5594387
2700:2072874
2640:1740212
2472:5514320
2305:ISOPA.
2206:1849909
2149:6092631
2017:2631313
1922:4075771
1776:: 1–8.
775:US Navy
758:The US
690:Hazards
247:ammonia
229:nitrene
98:R−N=C=O
94:R−O−C≡N
90:cyanate
59:R−N=C=O
53:is the
5412:Iodide
5332:Selone
5176:Sulfur
4885:Ketone
4878:Ketene
4856:Acetyl
4811:Peroxy
4782:Alkoxy
4772:Acetal
4753:oxygen
4742:carbon
4726:Alkyne
4719:Benzyl
4714:Phenyl
4697:Allene
4692:Crotyl
4672:Alkene
4660:Bridge
4648:Pentyl
4633:Propyl
4623:Methyl
4003:oxide)
4001:acidic
3532:Oxides
3088:. ECHA
3048:US EPA
2956:
2893:
2789:
2779:
2771:
2698:
2690:
2682:
2647:
2637:
2629:
2479:
2469:
2461:
2265:
2257:
2249:
2213:
2203:
2195:
2156:
2146:
2138:
2090:OSHA.
2075:
2067:
2059:
2024:
2014:
2006:
1929:
1919:
1794:IXOM.
1599:US EPA
1576:
1500:
1452:: 31.
1427:
1402:
1394:
1337:
1213:
1175:
1142:
1109:
917:Value
811:Value
771:asthma
670:curing
585:(MDI);
438:biuret
361:polyol
324:amines
217:nitro-
192:amides
165:+ COCl
146:amines
124:(C(NR)
120:) and
5444:Other
5281:Boron
5251:Thial
5184:Thiol
5077:Nitro
5042:Imide
5022:Amide
5007:Oxime
5002:Imine
4975:Amine
4923:Ester
4890:Ynone
4794:Ether
4765:R-O-R
4740:Only
4682:Allyl
4677:Vinyl
4643:Butyl
4628:Ethyl
4618:Alkyl
4364:TlOCN
4316:CsOCN
4288:AgOCN
4247:RbOCN
4219:CuOCN
4127:NaOCN
4110:O(CN)
4074:LiOCN
3971:, 0,
3663:(HON)
3447:-CONR
3197:(PDF)
3190:(PDF)
3166:(PDF)
3159:(PDF)
3136:(PDF)
2976:. CDC
2925:(PDF)
2918:(PDF)
2862:. CDC
2727:(PDF)
2720:(PDF)
2696:S2CID
2535:(PDF)
2528:(PDF)
2317:(PDF)
2310:(PDF)
2263:S2CID
2095:(PDF)
2073:S2CID
1962:(PDF)
1951:(PDF)
1871:(PDF)
1864:(PDF)
1840:(PDF)
1833:(PDF)
1806:(PDF)
1799:(PDF)
1781:(PDF)
1770:(PDF)
1625:. CSB
1400:S2CID
985:NIOSH
650:LD50s
555:amide
416:ureas
359:or a
349:alkyl
285:, or
106:R−N≡C
5366:Halo
4851:Acyl
4751:and
4709:Aryl
4169:KOCN
4105:-NCO
4058:HNCO
3930:NHBr
3922:NHCl
3715:ONOO
3544:(NO)
3497:HNCS
3492:HNCO
3487:HOCN
3470:(CN)
3068:link
3029:help
2954:ISBN
2891:ISBN
2787:PMID
2769:ISSN
2688:PMID
2680:ISSN
2645:PMID
2627:ISSN
2477:PMID
2459:ISSN
2255:PMID
2247:ISSN
2211:PMID
2193:ISSN
2154:PMID
2136:ISSN
2065:PMID
2057:ISSN
2022:PMID
2004:ISSN
1927:PMID
1574:ISBN
1498:ISBN
1425:ISBN
1392:PMID
1361:help
1335:ISBN
1211:ISSN
1173:ISBN
1140:ISBN
1107:ISBN
1025:The
1013:The
997:The
976:The
399:+ CO
357:diol
353:aryl
279:acyl
249:and
223:; a
219:and
209:Aryl
188:acyl
84:and
5017:Azo
4554:No
4551:Md
4548:Fm
4545:Es
4542:Cf
4539:Bk
4536:Cm
4533:Am
4530:Pu
4527:Np
4521:Pa
4518:Th
4515:Ac
4512:**
4507:Yb
4504:Tm
4501:Er
4498:Ho
4495:Dy
4492:Tb
4489:Gd
4476:Sm
4473:Pm
4470:Nd
4467:Pr
4464:Ce
4461:La
4446:Og
4443:Ts
4440:Lv
4437:Mc
4434:Fl
4431:Nh
4428:Cn
4425:Rg
4422:Ds
4419:Mt
4416:Hs
4413:Bh
4410:Sg
4407:Db
4404:Rf
4401:Lr
4398:**
4395:Ra
4392:Fr
4387:Rn
4384:At
4381:Po
4378:Bi
4360:Hg
4357:Au
4354:Pt
4351:Ir
4348:Os
4345:Re
4339:Ta
4336:Hf
4333:Lu
4310:Xe
4304:Te
4301:Sb
4298:Sn
4295:In
4292:Cd
4284:Pd
4281:Rh
4278:Ru
4275:Tc
4272:Mo
4269:Nb
4266:Zr
4241:Kr
4238:Br
4235:Se
4232:As
4229:Ge
4226:Ga
4223:Zn
4215:Ni
4200:Fe
4197:Mn
4194:Cr
4188:Ti
4185:Sc
4163:Ar
4160:Cl
4141:Al
4121:Ne
4100:OCN
4093:OCN
4078:Be
4068:He
4045:ion
3991:,
3938:NHI
3914:NHF
3868:BrN
3860:ClN
3836:NBr
3828:NCl
3824:(?)
3735:NOO
3699:NNO
3659:HNO
3619:HNO
3595:(NO
3564:HNO
3519:-NO
3514:-NO
3482:NCN
3460:HCN
3455:-CN
3419:(?)
3002:doi
2777:PMC
2761:doi
2757:107
2672:doi
2635:PMC
2619:doi
2467:PMC
2451:doi
2239:doi
2201:PMC
2185:doi
2181:115
2144:PMC
2128:doi
2049:doi
2012:PMC
1996:doi
1992:174
1917:PMC
1909:doi
1551:doi
1454:doi
1384:doi
1380:142
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