Die casting - Knowledge

594:. Cores are components that usually produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other details as well. There are three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose. Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies (i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they are fixed, or permanently attached to the die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the die cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate mechanism. Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form 487: 455: 514: 502: 33: 581:, which accurately drives all of the pins at the same time and with the same force, so that the casting is not damaged. The ejector pin plate also retracts the pins after ejecting the casting to prepare for the next shot. There must be enough ejector pins to keep the overall force on each pin low, because the casting is still hot and can be damaged by excessive force. The pins still leave a mark, so they must be located in places where these marks will not hamper the casting's purpose. 530: 538: 327: 145:. It nearly completely replaced setting type by hand in the publishing industry. The Soss die-casting machine, manufactured in Brooklyn, NY, was the first machine to be sold in the open market in North America. Other applications grew rapidly, with die casting facilitating the growth of consumer goods, and appliances, by greatly reducing the production cost of intricate parts in high volumes. In 1966, General Motors released the 1080:(1,500 and 25,400 psi). Once the mould cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies. The dies are then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the shakeout involves separating the scrap, which includes the 1096:, from the shot. This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. Other methods of shaking out include sawing and grinding. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%. 606:. These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time. Other features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the 244:, magnesium, and zinc castings are estimated at approximately 70 pounds (32 kg), 10 lb (4.5 kg), 44 lb (20 kg), and 75 lb (34 kg), respectively. By late-2019, press machines capable of die casting single pieces over-100 kilograms (220 lb) were being used to produce aluminium chassis components for cars. 495:

transported to the cold-chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. The biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine.

553:(for hot-chamber machines) or shot hole (for cold-chamber machines), which allows the molten metal to flow into the dies; this feature matches up with the injector nozzle on the hot-chamber machines or the shot chamber in the cold-chamber machines. The ejector die contains the ejector pins and usually the 108:

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for

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In the standard die casting process the final casting will have a small amount of porosity. This prevents any heat treating or welding, because the heat causes the gas in the pores to expand, which causes micro-cracks inside the part and exfoliation of the surface. However, some companies have found

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Water-based lubricants are the most used type of lubricant, because of health, environmental, and safety reasons. Unlike solvent-based lubricants, if water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it, it will not leave any by-product in the dies. If the water is not properly treated, then the

474:-powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that it is limited to use with low- 1404:

is injected into the die before each shot to purge any air from the mould cavity. This causes small dispersed oxides to form when the molten metal fills the die, which virtually eliminates gas porosity. An added advantage to this is greater strength. Unlike standard die castings, these castings can

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These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminium, magnesium and copper. The process for these machines start with melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a precise amount of molten metal is

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Integrated die casting refers to the high-level integration of multiple separate and dispersed alloy parts through a large-tonnage die-casting machine, and then formed into 1–2 large castings. The aim is to reduce manufacturing costs through one-time molding, significantly decreasing the number of

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are used, because, when the lubricant is applied, the water cools the die surface by evaporating, hence depositing the oil that helps release the shot. A common mixture for this type of emulsion is thirty parts water to one part oil, however in extreme cases a ratio of one-hundred to one is used.

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are avoided, even if the shape requires difficult-to-fill thin sections. This creates the problem of air entrapment, because when the mould is filled quickly there is little time for the air to escape. This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines, however, even in a highly

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is the amount of slope or taper given to cores or other parts of the die cavity to allow for easy ejection of the casting from the die. All die cast surfaces that are parallel to the opening direction of the die require draft for the proper ejection of the casting from the die. Die castings that

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Low-pressure die casting (LPDC) is a process developed to improve the consistency and integrity of parts, at the cost of a much slower cycle time. In LPDC, material is held in a reservoir below the die, from which it flows into the cavity when air pressure in the reservoir is increased. Typical

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and then through heated mini-nozzles, which lead into the moulding cavity. This process has the advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of scrap (by the elimination of sprues, gates, and runners) and energy conservation, and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles.

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Finally, the Acurad system employed a patented double shot piston design. The idea was to use a second piston (located within the primary piston) to apply pressure after the shot had partially solidified around the perimeter of the casting cavity and shot sleeve. While the system was not very

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in weight over an unbeaten maximum allowed projected area. … manufacture of high-integrity Aluminium and Magnesium Die Cast components for the automotive sector, with focus on structural and safety critical components. … Injection velocity exceeding requirements of 10

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The Acurad system employed a bottom fill system that required a stable flow-front. Logical thought processes and trial and error were used because computerized analysis did not exist yet; however this modeling was the precursor to computerized flow and fill modeling.

629:, heat checking resistance, weldability, availability (especially for larger dies), and cost. The longevity of a die is directly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal and the cycle time. The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened 1487:

pressures range from 0.3 bar (4.4 psi) to 0.5 bar (7.3 psi). Somewhat higher pressures (up to 1 bar (15 psi)) may be applied after the material is in the die, to work it into fine details of the cavity and eliminate porosity.

1225:, were commonly used. These were good at releasing the part from the die, but a small explosion occurred during each shot, which led to a build-up of carbon on the mould cavity walls. However, they were easier to apply evenly than water-based lubricants. 1178:, and all sorts of mixtures of these. HROs are gelatinous at room temperature, but at the high temperatures found in die casting, they form a thin film. Other substances are added to control the viscosity and thermal properties of these emulsions, e.g. 1283:. Both the casting equipment required and the dies and related components are very costly, as compared to most other casting processes. Therefore, to make die casting an economic process, a large production volume is needed. Other disadvantages are: 572:

The dies are designed so that the finished casting will slide off the cover half of the die and stay in the ejector half as the dies are opened. This assures that the casting will be ejected every cycle because the ejector half contains the

1429:(VHPDC), a vacuum pump removes air and gases from die cavity and metal delivery system before and during injection. Vacuum die casting reduces porosity, allows heat treating and welding, improves surface finish, and can increase strength. 1237:

Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting material, but typically 0.1 mm for the first 2.5 cm (0.004 inch for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002 inch for each additional

188:: lightweight; high dimensional stability for very complex shapes and thin walls; good corrosion resistance; good mechanical properties; high thermal and electrical conductivity; retains strength at moderately high temperatures. 1076:. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the dies under high pressure; between 10 and 175 428:

require special consideration when die casting because the perimeters of these features will grip to the die steel during solidification. To counteract this effect, generous draft should be added to hole and window

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ways of reducing the porosity of the part, allowing limited welding and heat treating. Thus a related disadvantage of die casting is that it is only for parts in which softness is acceptable. Parts needing

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are added to die castings to serve as stand-offs and mounting points for parts that will need to be mounted. For maximum integrity and strength of the die casting, bosses must have universal wall thickness.

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metals and that aluminium cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten pool. Therefore, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with zinc-, tin-, and lead-based alloys.

978:. Heat checking is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large temperature change on every cycle. Thermal fatigue is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large number of cycles. 200:: high hardness; high corrosion resistance; highest mechanical properties of alloys die cast; excellent wear resistance; excellent dimensional stability; strength approaching that of steel parts. 637:

cannot withstand the high pressures involved, therefore the dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up costs. Metals that are cast at higher temperatures require dies made from higher

610:. These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or 0.005 in) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No 2433: 1293:

Casting weights have previously been limited to between 30 grams (1 oz) and 10 kg (20 lb), but from 2018 shots of 80 kilograms (180 lb) have become possible.

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is the curved juncture of two surfaces that would have otherwise met at a sharp corner or edge. Simply, fillets can be added to a die casting to remove undesirable edges and corners.

466:, rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The 109:

a large quantity of small- to medium-sized castings, which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die castings are characterized by a very good

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The thermal analysis was the first done for any casting process. This was done by creating an electrical analog of the thermal system. A cross-section of the dies were drawn on

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represents the point at which two different sides of a mould come together. The location of the parting line defines which side of the die is the cover and which is the ejector.

1072:, these are also the basis for any of the die casting variations: die preparation, filling, ejection, and shakeout. The dies are prepared by spraying the mould cavity with 2382: 1388:, to discover that it was just as effective to apply sufficient pressure at the right time later in the cycle with the primary piston; this is indirect squeeze casting. 1841: 1099:

The high-pressure injection leads to a quick fill of the die, which is required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way,

2452:"Development Trend in Composition Optimization, Microstructure Manipulation, and Strengthening Methods of Die Steels under Lightweight and Integrated Die Casting" 1369: 2449: 1312:

During the cooling process, some of the material stuffs the tiny crevices of the mold under pressure, which creates excess burrs that require extra work to trim.

1133:. These defects can be caused by cold dies, low metal temperature, dirty metal, lack of venting, or too much lubricant. Other possible defects are gas porosity, 1365: 232:

and hot foil blocking. Traditionally cast in hand jerk moulds, now predominantly die cast after the industrialisation of the type foundries. Around 1900 the

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Ze-Ju Bao, Hong-Yu Yang, Bai-Xin Dong, Fang Chang, Chuan-De Li,Ying Jiang, Liang-Yu Chen, Shi-Li Shu, Qi-Chuan Jiang,and Feng Qiu (September 2023).

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The process is limited to high-fluidity metals. Increased scrap rates can be caused by fluidity failure, and scrap costs in die casting are high.

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required for a casting as outlined in the table below. The thickest section should be less than 13 mm (0.5 in), but can be greater.

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paper and then thermal loads and cooling patterns were drawn onto the paper. Water lines were represented by magnets of various sizes. The

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Two dies are used in die casting; one is called the "cover die half" and the other the "ejector die half". Where they meet is called the

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Die casting is an economical alternative for as few as 2,000 parts if it eliminates extensive secondary machining and surface finishing.

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with the fast cycle times of the traditional die casting process. The process pioneered four breakthrough technologies for die casting:

182:: the easiest metal to cast; high ductility; high impact strength; easily plated; economical for small parts; promotes long die life. 216:: high density; extremely close dimensional accuracy; used for special forms of corrosion resistance. Such alloys are not used in 175:(AA) standards: AA 380, AA 384, AA 386, AA 390; and AZ91D magnesium. The following is a summary of the advantages of each alloy: 1478:(or liquidus and eutectic temperature), so that it is in a "mushy" state. This allows for more complex parts and thinner walls. 2707: 419:

are added to a die casting to provide added support for designs that require maximum strength without increased wall thickness.

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feature proper draft are easier to remove from the die and result in high-quality surfaces and more precise finished product.

2275: 1913: 1722: 557:, which is the path from the sprue or shot hole to the mould cavity. The cover die is secured to the stationary, or front, 1813: 2408: 1270:

Corrosion rates for die castings are slower than those for sand castings due to the smoother surface of the die castings.

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Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mould casting (approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in).

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Die casting fluid length is unaffected by solidification range, unlike permanent molds, sand castings, and other types.

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was granted in 1849 for a small hand-operated machine for the purpose of mechanized printing type production. In 1885

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came onto the market and added further automation, with sometimes dozens of casting machines at one newspaper office.

206:: high-strength alloy made of copper, zinc and silicon. Often used as an alternative for investment cast steel parts. 2251: 1888: 1364:

The Acurad system was the first die casting process that could successfully cast low-iron aluminium alloys, such as

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can take up to fifteen minutes. It is primarily used for aluminum, but has been used for carbon steel as well.

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Typical cycle times for a low-pressure die casting process are longer than for other die-casting processes; an

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surfaces. The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies. Loose cores, also called

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There are a number of geometric features to be considered when creating a parametric model of a die casting:

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Acurad was a die casting process developed by General Motors in the late 1950s and 1960s. The name is an

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Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating elements, and high strength bearing surfaces).

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are marks left on the surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp corners, or excessive lubricant.

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Die casting involves a large number of parts, so questions of repeatability are particularly important.

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to the die. Similarly, Acurad castings could be heat treated and meet the U.S. military specification

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Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable, such as

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Dewhirst, B. "Castability Measures for Diecasting Alloys: Fluidity, Hot Tearing, and Die Soldering".

194:: the easiest metal to machine; excellent strength-to-weight ratio; lightest alloy commonly die cast. 2789: 2629: 2312: 1759: 1462: 595: 172: 105:-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. 2953: 1100: 707: 569:, which are separate pieces that can be replaced relatively easily and bolt into the die halves. 337: 2774: 1449: 1354: 1306: 1298: 723: 698: 160: 48: 2045: 1953: 2855: 2835: 2503: 1093: 1089: 550: 486: 233: 1626: 454: 2830: 2779: 2463: 1350: 1125:

After the shakeout of the casting it is inspected for defects. The most common defects are

586: 229: 2434:"Development of integrated die casting process for Large Thin-Wall Magnesium Applications" 2088:, (US Department of Energy Grant/Contract No. DE-FC07-00ID13843, OSURF Project No. 739022) 8: 2876: 1475: 384: 248: 134: 66: 2486: 2467: 2451: 2769: 2742: 1338:, flow and fill modeling, heat treatable and high integrity die castings, and indirect 1163: 1134: 692: 409: 393: 2928: 2923: 2845: 2762: 2757: 2571: 2550: 2531: 2491: 2388: 2384:

Complete Casting Handbook: Metal Casting Processes, Metallurgy, Techniques and Design

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resistance and softening at elevated temperature; other important properties include

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are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate.

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of the casting machine, while the ejector die is attached to the movable platen. The

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Han, Q.; H., Xu. "Fluidity of alloys under high pressure die casting conditions".

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for accurate, reliable, and dense. It was developed to combine a stable fill and

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refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the casting.

2871: 2618: 1917: 1819: 1385: 1302: 1211: 1120: 1081: 221: 203: 168: 110: 37: 2973: 2825: 2799: 2723: 1605: 1448:, is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc is forced through a heated 1175: 1171: 1108: 1077: 626: 622: 618: 475: 32: 577:

to push the casting out of that die half. The ejector pins are driven by an

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Tolerances for die casting (according to DIN 1688 GTA 13, German Standards)

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Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing

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Why Zinc Alloy Die Casting Becomes the Prime Choice for Manufacturers?

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Brevick, Jerald; Mount-Campbell, Clark; Mobley, Carroll (2004-03-15),

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Schrader, George F.; Elshennawy, Ahmad K.; Doyle, Lawrence E. (2000),

1842:"Larger Automotive Castings Drive Innovation in Molten Metal Delivery" 2938: 2933: 2227:

Proceedings of the 4th International High Tech die Casting Conference

1504: 1413:. This process can be performed on aluminium, zinc, and lead alloys. 1195: 1183: 1130: 634: 471: 467: 191: 185: 90: 86: 326: 247:

The material used defines the minimum section thickness and minimum

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die casting is also possible. Specific die casting alloys include:

163:, aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, and tin; although uncommon, 2958: 2918: 2886: 1791: 1655: 1410: 1327: 967: 810: 537: 164: 2607:

Metals Die Casting: Complete Basics and Design Tips to Get Start

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parts needed for car assembly and improving overall efficiency.

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effective, it did lead the manufacturer of the Acurad machines,

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Die and component material and hardness for various cast metals

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The Progress and Trends of Die Casting Process and Application

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are added to improve the emulsion manufacturing process, e.g.

141:, which cast an entire line of type as a single unit, using a 2891: 2881: 1241:

Smooth cast surfaces (Ra 1–2.5 micrometres or 0.04–0.10 thou

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Typical die temperatures and life for various cast materials

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which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an

55: 1818:, The North American Die Casting Association, archived from 1654:, The North American Die Casting Association, archived from 1416: 2901: 2138: 2070: 1203: 1191: 1187: 963: 209: 179: 94: 78: 1372:. In a traditional die casting process these alloys would 2623: 2545:

Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),

1507:'s team first proposed this processing method during the 213: 102: 2591: 1400:

is used. It is identical to the standard process except

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minerals can cause surface defects and discontinuities.

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The most important material properties for the dies are

2162: 2150: 2043: 2276:"Idra introduces the world's largest die cast machine" 1860:… 105 kgs of molten aluminum … delivered in each shot. 1279:

The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high

1958:, City: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd, p. 234, 1254:

Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.

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When no porosity is allowed in a cast part then the

113:(by casting standards) and dimensional consistency. 73:

during the process. Most die castings are made from

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a large, California-based OEM of electric vehicles.

1432: 438:There are two basic types of die casting machines: 2544: 1111:a hole, polishing, plating, buffing, or painting. 1833: 240:As of 2008, maximum weight limits for aluminium, 2971: 2268: 1217:Historically, solvent-based lubricants, such as 62:. The mold cavity is created using two hardened 2125:(2nd ed.), ASM International, p. 76, 1190:. Other chemical additives are used to inhibit 602:, are used to cast intricate features, such as 490:Schematic of a cold-chamber die casting machine 224:reasons. Type metal, an alloy of lead, tin and 962:The main failure mode for die casting dies is 2708: 2670: 2009: 2007: 2624:Where to find Zinc Die Casting Manufacturer? 2508:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2409:"Low-pressure vs. high-pressure die casting" 2074:Energy Consumption of Die Casting Operations 1438:Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2291:capable to produce castings well beyond 80 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1723:"Aluminum Future Technology in Die Casting" 1481: 481: 2715: 2701: 2677: 2663: 2004: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 449: 2485: 2475: 2431: 2297: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1497: 1423:vacuum assisted high pressure die casting 1417:Vacuum-assisted high-pressure die casting 1264:as high as 415 megapascals (60 ksi). 367:Learn how and when to remove this message 51:process that is characterized by forcing 2563: 2547:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 2380: 2363: 2168: 2156: 2144: 2016: 1985: 1951: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1157:Today "water-in-oil" and "oil-in-water" 536: 528: 485: 453: 40:with aluminum and magnesium die castings 31: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1780: 1778: 1720: 1551: 462:Hot-chamber die casting, also known as 14: 2972: 2592:North American Die Casting Association 2332: 1839: 1701: 1470:uses metal that is heated between its 2696: 2658: 2602:General Die Casting Design Data Sheet 2530:, Materials Park: ASM International, 2525: 2047:Manufacturing processes and materials 2022: 1998: 1931: 1675: 1673: 2224: 2028: 1971: 1865: 1775: 1060:The following are the four steps in 349:adding citations to reliable sources 320: 2630:"ZINC DIE CASTING PROPERTIES GUIDE" 2292: 1955:Elements of Manufacturing Processes 1743: 1721:John L., Jorstad (September 2006), 1679: 24: 2612: 2443: 2425: 2335:"Vacuum High-Pressure die Casting" 2050:(4th ed.), SME, p. 186, 1670: 524: 458:Schematic of a hot-chamber machine 316: 25: 2991: 2650:Die Casting VS Investment Casting 2585: 2381:Campbell, John (August 6, 2015). 2180: 1548:For short-run zinc castings only. 1357:of the resistivity of the paper. 507:Open tooling and injection nozzle 159:The main die casting alloys are: 2684: 1602:"Die Casting vs Other Processes" 1433:Heated-manifold direct-injection 1427:vacuum high pressure die casting 1274: 512: 500: 325: 129:. The first die casting-related 2519: 2401: 2326: 2310: 2304: 2257:from the original on 2021-06-03 2233: 2218: 2207:from the original on 2019-02-27 2189: 2174: 2115:Avedesian, M. M.; Baker, Hugh; 2108: 2099: 2064: 2037: 1945: 1906: 1881: 1575: 1542: 1525:Fusible core injection moulding 1511:manufacturing process which is 1073: 336:needs additional citations for 2897:Semi-finished casting products 2122:Magnesium and magnesium alloys 1806: 1752: 1642: 1619: 1594: 13: 1: 1588: 1456: 1228: 1148: 1114: 584:Other die components include 549:. The cover die contains the 307:0.63 mm (0.025 in) 296:1.27 mm (0.050 in) 285:1.27 mm (0.050 in) 271:0.89 mm (0.035 in) 154: 2347:10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005276 2320:Bob McClintic and Associates 1631:, The Industrial Press, 1913 1628:Machinery's reference series 1442:direct-injection die casting 1391: 433: 7: 2722: 2570:, New York: Marcel Dekker, 2333:Butler, William A. (2008). 1952:Parashar, Nagendra (2002), 1840:Keller, Jeff (2021-01-12). 1680:Liu, Wen-Hai (2009-10-08), 1518: 1316: 1233:Advantages of die casting: 1162:Oils that are used include 147: 58:under high pressure into a 10: 2996: 1460: 1332:directional solidification 1118: 1055: 970:. Other failure modes are 116: 2914: 2864: 2813: 2730: 2692: 2397:– via Google Books. 2387:. Butterworth-Heinemann. 2080:, Ohio State University, 1398:pore-free casting process 1321: 1068:high-pressure die casting 760: 688: 663: 661:Aluminium & magnesium 660: 657: 652: 649: 1535: 1482:Low-pressure die casting 1463:Semi-solid metal casting 482:Cold-chamber die casting 173:The Aluminum Association 2980:Casting (manufacturing) 2567:Die Casting Engineering 2564:Andresen, Bill (2005), 2549:(9th ed.), Wiley, 2229:– via HTDC. 2008. 1732:: 18–25, archived from 1730:Die Casting Engineering 1353:was represented by the 1257:Rapid production rates. 1062:traditional die casting 450:Hot-chamber die casting 1498:Integrated die casting 1468:Semi-solid die casting 1446:runnerless die casting 1301:(through hardening or 998:Brass (leaded yellow) 542: 534: 491: 459: 41: 2954:Tools and terminology 2770:Investment (Lost wax) 1942:Degarmo, pp. 329-330. 1787:FAQ About Die Casting 1309:are not cast in dies. 540: 532: 519:Complete working cell 489: 457: 444:cold-chamber machines 234:slug casting machines 171:; aluminium to, e.g. 35: 27:Metal casting process 2341:. pp. 732–733. 2185:. 2005. 53(1): 7–10. 2105:Degarmo, p. 330-331. 2013:Degarmo, p. 329-331. 1351:thermal conductivity 1037:Casting temperature 658:Tin, lead & zinc 533:The ejector die half 440:hot-chamber machines 345:improve this article 230:letterpress printing 2753:Evaporative-pattern 2468:2023Mate...16.6235B 2413:Kurtz Ersa Magazine 2147:, pp. 356–358. 1342:(explained below). 983: 905:Plunger shot sleeve 664:Copper & brass 646: 143:die casting process 135:Ottmar Mergenthaler 2526:Davis, J. (1995), 2477:10.3390/ma16186235 2203:. 5 January 2018. 2183:Scripta Materialia 1794:on 21 October 2010 1658:on 21 October 2010 1164:heavy residual oil 1141:, and flow marks. 1135:shrinkage porosity 981: 818:DIN 1.2367 prehard 644: 543: 541:The cover die half 535: 492: 464:gooseneck machines 460: 75:non-ferrous metals 42: 2967: 2966: 2910: 2909: 2577:978-0-8247-5935-3 2537:978-0-87170-545-7 2356:978-1-62708-187-0 2132:978-0-87170-657-7 2117:ASM International 2057:978-0-87263-517-3 1965:978-81-203-1958-5 1651:About die casting 1053: 1052: 1003:Maximum die life 960: 959: 579:ejector pin plate 377: 376: 369: 314: 313: 293:Magnesium alloys 268:Aluminium alloys 220:applications for 127:printing industry 16:(Redirected from 2987: 2790:Semi-solid metal 2717: 2710: 2703: 2694: 2693: 2679: 2672: 2665: 2656: 2655: 2646: 2644: 2643: 2634: 2581: 2560: 2541: 2514: 2513: 2507: 2499: 2489: 2479: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2438: 2429: 2423: 2422: 2420: 2419: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2378: 2361: 2360: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2317: 2311:Bob, McClintic. 2308: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2256: 2245: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2222: 2216: 2215: 2213: 2212: 2193: 2187: 2186: 2178: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2112: 2106: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2079: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2041: 2035: 2034:Degarmo, p. 329. 2032: 2026: 2020: 2014: 2011: 2002: 1996: 1983: 1982:Degarmo, p. 330. 1980: 1969: 1968: 1949: 1943: 1940: 1929: 1928: 1926: 1925: 1916:. Archived from 1910: 1904: 1903: 1901: 1900: 1891:. Archived from 1885: 1879: 1878:Degarmo, p. 331. 1876: 1863: 1862: 1853: 1852: 1846:Foundry Magazine 1837: 1831: 1829: 1828: 1827: 1815:Alloy Properties 1810: 1804: 1802: 1801: 1799: 1790:, archived from 1782: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1756: 1750: 1749:Degarmo, p. 328. 1747: 1741: 1740: 1738: 1727: 1718: 1699: 1698: 1696: 1695: 1686:, archived from 1677: 1668: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1637: 1636: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1614: 1613: 1604:. Archived from 1598: 1582: 1579: 1573: 1570: 1549: 1546: 1440:, also known as 1336:thermal analysis 1262:tensile strength 1070: 1069: 1064:, also known as 1020:Die temperature 984: 980: 647: 643: 565:is cut into two 516: 504: 372: 365: 361: 358: 352: 329: 321: 260:Minimum section 254: 253: 139:Linotype machine 21: 2995: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2984: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2963: 2906: 2872:Casting defects 2860: 2809: 2726: 2721: 2688: 2683: 2641: 2639: 2632: 2628: 2615: 2613:Further reading 2588: 2578: 2557: 2538: 2522: 2517: 2501: 2500: 2448: 2444: 2436: 2432:Jon T. Carter. 2430: 2426: 2417: 2415: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2379: 2364: 2357: 2331: 2327: 2315: 2309: 2305: 2285: 2283: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2234: 2223: 2219: 2210: 2208: 2201:forcebeyond.com 2195: 2194: 2190: 2179: 2175: 2169:Andresen (2005) 2167: 2163: 2157:Andresen (2005) 2155: 2151: 2145:Andresen (2005) 2143: 2139: 2133: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2091: 2089: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1986: 1981: 1972: 1966: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1932: 1923: 1921: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1898: 1896: 1887: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1866: 1856:new project at 1850: 1848: 1838: 1834: 1825: 1823: 1812: 1811: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1784: 1783: 1776: 1767: 1765: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1744: 1736: 1725: 1719: 1702: 1693: 1691: 1678: 1671: 1661: 1659: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1634: 1632: 1625: 1624: 1620: 1611: 1609: 1600: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1585: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1552: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1521: 1500: 1484: 1465: 1459: 1435: 1419: 1394: 1340:squeeze casting 1324: 1319: 1277: 1231: 1212:ethylene oxides 1151: 1123: 1117: 1101:discontinuities 1067: 1066: 1058: 976:thermal fatigue 930: 925: 920: 915: 876: 871: 841: 836: 527: 525:Mold or tooling 520: 517: 508: 505: 484: 452: 436: 373: 362: 356: 353: 342: 330: 319: 317:Design geometry 157: 119: 77:, specifically 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 2993: 2983: 2982: 2965: 2964: 2962: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2912: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2817: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2775:Permanent mold 2772: 2767: 2766: 2765: 2760: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2727: 2720: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2697: 2690: 2689: 2682: 2681: 2674: 2667: 2659: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2626: 2621: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2587: 2586:External links 2584: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2561: 2555: 2542: 2536: 2528:Tool Materials 2521: 2518: 2516: 2515: 2442: 2424: 2400: 2393: 2362: 2355: 2325: 2303: 2267: 2232: 2217: 2188: 2173: 2171:, p. 356. 2161: 2159:, p. 355. 2149: 2137: 2131: 2107: 2098: 2086:10.2172/822409 2063: 2056: 2036: 2027: 2025:, p. 252. 2015: 2003: 2001:, p. 251. 1984: 1970: 1964: 1944: 1930: 1914:"Parting Line" 1905: 1880: 1864: 1832: 1805: 1774: 1751: 1742: 1739:on 2011-06-14. 1700: 1669: 1641: 1618: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1574: 1550: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1520: 1517: 1499: 1496: 1483: 1480: 1461:Main article: 1458: 1455: 1434: 1431: 1418: 1415: 1393: 1390: 1386:Ube Industries 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1310: 1303:case hardening 1294: 1291: 1288: 1276: 1273: 1272: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1239: 1230: 1227: 1208:alcohol esters 1198:. In addition 1150: 1147: 1121:Casting defect 1116: 1113: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1041: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1004: 1000: 999: 996: 993: 990: 987: 958: 957: 954: 951: 948: 945: 942: 937: 933: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 909: 906: 902: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 883: 879: 878: 873: 868: 865: 862: 859: 854: 850: 849: 846: 843: 838: 833: 830: 827: 823: 822: 819: 816: 813: 807: 804: 801: 797: 796: 794: 792: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 777: 774: 771: 768: 765: 762: 758: 757: 755: 753: 751: 749: 746: 742: 741: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 720: 719: 716: 710: 704: 701: 695: 690: 689:Cavity inserts 686: 685: 682: 679: 676: 673: 670: 666: 665: 662: 659: 655: 654: 651: 604:threaded holes 567:cavity inserts 526: 523: 522: 521: 518: 511: 509: 506: 499: 483: 480: 451: 448: 435: 432: 431: 430: 420: 414: 406: 398: 390: 375: 374: 333: 331: 324: 318: 315: 312: 311: 308: 305: 301: 300: 297: 294: 290: 289: 286: 283: 276: 275: 272: 269: 265: 264: 263:Minimum draft 261: 258: 238: 237: 207: 204:Silicon tombac 201: 195: 189: 183: 169:zinc aluminium 156: 153: 118: 115: 111:surface finish 71:injection mold 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2992: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2913: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2826:Cope and drag 2824: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2800:Shell molding 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2713: 2711: 2706: 2704: 2699: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2680: 2675: 2673: 2668: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2638: 2631: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2616: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2589: 2579: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2562: 2558: 2556:0-471-65653-4 2552: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2523: 2511: 2505: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2446: 2435: 2428: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2396: 2394:9780081001202 2390: 2386: 2385: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2321: 2314: 2307: 2300: 2282:on 2021-04-19 2281: 2277: 2271: 2253: 2249: 2242: 2236: 2228: 2221: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2197:"Die Casting" 2192: 2184: 2177: 2170: 2165: 2158: 2153: 2146: 2141: 2134: 2128: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2102: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2075: 2067: 2059: 2053: 2049: 2048: 2040: 2031: 2024: 2019: 2010: 2008: 2000: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1967: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1948: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1920:on 2021-10-26 1919: 1915: 1909: 1895:on 2021-10-23 1894: 1890: 1884: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1861: 1859: 1847: 1844:. Melt Pour. 1843: 1836: 1822:on 2013-06-06 1821: 1817: 1816: 1809: 1793: 1789: 1788: 1781: 1779: 1763: 1762: 1755: 1746: 1735: 1731: 1724: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1690:on 2012-03-14 1689: 1685: 1684: 1676: 1674: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1645: 1630: 1629: 1622: 1608:on 2016-09-23 1607: 1603: 1597: 1593: 1578: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1545: 1541: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1495: 1493: 1488: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1389: 1387: 1381: 1379: 1378:MIL-A-21180-D 1375: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1282: 1275:Disadvantages 1269: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176:synthetic oil 1173: 1172:vegetable fat 1169: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1122: 1112: 1110: 1105: 1102: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1063: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 1001: 997: 994: 991: 988: 986: 985: 979: 977: 973: 972:heat checking 969: 965: 955: 952: 949: 946: 943: 941: 938: 935: 934: 928: 923: 918: 913: 910: 907: 904: 903: 899: 896: 893: 890: 887: 884: 881: 880: 874: 869: 866: 863: 860: 858: 855: 852: 851: 847: 844: 839: 834: 831: 828: 825: 824: 820: 817: 814: 812: 808: 805: 802: 799: 798: 795: 793: 790: 787: 785: 783: 782: 778: 775: 772: 769: 766: 763: 759: 756: 754: 752: 750: 747: 744: 743: 739: 737:H20, H21, H22 736: 733: 730: 727: 725: 722: 721: 717: 714: 711: 709: 705: 702: 700: 696: 694: 691: 687: 683: 680: 677: 674: 671: 668: 667: 656: 650:Die component 648: 642: 640: 636: 632: 628: 627:machinability 624: 623:hardenability 620: 619:thermal shock 615: 613: 609: 608:parting lines 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 588: 582: 580: 576: 570: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 539: 531: 515: 510: 503: 498: 497: 496: 488: 479: 477: 476:melting point 473: 469: 465: 456: 447: 445: 441: 427: 425: 421: 418: 415: 412: 411: 407: 404: 403: 399: 396: 395: 391: 387: 386: 382: 381: 380: 371: 368: 360: 357:December 2017 350: 346: 340: 339: 334:This section 332: 328: 323: 322: 310:1:200 (0.3°) 309: 306: 303: 302: 299:1:100 (0.6°) 298: 295: 292: 291: 287: 284: 282: 278: 277: 274:1:100 (0.6°) 273: 270: 267: 266: 262: 259: 256: 255: 252: 250: 245: 243: 235: 231: 227: 223: 222:public health 219: 215: 211: 208: 205: 202: 199: 196: 193: 190: 187: 184: 181: 178: 177: 176: 174: 170: 166: 162: 152: 150: 149: 144: 140: 137:invented the 136: 132: 128: 124: 114: 112: 106: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 65: 61: 57: 54: 50: 49:metal casting 46: 39: 34: 30: 19: 2841:Molding sand 2795:Shaw process 2780:Plaster mold 2747: 2686:Metalworking 2640:. Retrieved 2636: 2566: 2546: 2527: 2520:Bibliography 2504:cite journal 2462:(18): 6235. 2459: 2455: 2445: 2427: 2416:. Retrieved 2412: 2403: 2383: 2338: 2328: 2319: 2306: 2290: 2284:. Retrieved 2280:the original 2270: 2259:. Retrieved 2247: 2235: 2226: 2220: 2209:. Retrieved 2200: 2191: 2182: 2176: 2164: 2152: 2140: 2121: 2110: 2101: 2090:, retrieved 2073: 2066: 2046: 2039: 2030: 2018: 1954: 1947: 1922:. Retrieved 1918:the original 1908: 1897:. Retrieved 1893:the original 1883: 1855: 1849:. Retrieved 1845: 1835: 1824:, retrieved 1820:the original 1814: 1808: 1796:, retrieved 1792:the original 1786: 1766:, retrieved 1764:, efunda Inc 1760: 1754: 1745: 1734:the original 1729: 1692:, retrieved 1688:the original 1682: 1660:, retrieved 1656:the original 1650: 1644: 1633:, retrieved 1627: 1621: 1610:. Retrieved 1606:the original 1596: 1577: 1544: 1530:Die-cast toy 1501: 1492:engine block 1489: 1485: 1467: 1466: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1407:heat treated 1397: 1395: 1382: 1363: 1359: 1344: 1325: 1281:capital cost 1278: 1232: 1216: 1156: 1152: 1142: 1124: 1106: 1098: 1065: 1061: 1059: 1049:1090 (2000) 975: 971: 961: 953:4140 prehard 947:4140 prehard 940:4140 prehard 936:Holder block 882:Ejector pins 639:alloy steels 616: 599: 591: 585: 583: 578: 575:ejector pins 574: 571: 566: 563:mould cavity 547:parting line 544: 493: 463: 461: 443: 439: 437: 422: 416: 408: 402:Parting line 400: 392: 383: 378: 363: 354: 343:Please help 338:verification 335: 304:Zinc alloys 288:1:80 (0.7°) 246: 239: 158: 146: 123:movable type 120: 107: 44: 43: 38:engine block 29: 2924:Fabrication 2865:Terminology 2738:Centrifugal 2248:web.wpi.edu 1761:Die Casting 1219:diesel fuel 1200:emulsifiers 1078:megapascals 826:Sprue parts 809:DIN 1.2367 653:Cast metal 631:tool steels 426:and windows 218:foodservice 60:mold cavity 45:Die casting 18:Die-casting 2944:Metallurgy 2814:Components 2743:Continuous 2642:2022-03-06 2637:eazall.com 2418:2023-12-10 2286:2020-04-20 2261:2021-06-03 2211:2021-06-03 2092:2010-10-15 2023:Davis 1995 1999:Davis 1995 1924:2016-09-16 1899:2016-09-16 1851:2021-01-18 1826:2008-04-12 1768:2008-04-12 1694:2010-10-19 1662:15 October 1635:2013-11-18 1612:2016-09-16 1589:References 1513:Giga Press 1457:Semi-solid 1355:reciprocal 1347:Teledeltos 1229:Advantages 1168:animal fat 1149:Lubricants 1143:Flow marks 1131:cold shuts 1119:See also: 1115:Inspection 1046:760 (1400) 1043:660 (1220) 1032:500 (950) 931:42–46 HRC 924:DIN 1.2367 916:DIN 1.2367 900:46–50 HRC 877:42–48 HRC 870:DIN 1.2367 848:42–46 HRC 845:DIN 1.2367 837:DIN 1.2367 821:37–40 HRC 788:DIN 1.2367 779:40–46 HRC 776:DIN 1.2367 740:44–48 HRC 718:38–44 HRC 633:, because 279:Brass and 155:Cast metal 64:tool steel 2939:Machining 2934:Jewellery 2763:Lost foam 2758:Full mold 2731:Processes 2456:Materials 1572:Nitrided. 1515:program. 1505:Elon Musk 1425:, a.k.a. 1392:Pore-free 1307:tempering 1299:hardening 1196:oxidation 1184:aluminium 1159:emulsions 1139:hot tears 1074:lubricant 1040:400 (760) 1029:260 (500) 1026:288 (550) 1023:218 (425) 1006:1,000,000 995:Magnesium 992:Aluminium 929:42–46 HRC 921:42–48 HRC 919:42–48 HRC 911:46–50 HRC 894:46–50 HRC 888:46–50 HRC 875:40–44 HRC 867:42–48 HRC 861:40–44 HRC 842:44–46 HRC 840:46–48 HRC 832:48–52 HRC 815:37–40 HRC 806:48–52 HRC 800:Core pins 791:42–48 HRC 773:44–48 HRC 767:46–52 HRC 748:46–50 HRC 734:42–48 HRC 728:46–50 HRC 684:Hardness 635:cast iron 600:pick-outs 472:hydraulic 468:pneumatic 434:Equipment 429:features. 192:Magnesium 186:Aluminium 151:process. 91:magnesium 87:aluminium 2974:Category 2949:Smithing 2496:37763513 2487:10532891 2252:Archived 2205:Archived 2119:(1999), 1798:12 April 1519:See also 1472:liquidus 1450:manifold 1317:Variants 1260:Casting 1223:kerosene 1180:graphite 956:~300 HB 697:290–330 681:Material 678:Hardness 675:Material 672:Hardness 669:Material 596:undercut 226:antimony 125:for the 2959:Welding 2929:Forming 2919:Casting 2887:Foundry 2846:Pattern 2724:Casting 2464:Bibcode 2339:Casting 1889:"Draft" 1476:solidus 1328:acronym 1192:rusting 1166:(HRO), 1127:misruns 1109:tapping 1086:runners 1056:Process 1015:10,000 1012:100,000 1009:100,000 968:erosion 950:~300 HB 944:~300 HB 811:prehard 165:ferrous 117:History 2574: 2553: 2534: 2494: 2484: 2391: 2353: 2129: 2054: 1962: 1411:welded 1402:oxygen 1374:solder 1322:Acurad 1305:) and 1238:inch). 1090:sprues 853:Nozzle 715:1.2367 706:42–48 612:risers 592:slides 559:platen 555:runner 410:Bosses 394:Fillet 281:bronze 257:Metal 198:Copper 148:Acurad 131:patent 101:, and 99:pewter 83:copper 53:molten 2892:Ingot 2882:Dross 2877:Draft 2856:Sprue 2851:Riser 2836:Flask 2821:Chill 2633:(PDF) 2437:(PDF) 2316:(PDF) 2298:m/sec 2255:(PDF) 2244:(PDF) 2078:(PDF) 1737:(PDF) 1726:(PDF) 1536:Notes 1509:Tesla 1094:flash 761:Cores 587:cores 551:sprue 470:- or 424:Holes 385:Draft 249:draft 242:brass 56:metal 47:is a 2902:Slag 2831:Core 2805:Spin 2785:Sand 2572:ISBN 2551:ISBN 2532:ISBN 2510:link 2492:PMID 2389:ISBN 2351:ISBN 2127:ISBN 2052:ISBN 1960:ISBN 1800:2008 1664:2010 1474:and 1409:and 1370:A357 1368:and 1366:A356 1221:and 1204:soap 1194:and 1188:mica 1129:and 1092:and 1082:gate 989:Zinc 974:and 964:wear 590:and 442:and 417:Ribs 212:and 210:Lead 180:Zinc 161:zinc 95:lead 79:zinc 67:dies 2748:Die 2482:PMC 2472:doi 2343:doi 2293:kgs 2082:doi 1444:or 1421:In 1405:be 1243:rms 966:or 926:H13 914:H13 908:H13 897:H13 891:H13 885:H13 872:H13 864:H13 857:420 835:H13 829:H13 803:H13 770:H13 764:H13 745:H13 731:H11 724:H11 713:DIN 708:HRC 703:H13 693:P20 347:by 214:tin 103:tin 36:An 2976:: 2635:. 2506:}} 2502:{{ 2490:. 2480:. 2470:. 2460:16 2458:. 2454:. 2411:. 2365:^ 2349:. 2337:. 2318:. 2289:. 2250:. 2246:. 2199:. 2006:^ 1987:^ 1973:^ 1933:^ 1867:^ 1854:. 1777:^ 1728:, 1703:^ 1672:^ 1553:^ 1380:. 1245:). 1214:. 1210:, 1206:, 1186:, 1182:, 1174:, 1170:, 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