Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest

253:

saline and crushed ice are used to induce a state of hypothermia to the patient. These techniques are inexpensive but lack the precision needed to maintain target temperatures and require careful monitoring. It has been proven to help prevent undesirable rewarming of the brain during DHCA. Hospitals and emergency medical services commonly use surface cooling systems that circulate cold air or water around blankets or pads. Advantages of this method are accuracy of cooling due to auto-regulating temperature control, feedback probes, applicable in non-hospital settings, and non-complexity of use. Drawbacks to surface cooling systems is skin irritation, shivering and rate of cooling. Intravascular cooling systems regulate temperature from inside veins such as the femoral, sub-clavian, or internal jugular to reduce adverse effects that external cooling methods cause. This method is unparalleled in achieving and maintaining the target temperature desired. The use of continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) has proven effective in the induction of hypothermia as an intravascular cooling system.

320:

functions of the liver, kidney, brain, pancreas, intestines and smooth muscles due to cellular damage. Permanent neurological injury has been seen in 3-12% of patients when using DHCA. Cases of partial or complete limb motor loss, impaired language, visual defects, and cognitive decline have all been reported as consequences of DHCA. Other neurological complications are increase risk for seizures postoperative due to delayed return of cellular blood flow to the brain. When compared to Moderate Hypothermia (temperature dropped to 26-31 °C), there was less bleeding volume experienced during surgery thus leading to less use of packed red blood cells or plasma post surgery. Longer recovery time postoperatively have been noted with DHCA as compared to Moderate Hypothermia, but the length of hospital stay and death has no correlated difference. Most patients can tolerate 30 minutes of DHCA without significant neurological dysfunction or adverse effects, but after an extended period of 40 minutes or more, prevalence of increased brain injury have been noted.

312:

37 °C, there is an increased association with severe disability, coma, or vegetative states. Excessive rewarming with temperatures above 37 °C can increase the risk of cerebral ischemia secondary to the increased oxygen demand that occurs with rapid rewarming. Several theories have been proposed, with one being during re-warming, the body releases increasing catecholamines which increase heat production leading to a loss of thermoregulation. Hyperthermia in the preperfusion period can also be caused by an increase in the production of oxygen radicals, which influences brain metabolism. These oxygen radicals attack cell membranes, leading to a disruption of intracellular organelles and subsequent cellular death.

223:, also called electrocerebral silence (ECS). Instead of a continuous decrease in activity as the brain is cooled, electrical activity decreases in discontinuous steps. In the human brain, a type of reduced activity called burst suppression occurs at a mean temperature of 24 °C, and electrocerebral silence occurs at a mean temperature of 18 °C. The achievement of measured electrocerebral silence has been called "a safe and reliable guide" for determining cooling required for individual patients, and verification of electrocerebral silence is required prior to stopping blood circulation to begin a DHCA procedure. 141:, Gollan, Lewis's colleague, Niazi, and others that temperatures near 0 °C could be survived by mammals, and that colder temperature permitted the brain to survive longer circulatory arrest times, even beyond one hour. Humans had survived cooling to 9 °C, and circulatory arrest of 45 minutes, using external cooling only. However, reaching such low temperatures by external cooling was difficult and hazardous. At temperatures below 24 °C, the human heart is prone to 270:

decreasing the release of inflammatory cytokines. Glucose is eliminated from all intravenous solutions to reduce the risk of hyperglycemia. In order for accurate hemodynamic monitoring, arterial monitoring is typically placed in the femoral or radial artery. Temperature taken from two separate sites, typically the bladder and nasopharynx, is used to estimate brain and body temperatures. Cardioplegic drugs may be administered to ensure the heart stops beating completely (

2494:

impossible to resuscitate victims of truncal internal exsanguination to cardiac arrest, which occurs over a few minutes, because the surgery required for stopping the hemorrhage cannot be performed rapidly enough in the field. Bellamy and Safar recommended research into a new approach: "suspended animation" for preservation of the organism until hemostasis, followed by delayed resuscitation. Pharmacologic and hypothermic preservation potentials seemed worth exploring.

265:(CPB), a procedure that uses an external heart-lung machine that can artificially replace the function of the heart and lungs. A portion of the circulating blood supply is removed and stored for later replacement, with the remaining blood diluted by added fluids with the objective of reducing viscosity and clotting tendencies at cold temperature. The remaining diluted blood is cooled by the heart-lung machine until 34:) to 25 °C (77 °F)) and blood circulation is stopped for up to one hour. It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped because of delicate surgery within the brain, or because of surgery on large blood vessels that lead to or from the brain. DHCA is used to provide a better visual field during surgery due to the cessation of blood flow. DHCA is a form of carefully managed 274:), which is protective of both the heart and brain when circulation is later stopped. Cooling continues until the brain is inactivated by the cold, and electrocerebral silence (flatline EEG) is attained. The blood pump is then switched off, and the interval of circulatory arrest begins. At this time more blood is drained to reduce residual blood pressure if surgery on a 2092: 244:) as part of a hypothermic circulatory arrest experiment to treat cancer in 1957. This temperature was reached without surgery, using external cooling alone. Similar low temperatures are expected to be reached in emergency preservation and resuscitation (EPR) clinical trials described in the Research section of this article. 385:). By remaining in circulatory arrest at temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F), it is believed that surgeons have one to two hours to fix injuries before circulation must be restarted. Surgeons involved with this research have said that EPR changes the definition of death for victims of this type of trauma. 2762:

Rapid central arterial access is obtained and profound (<10 °C) hypothermia induced with aortic infusion of cold saline; during this window of up to 1 h, damage control surgical techniques are applied to control hemorrhage and repair injuries, followed by controlled rewarming and reperfusion using

311:

The use of hypothermia following cardiac arrest shows increased likelihood of survival. It is the re-warming period that, if not controlled properly, can have detrimental effects. Hyperthermia during the re-warming period shows unfavorable neurologic outcomes. For each degree the body is warmed above

269:

causes the heart to stop beating normally, after which the blood pump of the heart-lung machine continues blood circulation through the body. Corticosteroids are typically given 6–8 hours before surgery as it has shown to have neuroprotective properties to decrease risk of neurological dysfunction by

235:

Mild hypothermia (32 °C to 34 °C) and moderate hypothermia (26 °C to 31 °C) are contraindicated for hypothermic circulatory arrest because 100% and 75% of people respectively will not achieve electrocerebral silence in these temperature ranges. Consequently, safe circulatory

2374:

During the period just before CPB, thiopental or propofol is titrated in small (50–100 mg) doses to achieve burst-suppression pattern on the raw EEG signal. A continuous infusion is established to maintain the EEG pattern during normothermia. Once cooling begins, the infusion is left constant at the

1109:

In these early experiments, a common theme was to avoid ventricular fibrillation or at least to correct it as soon as it developed. We must remember this, as in the current era of cardiopulmonary bypass, we are immune to the impact of ventricular fibrillation, which is expected as part-and-parcel of

145:

and stopping. This can begin circulatory arrest before the brain has reached a safe temperature. Cardiopulmonary bypass machines allow blood circulation and cooling to continue below the temperature at which the heart stops working. By cooling blood directly, cardiopulmonary bypass also cools people

703:

DHCA is used for open heart procedures where the ability to perfuse the brain through the head vessels is not possible with standard proximal aorta cannulation. Repairs of the aortic arch, congenital repairs involving the aortic arch, repairs to the head and neck great vessels, or neurosurgical and

353:

has already occurred and bleeding remains uncontrolled. Safar and Bellamy proposed flushing cold solution through blood vessels of patients with deadly bleeding, and leaving them in a state of cold circulatory arrest with the heart stopped until the cause of bleeding could be surgically repaired to

252:

Since the benefits of hypothermia were discovered there have been numerous methods used to cool the body to desired temperatures. Hippocrates used snow and ice to surface cool wounded patients to prevent excessive bleeding. This method would fall under conventional cooling techniques, in which cold

1056:

In the 1960s, a young, intelligent, and creative Soviet cardiac surgeon - Professor Eugene N. Meshalkin, who worked in the city Novosibirsk, in central Siberia - started using hypothermia to make possible the treatment of ventricular septal defect and atrioventricular canal. It is reported that he

612:

Most patients tolerate 30 min of DHCA without significant neurological dysfunction, but when this is extended to longer than 40 min, there is a marked increase in the incidence of brain injury. Above 60 min, the majority of patients will suffer irreversible brain injury, although there are still a

129:

in the United States during the 1950s allowed the heart to be stopped for surgery without having to stop circulation to the rest of the body. Cooling more than a few degrees was no longer needed for heart surgery. Thereafter, the only surgeries that required stopping blood circulation to the whole

41:

When blood circulation stops at normal body temperature (37 °C), permanent damage occurs in only a few minutes. More damage occurs after circulation is restored. Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived. At a brain temperature of 14 °C, blood

1312:

It is evident that a number of homeothermic animals, including man, can tolerate cooling to body temperatures near freezing-temperatures attained regularly by true hibernators. Unlike the hibernators, however, the warm-blooded animals are brought through the lower temperature ranges in a state of

1259:

Following the publication of work by Andjus in 1951, in which adult rats had been resuscitated after cooling to 1°C, a good deal of attention has been paid to methods of body cooling down to near freezing.... More recently, larger mammals have been cooled to body temperatures between 10° and 0°C.

298:

for the entirety of the DHCA procedure until emergence from anesthesia. Hypothermic perfusion is maintained for 10–20 minutes while on CPB before rewarming as to reduce the risk of increased intracranial pressure. Warming must be done carefully to avoid overshooting normal body temperature. It is

2813:

When hemorrhage has progressed to cardiac arrest, induction of profound hypothermia can (1) maintain viability of critical organs (including brain) during prolonged periods (up to 120 minutes) of no (or very low) flow, (2) attenuate reperfusion injury, and (3) improve survival and decrease organ

1981:

Merchant, Raina M.; Abella, Benjamin S.; Peberdy, Mary Ann; Soar, Jasmeet; Ong, Marcus E. H.; Schmidt, Gregory A.; Becker, Lance B.; Vanden Hoek, Terry L. (December 2006). "Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: unintentional overcooling is common using ice packs and conventional cooling

1915:

The lowest reported core body temperatures in patients with full neurologic recovery are slightly less than 14°C (57°F) in a case of accidental hypothermia(40) and 9°C (48°F) in a case of induced hypothermia.(58)... 58. Niazi SA, Lewis FJ. Profound hypothermia in man: report of a case. Ann Surg

319:

Although DHCA is necessary for some procedures, the use of anesthesia can provide optimum operation time and organ protection but can also have serious impacts on cellular demand, brain cells, and serious systemic inflammatory results. Possible disadvantages of DHCA includes alteration in organ

2411:

Excessively rapid rewarming with perfusion temperatures >37°C may induce cerebral ischaemia secondary to an imbalance between oxygen supply and demand. Similarly, cerebral hyperthermia should be avoided as this may exacerbate neurological injury and increase the risk of adverse neurological

340:

from traumatic injuries to the trunk of the body. Exsanguination is blood loss severe enough to cause death. Until the 1980s, it had been thought impossible to resuscitate people whose heart stopped because of blood loss, resulting in these people being declared dead when cardiac resuscitation

315:

Virtually all patients who undergo DHCA develop impaired glucose metabolism and require insulin to control blood sugars. Thrombocytopenia and clotting factor deficiencies prove to be a significant cause of early death after DHCA. Careful monitoring intra-procedure and post-procedure is needed.

1214:

A physiologist named Frank Gollan worked in the 1950s using hypothermia and an oxygenator of his own invention, and presented his work in 1955. Gollan made an important step in that his bubble oxygenator included a heat exchange device, whereby he could induce hypothermia as well as carry out

2493:

In 1984, U.S. Army surgeon Ronald Bellamy and anesthesiologist Peter Safar met and discussed the pathophysiology of rapid death in combat casualties killed in action. Similar patterns have been observed in civilian victims of penetrating truncal injuries. Until the 1980s it had been thought

85:

demonstrated in animal models that the length of time the brain could survive stopped blood circulation could be extended from 3 minutes to 10 minutes by cooling to 30 °C before circulation was stopped. He found that this time could be extended to 15 to 24 minutes at temperatures below

236:

arrest times for mild and moderate hypothermia are only 10 and 20 minutes respectively. While moderate hypothermia may be satisfactory for short surgeries, deep hypothermia (20 °C to 25 °C) affords protection for times of 30 to 40 minutes at the bottom of this temperature range.

42:

circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes. There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes, but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it. Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults.

77:

for medical purposes dates back to Hippocrates, who advocated packing snow and ice into wounds to reduce hemorrhage. The origin of hypothermia and neuroprotection was also observed in infants who were exposed to cold due to abandonment and the prolonged viability of these infants.

2217:

Spontaneous atrial fibrillation may occur below 30°C, and continuous ventricular fibrillation frequently occurs below 28°C. To prevent myocardial ischemic injury, persistent ventricular fibrillation should be terminated by the administration of potassium chloride (KCl), 20 to 60

226:

Secondary to conservation of local energy resources by metabolic slowing and brain inactivation, hypothermia also protects the brain from injury by other mechanisms during stopped blood circulation. These include reduction of free radicals and immune-inflammatory processes.

2154:

During craniotomy and dural opening, platelet-rich plasma and red blood cells can be harvested for postbypass reinfusion to aid in the return of normal coagulation status. Euvolemia is maintained by replacing the amount of blood withdrawn with an equal volume of

1968:

In a 51-year-old woman widespread, metastatic ovarian carcinoma was treated by body cooling to a rectal temperature of 9°C. (48°F.). This low temperature was reached, as planned, during cardiac standstill which lasted for one hour, yet the immediate recovery was

949:

Bigelow and colleagues continued to study hypothermia and hibernation and learned that a groundhog could be cooled to a body temperature of 5°C and be revived. This temperature allowed circulatory arrest with a cardiotomy procedure lasting 2 hours without ill

2876:

After we did those experiments, the definition of 'dead' changed," says Rhee. "Every day at work I declare people dead. They have no signs of life, no heartbeat, no brain activity. I sign a piece of paper knowing in my heart that they are not actually

2191:

During hypothermia, the combination of increased plasma viscosity, erythrocyte rigidity, and progressive vasoconstriction leads to impairment of the microcirculation. Haemodilution, typically to a haematocrit of 20%, is thought to improve flow in the

90:

could endure two hours of stopped blood circulation without ill effects. This research was motivated by a desire to stop the heart from beating long enough to do surgery on the heart while it remained still. Since heart-lung machines, also known as

153:

performed the first brain surgery using DHCA, a tumor resection, at a brain temperature of 11 °C and esophageal temperature of 4 °C. This was quickly followed by use of DHCA by Alfred Uihlein and other surgeons for treatment of large

1615: 1549:

Although reports of the use of CPB-induced hypothermia and DHCA to facilitate aortic arch surgery appeared in the 1960s, it was Griepp, in 1975, who demonstrated that the technique offered a practical and safe approach for aortic arch

1414:

Fay abandoned attempts to induce hypothermic levels below 24°C because of "fibrillation and cardiac failure" and reported 11 deaths due to sudden cardiac failure among 19 deaths in 169 episodes of general body refrigeration in 124

239:

Profound hypothermia (< 14 °C) usually isn't used clinically. It is a subject of research in animals and human clinical trials. As of 2012, the lowest body temperature ever survived by a human being was 9 °C

281:

After surgery is completed during the period of cold circulatory arrest, these steps are reversed. The brain and heart naturally resume activity as warming proceeds. The first activity of the warming heart is sometimes

2431:

Sun X, Yang H, Li X, Wang Y, Zhang C, Song Z, Pan Z (January 2018). "Randomized controlled trial of moderate hypothermia versus deep hypothermia anesthesia on brain injury during Stanford A aortic dissection surgery".

687: 866:

The team performed further research on Macacus Rhesus monkeys, once again using cooling blankets, this time to below 20°C; 11 of 12 monkeys cooled to temperatures between 16 and 19°C survived between 15 and 24

814:

In pioneering experiments conducted in the 1940s and 1950s, Bigelow demonstrated that at 30°C, the 'safe' period of cerebral ischaemia could be increased from 3 to 10 min—time enough for expeditious surgery.

1650:

Stecker MM, Cheung AT, Pochettino A, Kent GP, Patterson T, Weiss SJ, Bavaria JE (January 2001). "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest: I. Effects of cooling on electroencephalogram and evoked potentials".

1686:

Mizrahi EM, Patel VM, Crawford ES, Coselli JS, Hess KR (January 1989). "Hypothermic-induced electrocerebral silence, prolonged circulatory arrest, and cerebral protection during cardiovascular surgery".

2375:

normothermic rate. Alpha-stat PaCO2 management is used. During circulatory arrest, the drug infusion used for EEG burst-suppression is interrupted and then restarted at the same rate during rewarming.

1622: 303:

is associated with adverse outcomes. Patients are completely rewarmed before discontinuing CPB, but temperature remain labile despite rewarming efforts which requires close monitoring in the ICU.

137:

Cardiopulmonary bypass machines were essential to the development of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest (DHCA) in humans. By 1959, it was known from the animal experiments of Bigelow, Andjus and

2688: 130:

body ("total circulatory arrest") were surgeries involving blood supply to the brain. The only heart surgeries that continued to require total circulatory arrest were repairs to the

1830:

Yan TD, Bannon PG, Bavaria J, Coselli JS, Elefteriades JA, Griepp RB, Hughes GC, LeMaire SA, Kazui T, Kouchoukos NT, Misfeld M, Mohr FW, Oo A, Svensson LG, Tian DH (March 2013).

1778:

Yan TD, Bannon PG, Bavaria J, Coselli JS, Elefteriades JA, Griepp RB, Hughes GC, LeMaire SA, Kazui T, Kouchoukos NT, Misfeld M, Mohr FW, Oo A, Svensson LG, Tian DH (March 2013).

536:

Yan TD, Bannon PG, Bavaria J, Coselli JS, Elefteriades JA, Griepp RB, Hughes GC, LeMaire SA, Kazui T, Kouchoukos NT, Misfeld M, Mohr FW, Oo A, Svensson LG, Tian DH (March 2013).

377:

for less than five minutes duration from blood loss are being cooled from normal body temperature of 37 °C to less than 10 °C by pumping a large quantity of ice-cold

2775:

Alam HB, Pusateri AE, Kindzelski A, Egan D, Hoots K, Andrews MT, Rhee P, Tisherman S, Mann K, Vostal J, Kochanek PM, Scalea T, Deal V, Sheppard F, Sopko G (October 2012).

2506:

Alam HB, Pusateri AE, Kindzelski A, Egan D, Hoots K, Andrews MT, Rhee P, Tisherman S, Mann K, Vostal J, Kochanek PM, Scalea T, Deal V, Sheppard F, Sopko G (October 2012).

1313:

cardiac standstill which may usually last up to two and one half hours, though as long as four hours has been tolerated in the rat (one hour in the patient reported here).

2658: 2570:

This concept, first described in the literature by Samuel Tisherman, MD, FCCM, from the University of Pittsburgh (Tisherman et al. J Trauma. 1990;30:836), was called

704:

pulmonary endarterectomies may require DHCA. Inability to clamp the distal arch, secondary to severe aortic atheromas, may also require DHCA to minimize stroke risk.

2270:

When the brain temperature reaches 15°C, the circulation is arrested and blood is drained through the venous cannula until the cerebral vasculature appears relaxed.

328:

One of the anticipated medical uses of long circulatory arrest times, or so-called clinical suspended animation, is treatment of traumatic injury. In 1984

98:

The first heart surgery using hypothermia to provide a longer time that blood circulation through the whole body could be safely stopped was performed by

2692: 932: 290:

to re-establish a normal beating rhythm. Except for the period of complete inactivation just prior to and during the circulatory arrest interval,

1713:

These data suggest that ECS is a safe and reliable guide for determining the appropriate level of hypothermia during cardiovascular procedures.

2858: 2827: 2630: 433:"Neurologic Injury Associated with Rewarming from Hypothermia: Is Mild Hypothermia on Bypass Better than Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest?" 122:

during the 1960s. In these procedures, cooling was accomplished externally by applying cold water or melting ice to the surface of the body.

919:

Bigelow et al. used groundhogs cooled below 5°C (as in their natural hibernating state), operated, and successfully revived 5 of 6 animals.

373:

for Cardiac Arrest from Trauma (EPR-CAT), or EPR. It is presently undergoing human clinical trials. In the trials, patients who experience

2322:

Spontaneous cardiac rhythm usually reappears between 20 and 26°C. If present, ventricular fibrillation may be electrically cardioverted.

197:) and oxygen needed to produce energy. Cold therefore extends the length of time that cells can maintain homeostasis and avoid damaging 2845:

The patient will be disconnected from all machinery and taken to an operating room where surgeons have up to 2 hours to fix the injury.

1883: 1162:

Laboratory animals (mice, rats, hamsters, dogs and monkeys) have been cooled to levels of 10 to -5°C. with encouraging survival rates.

336:

and U.S. Army surgeon Ronald Bellamy proposed suspended animation by hypothermic circulatory arrest as a way of saving people who had

205:

by conserving local resources when blood circulation is stopped and unable to deliver fresh oxygen and glucose to make more energy.

2736:

Kutcher ME, Forsythe RM, Tisherman SA (September 2016). "Emergency preservation and resuscitation for cardiac arrest from trauma".

2594:

Kutcher ME, Forsythe RM, Tisherman SA (September 2016). "Emergency preservation and resuscitation for cardiac arrest from trauma".

409: 370: 1057:

even approached tetralogy of Fallot and implanted prosthetic mitral and aortic valves under intervals of arrest with hypothermia.

2666: 95:(CPB), had not been invented yet, stopping the heart meant stopping blood circulation to the whole body, including the brain. 114:

in a 5-year-old girl during 5 minutes of total circulatory arrest at 28 °C. Many similar procedures were performed by

2476: 1638:

approximately 60% of CMRO2 is utilized for neuronal function (with the remainder being required for cellular integrity)

2899: 2486: 942: 174:, in 1975, is generally credited with demonstrating DHCA as a safe and practical approach for aortic arch surgery. 399: 369:

The process of cooling people with fatal bleeding for surgical repair and later resuscitation was finally called

58: 1818:

At 28 °C, 99-100% of patients have not achieved ECS, while at 20.1 °C, 75-98% of patients have not achieved ECS.

1260:

Niazi and Lewis (1957) have cooled dogs and monkeys to these temperatures and successfully resuscitated them.

219:

A key principle of DHCA is total inactivation of the brain by cooling, as verified by "flatline" isoelectric

1215:

rewarming. He was able to achieve measured core temperatures of 4°C and published revival of the animals.

54: 2554: 2035:"Temperature control in critically ill patients with a novel esophageal cooling device: a case series" 1478:"The history and present status of deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest in cerebrovascular surgery" 1725: 625: 107: 26:) is a surgical technique in which the temperature of the body falls significantly (between 20 355: 283: 150: 103: 208:

Normally 60% of brain oxygen utilization (CMRO2) consists of energy generation for the neuronal

262: 220: 213: 194: 126: 92: 82: 2336:"Anesthetic management of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest for cerebral aneurysm clipping" 2284:"Anesthetic management of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest for cerebral aneurysm clipping" 2232:"Anesthetic management of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest for cerebral aneurysm clipping" 2116:"Anesthetic management of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest for cerebral aneurysm clipping" 275: 155: 50: 299:

recommended that rewarming is stopped once the body is warmed to 37 °C. Post-operative

202: 111: 1870:

Moderate HCA between 20.1-28 °C only affords approximately 10-20 minutes of safe HCA time.

1429:"Craniotomy under conditions of quinidine-protected cardioplegia and profound hypothermia" 1376:"Craniotomy under conditions of quinidine-protected cardioplegia and profound hypothermia" 1124:"Craniotomy under conditions of quinidine-protected cardioplegia and profound hypothermia" 8: 2715:"Emergency Preservation and Resuscitation (EPR) for Cardiac Arrest From Trauma (EPR-CAT)" 2204: 404: 1847: 1795: 1582: 1033: 553: 2804: 2535: 2457: 2365: 2313: 2261: 2145: 2069: 2034: 2015: 1995: 1954: 1929: 1856: 1831: 1804: 1779: 1591: 1566: 1507: 1453: 1428: 1400: 1375: 1351: 1326: 1298: 1273: 1200: 1175: 1148: 1123: 1095: 1070: 1042: 1017: 993: 968: 905: 880: 852: 827: 767: 732: 562: 537: 459: 432: 163: 1664: 2796: 2776: 2753: 2611: 2527: 2507: 2482: 2449: 2357: 2352: 2335: 2305: 2300: 2283: 2253: 2248: 2231: 2137: 2132: 2115: 2074: 2056: 2033:

Hegazy, Ahmed F.; Lapierre, Danielle M.; Butler, Ron; Althenayan, Eyad (2015-10-19).

2007: 1999: 1959: 1945: 1906: 1861: 1809: 1704: 1700: 1668: 1596: 1499: 1458: 1444: 1405: 1391: 1356: 1342: 1303: 1289: 1250: 1205: 1153: 1139: 1100: 1047: 998: 938: 910: 857: 772: 754: 567: 464: 378: 346: 342: 295: 241: 171: 31: 2808: 2539: 2461: 2369: 2317: 2265: 2149: 2019: 1511: 2894: 2788: 2745: 2689:"EMERGENCY PRESERVATION AND RESUSCITATION FOR CARDIAC ARREST FROM TRAUMA (EPR-CAT)" 2603: 2519: 2441: 2400: 2347: 2295: 2243: 2180: 2127: 2064: 2046: 1991: 1949: 1941: 1898: 1851: 1843: 1799: 1791: 1696: 1660: 1586: 1578: 1538: 1489: 1477: 1448: 1440: 1395: 1387: 1346: 1338: 1293: 1285: 1240: 1195: 1187: 1143: 1135: 1090: 1082: 1037: 1029: 988: 980: 900: 892: 847: 839: 803: 762: 744: 663: 601: 557: 549: 516: 454: 444: 209: 198: 2714: 674:

Longer periods of DHCA are tolerated in neonates and infants compared with adults.

1763:

Singh A (October 2011). "Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest: Current Concepts".

1191: 1086: 984: 896: 843: 576:

HCA at 14 °C is also reported to provide at least 30-40 minutes of safe HCA time.

186: 167: 2792: 2523: 2777:"Hypothermia and hemostasis in severe trauma: A new crossroads workshop report" 2749: 2607: 2508:"Hypothermia and hemostasis in severe trauma: A new crossroads workshop report" 2405: 2388: 2185: 2168: 1543: 1526: 1176:"The History of Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest in Thoracic Aortic Surgery" 1071:"The History of Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest in Thoracic Aortic Surgery" 969:"The History of Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest in Thoracic Aortic Surgery" 881:"The History of Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest in Thoracic Aortic Surgery" 828:"The History of Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest in Thoracic Aortic Surgery" 808: 791: 668: 651: 606: 589: 521: 504: 394: 374: 350: 337: 182: 149:

In 1959, using cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), Barnes Woodhall and colleagues at

35: 27: 2445: 2051: 749: 2888: 2863: 2832: 2635: 2060: 2003: 758: 287: 99: 1494: 733:"Cooling techniques for targeted temperature management post-cardiac arrest" 449: 2800: 2757: 2615: 2531: 2453: 2361: 2309: 2257: 2141: 2078: 2011: 1963: 1910: 1865: 1813: 1672: 1600: 1503: 1462: 1409: 1360: 1307: 1254: 1209: 1157: 1104: 1051: 1002: 914: 861: 776: 571: 468: 300: 193:. Cold reduces the metabolic rate of cells, which conserves energy stores ( 159: 142: 138: 115: 1902: 1708: 1245: 1228: 931:

Gravlee, Glenn P; Davis, Richard F; Hammon, John; Kussman, Barry (2015).

333: 291: 266: 190: 131: 119: 74: 46: 934:

Cardiopulmonary Bypass and Mechanical Support: Principles and Practice

87: 62: 1616:"Update on Techniques for Neuroprotection during Hypothermic Arrest" 271: 146:

faster than surface cooling, even if the heart is not functioning.

86:

20 °C. He further found that at a temperature of 5 °C,

688:"Anesthetic Management for Deep Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest" 2032: 731:

Vaity, Charudatt; Al-Subaie, Nawaf; Cecconi, Maurizio (2015).

278:

is to be performed to help create a bloodless surgical field.

2393: