33:
530:, criticizes Alexander's assertion that the Drug War, including sentencing disparities for crack, is responsible for mass incarceration. Among his findings are that drug offenders make up only a small part of the prison population, and non-violent drug offenders an even smaller portion; that people convicted of violent crimes make up the majority of prisoners; that county and state justice systems account for the large majority of American prisoners and not the federal system that handles most drug cases; and, subsequently, "national" statistics tell a distorted story when differences in enforcement, conviction, and sentencing are widely disparate between states and counties.
332:, a crack index was calculated using information on cocaine-related arrests, deaths, and drug raids, along with low birth rates and media coverage in the United States. The crack index aimed to create a proxy for the percentage of cocaine related incidents that involved crack. Crack was an almost unknown drug until 1985. This abrupt introductory date allows for the estimation and use of the index with the knowledge that values prior to 1985 are essentially zero. This index showed that the Northeast U.S. was most affected by the crack epidemic. The U.S. cities with the highest crack index were
393:
452:
156:. This achieves a lower melting point and when heated with a lighter, the vapors are inhaled (but the substance was dangerously flammable). A less volatile but similar process was developed by dealers around 1980 where street cocaine is dissolved in a solution of water and baking soda and then dried out into "crack rocks". As the rocks are heated, it makes a crackling sound and this is how the substance got its name. It was not until 1985 after an article in
301:
572:
communities in which these drug users lived, just like other drug dealers of their magnitude. They also contributed some money to the Contra cause. But we did not find that their activities were the cause of the crack epidemic in Los
Angeles, much less in the United States as a whole, or that they were a significant source of support for the Contras."
512:
was an effective way to imprison Black people without having to do the same to white
Americans. Alexander writes that felony drug convictions for crack cocaine fell disproportionately on young Black men, who then lost access to voting, housing, and employment opportunities, which then led to increased violent crime in poor Black communities.
442:
In 2012, 88% of imprisonments from crack cocaine were
African American. Further, the data shows the discrepancy between lengths of sentences of crack cocaine and heroin. The majority of crack imprisonments are placed in the 10â20 year range, while the imprisonments related to heroin use or possession
135:
article on May 1, 1980, titled "Freebase: A Treacherous
Obsession: The rise of crack cocaine and the fall of addicts destroyed by the drug". The article said that freebase made its "strongest inroads" in the music industry of Los Angeles and at this time, in 1980, the similar crack form had just been
511:
According to
Alexander, society turned to racist criminal justice policies to avoid exhibiting obvious racism. She writes that, since African Americans were the majority users of crack cocaine, it provided a platform for the government to create laws that were specific to crack. She claims that this
355:
States and regions with concentrated urban populations were affected at a much higher rate, while states with primarily rural populations were least affected. Maryland, New York and New Mexico had the highest instances of crack cocaine use, while Idaho, Minnesota and
Vermont had the lowest instances
485:
A number of authors have discussed race and the crack epidemic, including
Memphis Black writer Demico Boothe, who spent 12 years in federal prison after being arrested for the first-time offense of selling crack cocaine at the age of 18, published the book, "Why Are So Many Black Men in Prison?" in
383:
neighborhoods with high
African American concentrations. "As a result of the low-skill levels and minimal initial resource outlay required to sell crack, systemic violence flourished as a growing army of young, enthusiastic inner-city crack sellers attempt to defend their economic investment." Once
371:
Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for Black males aged 14 to 17 more than doubled, and the homicide rate for Black males aged 18 to 24 increased nearly as much. During this period, the Black community also experienced a 20â100% increase in fetal death rates, low birth-weight babies, weapons
351:
The same index used by Fryer, Levitt and Murphy was then implemented in a study that investigated the effects of crack cocaine across the United States. In cities with populations over 350,000 the instances of crack cocaine were twice as high as those in cities with a population less than 350,000.
375:
A 2018 study found that the crack epidemic had long term consequences for crime, contributing to the doubling of the murder rate of young Black males soon after the start of the epidemic, and that the murder rate was still 70 percent higher 17 years after crack's arrival. The paper estimated that
169:
Initially, crack had higher purity than street powder. Around 1984, powder cocaine was available on the street at an average of 55 percent purity for $ 100 per gram (equivalent to $ 293 in 2023), and crack was sold at average purity levels of 80-plus percent for the same price. In some major
428:, widely criticized as discriminatory against African-Americans and other racial minorities, who were more likely to use crack than powder cocaine. This 100:1 ratio was mandated by federal law in 1986. Persons convicted in federal court of possession of 5 grams of crack cocaine received a
571:
rejected Webb's claim that there was a "systematic effort by the CIA to protect the drug trafficking activities of the
Contras". The DOJ/OIG reported: "We found that Blandon and Meneses were plainly major drug traffickers who enriched themselves at the expense of countless drug users and the
97:
made a decision to convert the powder to "crack", a solid smokable form of cocaine, that could be sold in smaller quantities, to more people. It was cheap, simple to produce, ready to use, and highly profitable for dealers to develop. As early as 1981, reports of crack were appearing in
519:
argues that though
Alexander's book has value in focusing scholars (and society as a whole) on the failures of the criminal justice system, it obscures African-American support for tougher crime laws and downplays the role of violent crime in the story of incarceration.
376:
eight percent of the murders in 2000 are due to the long-run effects of the emergence of crack markets, and that the elevated murder rates for young Black males can explain a significant part of the gap in life expectancy between black and white males.
272:
rose by 12 percent, from 23,500 to 26,300. In 1986, these incidents increased 110 percent, from 26,300 to 55,200. Between 1984 and 1987, cocaine incidents increased to 94,000. By 1987, crack was reported to be available in the
503:
resulted in harsh social consequences, including large numbers of young Black men imprisoned for long sentences, the exacerbation of drug crime despite a decrease in illegal drug use in the United States, and increased
3587:
56:
use in major cities across the United States throughout the entirety of the 1980s and the early 1990s. This resulted in a number of social consequences, such as increasing crime and violence in American
3027:
1958:
3573:
556:
series which alleged that Nicaraguan dealers with Contra ties started and significantly fueled the 1980s crack epidemic. Investigating the lives and connections of Los Angeles crack dealers
379:
Crack cocaine use and distribution became popular in cities that were in a state of social and economic chaos such as New York, Los Angeles and Atlanta, and particularly in their low-income
3462:
2611:
3225:
568:
3160:
2154:
495:
3411:
93:. Soon there was a huge glut of cocaine powder in these islands, which caused the price to drop by as much as 80 percent. Faced with dropping prices for their illegal product,
144:
method of purifying cocaine to make it smokable which started in 1974 and the newer but similar crack making process. Freebase was made by users who would combine cocaine with
3744:
2346:
2116:
384:
the drug became embedded in the particular communities, the economic environment that was best suited for its survival caused further social disintegration within that city.
3455:
3252:
3123:
2963:
2579:
32:
3218:
3054:
1380:
Fryer, Roland G., et al. "Measuring Crack Cocaine And Its Impact." Economic Inquiry, vol. 51, no. 3, July 2013, pp. 1651â1681., doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2012.00506.x.
1371:
Beverly Xaviera Watkins, et al. "Arms against Illness: Crack Cocaine and Drug Policy in the United States." Health and Human Rights, vol. 2, no. 4, 1998, pp. 42â58.
2711:
3418:
3469:
3296:
2796:
1629:
As a result of the 1986 Act ... penalties for a first-time cocaine trafficking offense: 5 grams or more of crack cocaine = five-year mandatory minimum penalty
3181:
1985:
1155:
3397:
3202:
166:, New York titled "A new, purified form of cocaine causes alarm as abuse increases" that within a year, more than a thousand press stories were published.
2109:
3116:
3109:
3102:
2704:
2521:
2475:
2095:
2875:
2588:
2219:
3543:
2051:
3734:
3566:
2912:
2854:
2847:
2065:
1282:
2970:
2688:
3305:
3211:
2258:
3536:
3047:
2448:
2441:
2362:
1299:
The word "street" is used as an adjective meaning "not involving an official business location or permanent residence" such as: "sold on the
3153:
3095:
3081:
3072:
2081:
2074:
3652:
3559:
2718:
432:
of 5 years in federal prison. On the other hand, possession of 500 grams of powder cocaine carries the same sentence. In 2010, the
3729:
3719:
3195:
2653:
2397:
2102:
1665:
663:
587:
3622:
2949:
2884:
2868:
2780:
1978:
1789:
1606:
3754:
3608:
3188:
3040:
3022:
2891:
2660:
2286:
2037:
2012:
2003:
1236:
1198:
3666:
3659:
3404:
3234:
2789:
2739:
2732:
2542:
3174:
2514:
2505:
2058:
1921:
611:
3739:
2956:
2695:
2632:
2572:
2457:
2129:
1763:
505:
1908:
1263:
3749:
3594:
2817:
2528:
2030:
1971:
1953:
1341:
Reinarman, C.; Levine, H. (1989). "The Crack Attack: Politics and Media in America's Latest Drug Scare". In J. Best (ed.).
3724:
3714:
3527:
3379:
3139:
3132:
2563:
2332:
2019:
1025:
2044:
1643:
1539:
3513:
3483:
1892:
1746:
1718:
1129:
66:
3088:
2905:
2318:
1589:
3638:
3328:
2810:
2759:
2604:
2369:
2354:
2088:
1057:
1033:
837:
564:, and Norwin Meneses, Webb alleged that profits from these crack sales were funneled to the CIA-supported Contras.
1855:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3063:
3002:
2766:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2176:
2169:
2162:
1912:
1190:
137:
3490:
2838:
869:
17:
1917:
205:
According to the 1985â1986 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee Report, crack was available in
3432:
2933:
2919:
2803:
2773:
2625:
2535:
1009:
900:
337:
1317:
3335:
2977:
2831:
2434:
2339:
1388:
1386:
1145:
1041:
557:
3682:
3520:
2646:
2498:
2491:
1994:
1001:
693:
595:
1443:
1383:
3691:
3356:
2993:
2639:
429:
416:
In 1986, the U.S. Congress passed laws that created a 100 to 1 sentencing disparity for the possession
3615:
3448:
3349:
3146:
2824:
2549:
2464:
2376:
1017:
962:
499:
argues that punitive laws against drugs like crack cocaine adopted under the Reagan Administration's
1515:
3504:
3425:
2667:
2595:
2279:
2249:
2242:
1930:
1194:
853:
813:
508:
against the Black community resulting in injury and death for many black men, women, and children.
62:
3552:
2674:
2427:
2311:
2302:
1926:
561:
3601:
3497:
3319:
2926:
2484:
2325:
1840:
1354:
797:
202:, one dose of crack could be obtained for as little as $ 2.50 (equivalent to $ 7 in 2023).
3032:
368:
neighborhoods. This led to crack impacting African American communities far more than others.
3476:
2861:
2556:
2390:
1581:
1574:
1502:
1395:"The Severely-Distressed African American Family in the Crack Era: Empowerment is not Enough"
877:
845:
542:
1661:
3629:
3580:
2295:
2265:
2146:
938:
930:
603:
552:
405:
274:
1963:
1613:
8:
3645:
3281:
2023:
1648:
1049:
970:
922:
627:
469:
433:
129:
The word "crack" may have first appeared in a media publication in the sub-headline of a
2272:
1815:
439:
In 2000, the number of incarcerated African Americans was 26 times what it was in 1983.
44:
during his Address to the Nation on National Drug Control Strategy on September 5, 1989.
3370:
2138:
1490:
1419:
1394:
490:
456:
341:
230:
158:
145:
1477:"Guns and Violence: The Enduring Impact of Crack Cocaine Markets on Young Black Males"
3439:
2383:
1888:
1881:
1742:
1714:
1585:
1494:
1424:
1125:
993:
946:
773:
757:
619:
474:
292:
of the drug actually occurred after the media coverage of the drug as an "epidemic".
269:
37:
352:
These indicators show that the use of crack cocaine was much higher in urban areas.
3363:
2618:
1480:
1414:
1406:
1112:
Floating City: A Rogue Sociologist Lost and Found in New York's Underground Economy
1079:
829:
709:
516:
289:
258:
1351:
Cracked Coverage: Television News, the Anti-Cocaine Crusade, and the Reagan Legacy
1211:
392:
2898:
2725:
2228:
1939:
1681:
1669:
1358:
1150:
978:
781:
717:
329:
1935:
954:
885:
741:
641:
528:
Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform
460:
1540:"Congress passes bill to reduce disparity in crack, powder cocaine sentencing"
3708:
3017:
1948:
1662:
Durbin's Fair Sentencing Act Passed By House, Sent To President For Signature
1065:
765:
733:
701:
478:
464:
421:
333:
325:
305:
234:
226:
183:
171:
131:
111:
53:
41:
1410:
3312:
1428:
1086:
805:
789:
725:
500:
409:
345:
321:
313:
187:
136:
starting (and in a few years would become predominant and also move to the
451:
3167:
2750:
861:
678:
655:
285:
254:
218:
179:
99:
94:
90:
1918:
Oversight hearing of the DEA by the Subcommittee on Crime; July 29, 1999
914:
749:
523:
380:
365:
58:
300:
2681:
2418:
2411:
1644:"The Fair Sentencing Act corrects a long-time wrong in cocaine cases"
1212:"crack epidemic | United States history [1980s] | Britannica"
547:
242:
191:
163:
141:
123:
2612:
Federal Employees Liability Reform and Tort Compensation Act of 1988
1476:
3342:
2404:
2235:
1860:
1604:
1580:. Saddle River, New Jersey: Financial Times Prentice Hall. p.
1485:
569:
United States Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General
86:
1090:(2005) â Chapter: "Why Do Drug Dealers Still Live With Their Moms"
1816:"Crack, the Contras, and the CIA: The Storm Over "Dark Alliance""
1764:"Racial Critiques of Mass Incarceration: Beyond the New Jim Crow"
1739:
The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness
1283:"A new, purified form of cocaine causes alarm as Abuse increases"
821:
496:
The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness
425:
309:
281:
265:
238:
214:
206:
199:
195:
175:
153:
119:
107:
103:
78:
3412:
Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992
1307:
people" in reference to people who live part-time along streets.
3062:
1106:
Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Streets
397:
250:
246:
210:
1475:
Evans, William N; Garthwaite, Craig; Moore, Timothy J (2018).
1122:
When Crack Was King: A People's History of a Misunderstood Era
2940:
1237:"50-year war on drugs imprisoned millions of Black Americans"
401:
364:
African American families were largely located in low-income
222:
149:
115:
82:
2964:
Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act
2580:
Emergency Food Assistance and Soup Kitchen-Food Bank Program
1790:"Why you can't blame mass incarceration on the war on drugs"
1993:
477:
man who became downtrodden and afflicted by the effects of
1555:
1553:
635:
Planet Rock: The Story of Hip-Hop and the Crack Generation
1348:
1193:
History Book, 1876â1990" (drug usage & enforcement),
359:
2712:
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
1393:
Dunlap, Eloise; Golub, Andrew; Johnson, Bruce D (2006).
1343:
Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems
1100:
Off the Books. The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor
1550:
1340:
140:
and elsewhere). The article describes both the earlier
3470:
Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990
3015:
2797:
Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985
1094:
American Project. The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto
1567:
1565:
372:
arrests, and the number of children in foster care.
3398:
Alien Species Prevention and Enforcement Act of 1992
2682:
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
1909:
DEA History in Depth (1985â1990), The Crack Epidemic
1474:
2705:
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
1664:, durbin.senate.gov. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
1576:
Gates of Injustice: The Crisis in America's Prisons
1531:
1082:(Indian American sociologist scholar and reporter)
284:have cited the crack "epidemic" as an example of a
61:neighborhoods, a resulting backlash in the form of
2876:Medicaid Home and Community-Based Services Waivers
2589:Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
1946:
1880:
1573:
1562:
1392:
152:and then extract the base salt, "freeing it" with
81:being shipped to the United States was landing in
3745:Postâcivil rights era in African-American history
3544:Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act
1156:Postâcivil rights era in African-American history
1119:
3706:
3567:Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
2913:Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982
2855:Interest and Dividend Tax Compliance Act of 1983
1883:Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice
2971:Technical and Miscellaneous Revenue Act of 1988
2689:Temporary Emergency Food Assistance Act of 1983
1878:
1652:, August 3, 2010. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
1318:"The Drug Enforcement Administration 1985â1990"
575:
408:facilities from 1920 to 2014. A major spike in
1813:
277:and all but four states in the United States.
3537:Housing and Community Development Act of 1992
3048:
2363:Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983
1979:
2848:GarnâSt. Germain Depository Institutions Act
1732:
1730:
1605:United States Sentencing Commission (2002).
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
396:Timeline of total number of inmates in U.S.
3560:Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
1879:Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (1997).
1853:
1639:
1637:
1405:(1). Western Michigan University: 115â139.
664:Crack: Cocaine, Corruption & Conspiracy
550:sparked national controversy with his 1996
446:
3055:
3041:
2675:Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986
2654:National Appliance Energy Conservation Act
2398:Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
1986:
1972:
1856:"'Planet Rock' Shows The Power Of Hip-hop"
1537:
588:High on Crack Street: Lost Lives in Lowell
316:made out of an empty plastic water bottle.
3623:Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990
2950:Secondary Mortgage Market Enhancement Act
2885:Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987
2869:Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981
2781:Federal Agricultural Mortgage Corporation
2449:IsraelâUnited States Free Trade Agreement
2442:CanadaâUnited States Free Trade Agreement
1736:
1727:
1484:
1418:
1168:
387:
3609:North American Wetlands Conservation Act
3026:) is being considered for deletion. See
2892:Railroad Retirement Solvency Act of 1983
2661:National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984
1957:) is being considered for deletion. See
1814:Peter Kornbluh (JanuaryâFebruary 1997).
1807:
1634:
1444:"Measuring Crack Cocaine and Its Impact"
450:
391:
299:
31:
3735:African-American organized crime events
3667:Water Resources Development Act of 1992
3660:Water Resources Development Act of 1990
3588:Matsunaga Hydrogen RD&D Act of 1990
3405:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
3244:
2790:Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984
2740:Water Resources Development Act of 1988
2733:Water Resources Development Act of 1986
2543:Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984
2128:
1607:"Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy"
1399:Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare
1261:
533:
288:, noting that the explosion in use and
14:
3707:
2515:Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act
2506:Office of National Drug Control Policy
1936:"Cracked up"; analysis of the epidemic
1841:"CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy"
1761:
1708:
1571:
1293:
671:
612:American Drug War: The Last White Hope
436:cut the sentencing disparity to 18:1.
360:Effect on African American communities
3036:
2957:Surface Transportation Assistance Act
2696:The Emergency Food Assistance Program
2573:Emergency Food Assistance Act of 1983
2458:Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act
1967:
1787:
1470:
1468:
1451:Harvard University Society of Fellows
1441:
1280:
3595:National Environmental Education Act
2818:Extra-Long Staple Cotton Act of 1983
2529:Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987
1711:Why Are So Many Black Men in Prison?
1598:
1559:Burton-Rose (ed.), 1998: pp. 246â247
1349:Reeves, J. L.; Campbell, R. (1994).
580:
312:crack cocaine, including a homemade
77:In the early 1980s, the majority of
27:Drug epidemic in the 1980s and 1990s
3528:U.S. Global Change Research Program
2564:United States Sentencing Commission
1264:"Freebase: A Treacherous Obsession"
1026:Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories
473:. Tyrone's character represents an
295:
24:
3514:Global Change Research Act of 1990
3484:Integrated Farm Management Program
1887:. University of California Press.
1872:
1465:
412:can be seen between 1980 and 2000.
25:
3766:
3730:1990s crimes in the United States
3720:1980s crimes in the United States
3030:to help reach a consensus. âș
2906:Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981
1961:to help reach a consensus. âș
1902:
1854:Viera, Bené (November 26, 2011).
1281:Gross, Jane (November 29, 1985).
65:policies, and a massive spike in
3639:Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
3433:Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
2811:Expedited Funds Availability Act
2760:Agriculture and Food Act of 1981
2605:Emergency Wetlands Resources Act
2370:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
2355:We begin bombing in five minutes
1102:, Harvard University Press, 2006
1096:, Harvard University Press, 2000
1058:Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars
1034:Scarface: Money. Power. Respect.
72:
3755:Presidency of George H. W. Bush
3064:Presidency of George H. W. Bush
3023:Presidency of George H. W. Bush
2767:Agricultural Credit Act of 1987
1847:
1833:
1781:
1755:
1702:
1674:
1655:
1522:
1435:
1374:
424:when compared to penalties for
3491:Stewardship Incentives Program
2839:Dairy Export Incentive Program
1788:Lopez, German (May 30, 2017).
1365:
1345:. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
1334:
1310:
1274:
1262:Charles, Perry (May 1, 1980).
1255:
1229:
1204:
986:
463:, a character in the American
13:
1:
2934:Low-Income Housing Tax Credit
2920:Katie Beckett Medicaid waiver
2862:Internal Revenue Code of 1986
2804:Deficit Reduction Act of 1984
2774:Agriculture Mediation Program
2626:Hunger Prevention Act of 1988
2536:Coastal Barrier Resources Act
1161:
1010:Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas
907:
901:Night of the Living Baseheads
3740:Cocaine in the United States
2978:Video Privacy Protection Act
2832:Conservation Reserve Program
2435:Trade and Tariff Act of 1984
2340:Strategic Defense Initiative
1927:"How Bad Was Crack Cocaine?"
1737:Alexander, Michelle (2012).
1538:Jim Abrams (July 29, 2010).
1442:Fryer, Roland (April 2006).
1146:Cocaine in the United States
1042:Scarface: The World Is Yours
649:Freeway: Crack in the System
576:Influence on popular culture
7:
3750:Presidency of Ronald Reagan
3521:National Climate Assessment
2647:Minerals Management Service
2499:Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988
2492:Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986
1995:Presidency of Ronald Reagan
1954:Presidency of Ronald Reagan
1713:. Full Surface Publishing.
1612:. p. 6. Archived from
1197:, 1991, USDoJ.gov webpage:
1139:
1002:Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
694:Death Wish 4: The Crackdown
10:
3771:
3725:1990s in the United States
3715:1980s in the United States
3226:Presidential proclamations
2640:Medical Waste Tracking Act
2633:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
2117:Presidential proclamations
1820:Columbia Journalism Review
1762:Forman, James Jr. (2012).
1120:Donovan X. Ramsey (2023).
430:minimum mandatory sentence
3676:
3616:Oil Pollution Act of 1990
3449:Energy Policy Act of 1992
3389:
3295:
3253:Joint session of Congress
3147:White House horseshoe pit
3071:
2987:
2825:Food Security Act of 1985
2749:
2726:Water Quality Act of 1987
2550:Armed Career Criminal Act
2474:
2218:
2155:Joint session of Congress
2002:
1199:DoJ-DEA-History-1985-1990
1018:True Crime: New York City
963:Wu-Tang: An American Saga
3692:Clinton administration â
3505:Wetlands Reserve Program
3426:Civil Rights Act of 1991
3196:Supreme Court candidates
3028:templates for discussion
2668:Nuclear Waste Policy Act
2596:Toxics Release Inventory
1959:templates for discussion
1931:Booth School of Business
1479:. Working Paper Series.
1195:US Department of Justice
1073:
893:
854:Life Is Hot in Cracktown
686:
447:Post-epidemic commentary
162:describing crack use in
3683:â Reagan administration
3553:Immigration Act of 1990
3336:Chemical Weapons Accord
2994:â Carter administration
2428:American Homecoming Act
2312:Constructive engagement
2075:Administration scandals
1709:Boothe, Demico (2007).
1411:10.15453/0191-5096.3138
443:range from 5â10 years.
336:(especially the city's
3602:National Space Council
3498:USDA Rural Development
3350:1991 Madrid Conference
2927:Tax Reform Act of 1986
2147:"Tear down this wall!"
1668:March 6, 2011, at the
1510:Cite journal requires
838:Get Rich or Die Tryin'
482:
413:
388:Sentencing disparities
356:of crack cocaine use.
317:
45:
3477:Forest Legacy Program
3182:Judicial appointments
3003:Bush administration â
2557:Sentencing Reform Act
2465:ExonâFlorio Amendment
2391:Executive Order 12333
2377:GoldwaterâNichols Act
2052:Judicial appointments
2038:Assassination attempt
1572:Elsner, Alan (2004).
1114:, Penguin Press, 2013
1108:, Penguin Press, 2008
543:San Jose Mercury News
454:
395:
303:
89:, trafficked through
35:
3630:Truth in Savings Act
3581:Lead and Copper Rule
3456:FDIC Improvement Act
3306:Soviet Union summits
3154:Presidential pardons
2485:AIDS crisis response
2259:Soviet Union summits
604:Crackheads Gone Wild
562:Oscar Danilo BlandĂłn
275:District of Columbia
85:, and originated in
3653:1992 VRA Amendments
3646:Ryan White CARE Act
3161:International trips
2719:1982 VRA Amendments
2347:International trips
2319:Invasion of Grenada
2089:Impeachment efforts
2031:Second inauguration
2024:Release of hostages
1649:The Washington Post
1050:Grand Theft Auto IV
971:Godfather of Harlem
672:Documentary serials
434:Fair Sentencing Act
320:In a study done by
67:incarceration rates
3380:NAFTA negotiations
3371:Unified Task Force
3329:Invasion of Panama
3235:Clinton transition
2326:IranâContra affair
2020:First inauguration
1216:www.britannica.com
870:Kill the Messenger
491:Michelle Alexander
489:Writer and lawyer
483:
457:New York Comic Con
414:
338:Washington Heights
318:
268:-related hospital
159:The New York Times
46:
40:holds up a bag of
3702:
3701:
3440:Acid Rain Program
3291:
3290:
3275:1992 SOTU Address
3268:1991 SOTU Address
3261:1990 SOTU Address
3212:Executive actions
3140:Broccoli comments
3133:Vomiting incident
3013:
3012:
2384:Montreal Protocol
2214:
2213:
2205:1988 SOTU Address
2198:1987 SOTU Address
2191:1986 SOTU Address
2184:1985 SOTU Address
2177:1984 SOTU Address
2170:1983 SOTU Address
2163:1982 SOTU Address
2103:Executive actions
1741:. The New Press.
947:Cocaine Godmother
758:Menace II Society
620:Cocaine Cowboys 2
581:Documentary films
38:George H. W. Bush
16:(Redirected from
3762:
3695:
3686:
3669:
3662:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3604:
3597:
3590:
3583:
3576:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3546:
3539:
3530:
3523:
3516:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3451:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3421:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3382:
3373:
3366:
3364:Somali Civil War
3359:
3352:
3345:
3338:
3331:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3228:
3221:
3219:Executive orders
3214:
3205:
3198:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3168:Oval Office desk
3163:
3156:
3149:
3142:
3135:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3034:
3033:
3006:
2997:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2959:
2952:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2922:
2915:
2908:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2841:
2834:
2827:
2820:
2813:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2698:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2649:
2642:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2619:Grace Commission
2614:
2607:
2598:
2591:
2582:
2575:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2467:
2460:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2365:
2358:
2349:
2342:
2335:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2305:
2303:Governors Island
2298:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2261:
2252:
2245:
2238:
2231:
2207:
2200:
2193:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2158:
2150:
2142:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2112:
2110:Executive orders
2105:
2098:
2091:
2084:
2077:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2015:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1965:
1964:
1898:
1886:
1866:
1865:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1686:
1678:
1672:
1659:
1653:
1641:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1619:on July 15, 2007
1618:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1579:
1569:
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1548:
1547:
1535:
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1432:
1422:
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1381:
1378:
1372:
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1362:
1346:
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1332:
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1329:
1327:
1322:
1314:
1308:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1208:
1202:
1187:
1135:
1080:Sudhir Venkatesh
923:Chappelle's Show
710:King of New York
517:James Forman Jr.
506:police brutality
475:African-American
470:Chappelle's Show
296:Impact by region
170:cities, such as
21:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3705:
3704:
3703:
3698:
3689:
3680:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3651:
3644:
3637:
3628:
3621:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3593:
3586:
3579:
3574:JFK Records Act
3572:
3565:
3558:
3551:
3542:
3535:
3526:
3519:
3512:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3438:
3431:
3424:
3419:Cannabis policy
3417:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3390:Domestic policy
3385:
3378:
3369:
3362:
3357:New world order
3355:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3318:
3311:
3304:
3287:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3251:
3240:
3233:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3201:
3194:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3122:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3080:
3067:
3061:
3031:
3014:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2939:
2932:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2899:Reagan tax cuts
2897:
2890:
2883:
2874:
2867:
2860:
2853:
2846:
2837:
2830:
2823:
2816:
2809:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2779:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2751:Economic policy
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2638:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2594:
2587:
2578:
2571:
2562:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2522:Cannabis policy
2520:
2513:
2504:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2476:Domestic policy
2470:
2463:
2456:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2396:
2389:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2361:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2301:
2294:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2264:
2257:
2248:
2241:
2234:
2229:Reagan Doctrine
2227:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2145:
2137:
2124:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2096:Opinion polling
2094:
2087:
2082:Bush transition
2080:
2073:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2036:
2029:
2018:
2011:
1998:
1992:
1962:
1905:
1895:
1875:
1873:Further reading
1870:
1869:
1852:
1848:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1822:
1812:
1808:
1798:
1796:
1786:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1670:Wayback Machine
1660:
1656:
1642:
1635:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1570:
1563:
1558:
1551:
1544:Washington Post
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1511:
1509:
1500:
1499:
1473:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1446:
1440:
1436:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1359:Duke University
1339:
1335:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1298:
1294:
1279:
1275:
1260:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1243:. July 26, 2021
1235:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1188:
1169:
1164:
1151:Opioid epidemic
1142:
1132:
1076:
989:
910:
896:
718:Boyz n the Hood
689:
674:
596:Cocaine Cowboys
583:
578:
539:
449:
420:trafficking of
390:
362:
340:neighborhood),
298:
75:
52:was a surge of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3768:
3758:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3696:
3687:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3649:
3642:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3524:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3501:
3494:
3487:
3480:
3466:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3429:
3422:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3360:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3332:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3316:
3301:
3299:
3297:Foreign policy
3293:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3278:
3271:
3264:
3257:
3248:
3246:
3239:
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3222:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3199:
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3178:
3171:
3164:
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3150:
3143:
3136:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3113:
3106:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3060:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3037:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
2998:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2974:
2967:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2937:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2909:
2895:
2888:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2835:
2821:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2793:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2777:
2763:
2755:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2643:
2636:
2629:
2622:
2615:
2608:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2585:
2584:
2583:
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2292:
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2290:
2276:
2269:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2246:
2232:
2224:
2222:
2220:Foreign policy
2216:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2173:
2166:
2159:
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2069:
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2048:
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2027:
2016:
2008:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1945:
1944:
1933:
1924:
1915:
1904:
1903:External links
1901:
1900:
1899:
1894:978-0520202429
1893:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1846:
1832:
1806:
1780:
1754:
1748:978-1595586438
1747:
1726:
1720:978-0979295300
1719:
1701:
1673:
1654:
1633:
1597:
1590:
1561:
1549:
1530:
1528:Inciardi, 1994
1521:
1512:|journal=
1486:10.3386/w24819
1464:
1434:
1382:
1373:
1364:
1333:
1309:
1292:
1287:New York Times
1273:
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1166:
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1131:978-0525511809
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1103:
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1006:
998:
988:
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984:
983:
982:(2021âpresent)
975:
974:(2019âpresent)
967:
959:
955:Narcos: Mexico
951:
943:
935:
927:
919:
909:
906:
905:
904:
895:
892:
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886:White Boy Rick
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742:Bad Lieutenant
738:
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698:
688:
685:
684:
683:
682:(2010âpresent)
673:
670:
669:
668:
660:
652:
646:
642:The Seven Five
638:
632:
624:
616:
608:
600:
592:
582:
579:
577:
574:
538:
532:
526:, in his book
515:Legal Scholar
461:Tyrone Biggums
459:cosplaying as
448:
445:
426:powder cocaine
410:incarcerations
389:
386:
361:
358:
297:
294:
74:
71:
63:tough on crime
50:crack epidemic
26:
18:Crack epidemic
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3203:controversies
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2333:Libya bombing
2330:
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2156:
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2148:
2144:
2140:
2139:"Evil empire"
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2097:
2093:
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2079:
2076:
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2067:
2066:controversies
2063:
2060:
2059:Supreme Court
2056:
2055:
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2021:
2017:
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1996:
1989:
1984:
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1683:
1682:"Conclusions"
1677:
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1591:0-13-142791-1
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1268:Rolling Stone
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1127:
1124:. One World.
1123:
1118:
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1098:
1095:
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1066:Hotline Miami
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783:
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771:
768:
767:
766:Above the Rim
763:
760:
759:
755:
752:
751:
747:
744:
743:
739:
736:
735:
734:New Jack City
731:
728:
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723:
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719:
715:
712:
711:
707:
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703:
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570:
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563:
559:
555:
554:
553:Dark Alliance
549:
545:
544:
536:
535:Dark Alliance
531:
529:
525:
521:
518:
513:
509:
507:
502:
498:
497:
492:
487:
480:
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472:
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466:
465:sketch comedy
462:
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349:
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343:
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335:
331:
327:
326:Steven Levitt
323:
315:
311:
307:
306:paraphernalia
302:
293:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
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248:
244:
240:
236:
235:San Francisco
232:
228:
227:New York City
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
184:San Francisco
181:
177:
173:
167:
165:
161:
160:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
133:
132:Rolling Stone
127:
125:
122:, and in the
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
73:Crack cocaine
70:
68:
64:
60:
55:
54:crack cocaine
51:
43:
42:crack cocaine
39:
34:
30:
19:
3690:
3681:
3282:Chicken Kiev
3089:Inauguration
3021:
3001:
2992:
1952:
1940:
1882:
1859:
1849:
1835:
1825:February 10,
1823:. Retrieved
1819:
1809:
1797:. Retrieved
1793:
1783:
1771:. Retrieved
1768:Yale Commons
1767:
1757:
1738:
1710:
1704:
1692:. Retrieved
1688:
1676:
1657:
1647:
1628:
1621:. Retrieved
1614:the original
1600:
1575:
1543:
1533:
1524:
1503:cite journal
1455:. Retrieved
1450:
1437:
1402:
1398:
1376:
1367:
1350:
1342:
1336:
1324:. Retrieved
1312:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1286:
1276:
1267:
1257:
1247:December 22,
1245:. Retrieved
1241:PBS NewsHour
1240:
1231:
1221:December 21,
1219:. Retrieved
1215:
1206:
1121:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1087:Freakonomics
1085:
1064:
1056:
1048:
1040:
1032:
1024:
1016:
1008:
1000:
992:
977:
969:
961:
953:
945:
937:
929:
921:
913:
884:
876:
868:
860:
852:
844:
836:
828:
820:
814:Paid in Full
812:
806:Training Day
804:
796:
788:
780:
772:
764:
756:
748:
740:
732:
726:Jungle Fever
724:
716:
708:
700:
692:
677:
662:
654:
648:
640:
634:
628:Freakonomics
626:
618:
610:
602:
594:
586:
566:
551:
541:
540:
534:
527:
522:
514:
510:
501:War on drugs
494:
488:
484:
468:
441:
438:
417:
415:
378:
374:
370:
363:
354:
350:
346:Philadelphia
330:Kevin Murphy
322:Roland Fryer
319:
279:
263:
204:
188:Philadelphia
168:
157:
130:
128:
95:drug dealers
76:
49:
47:
29:
3066:(1989â1993)
3016:âč The
1997:(1981â1989)
1947:âč The
1689:www.bjs.gov
1326:January 19,
987:Video games
958:(2018â2021)
942:(2017â2023)
934:(2002â2008)
926:(2003â2006)
918:(1984â1989)
862:The Fighter
679:Drugs, Inc.
546:journalist
290:trafficking
286:moral panic
270:emergencies
255:Minneapolis
219:Kansas City
180:Los Angeles
146:baking soda
100:Los Angeles
91:The Bahamas
3709:Categories
3082:Transition
2287:INF Treaty
2280:Washington
2013:Transition
1623:August 24,
1457:January 4,
1355:Durham, NC
1162:References
915:Miami Vice
908:Television
798:Streetwise
750:Deep Cover
558:Ricky Ross
524:John Pfaff
381:inner city
366:inner city
314:crack pipe
138:East Coast
59:inner city
36:President
3463:FIRRE Act
2419:H-2B visa
2412:H-2A visa
2273:ReykjavĂk
1922:The House
1694:August 7,
1495:145030279
1347:see also
878:Moonlight
846:Notorious
830:Dark Blue
548:Gary Webb
455:A man at
264:In 1985,
243:St. Louis
192:Baltimore
164:the Bronx
142:free base
124:Caribbean
3343:Gulf War
3320:Helsinki
3245:Speeches
3096:Timeline
3073:Timeline
3018:template
2405:Form I-9
2250:2nd term
2243:1st term
2236:Cold War
2130:Speeches
2004:Timeline
1949:template
1861:HuffPost
1799:June 22,
1773:March 7,
1666:Archived
1429:18852841
1140:See also
939:Snowfall
931:The Wire
903:" (1988)
782:Clockers
493:'s book
406:juvenile
334:New York
308:used to
304:Various
282:scholars
172:New York
112:New York
87:Colombia
3175:Cabinet
3124:1992â93
3020:below (
2045:Cabinet
1951:below (
1929:at the
1911:at the
1794:Vox.com
1453:: 3, 66
1420:2565489
822:Shottas
467:series
398:prisons
266:cocaine
259:Phoenix
239:Seattle
215:Detroit
207:Atlanta
200:Detroit
196:Houston
176:Chicago
154:ammonia
120:Houston
108:Chicago
104:Oakland
79:cocaine
3255:(1989)
3189:Thomas
2296:Moscow
2266:Geneva
2157:(1981)
2149:(1987)
2141:(1983)
1891:
1745:
1717:
1588:
1493:
1427:
1417:
1361:Press.
1305:street
1303:" or "
1301:street
1128:
1069:(2012)
1061:(2009)
1053:(2008)
1045:(2006)
1037:(2006)
1029:(2006)
1021:(2005)
1013:(2004)
1005:(2002)
997:(1988)
966:(2019)
950:(2018)
889:(2018)
881:(2016)
873:(2014)
865:(2010)
857:(2009)
849:(2009)
841:(2005)
833:(2002)
825:(2002)
817:(2002)
809:(2001)
801:(1998)
793:(1998)
785:(1995)
777:(1994)
769:(1994)
761:(1993)
753:(1992)
745:(1992)
737:(1991)
729:(1991)
721:(1991)
713:(1990)
705:(1988)
702:Colors
697:(1987)
667:(2021)
659:(2016)
651:(2015)
645:(2014)
637:(2011)
631:(2010)
623:(2008)
615:(2007)
607:(2006)
599:(2006)
591:(1995)
537:series
486:2007.
404:, and
342:Newark
328:, and
251:Denver
247:Dallas
231:Newark
211:Boston
3313:Malta
2941:MACRS
1941:Salon
1685:(PDF)
1617:(PDF)
1610:(PDF)
1491:S2CID
1447:(PDF)
1321:(PDF)
1074:Books
894:Music
790:Belly
774:Fresh
687:Films
479:crack
422:crack
402:jails
310:smoke
280:Some
223:Miami
150:water
116:Miami
83:Miami
3117:1991
3110:1990
3103:1989
2022:and
1889:ISBN
1827:2008
1801:2017
1775:2017
1743:ISBN
1715:ISBN
1696:2019
1625:2010
1586:ISBN
1516:help
1459:2016
1425:PMID
1328:2021
1249:2022
1223:2022
1126:ISBN
994:Narc
656:13th
567:The
344:and
257:and
198:and
148:and
48:The
1938:at
1920:at
1913:DEA
1481:doi
1415:PMC
1407:doi
1191:DEA
979:BMF
3711::
1858:.
1818:.
1792:.
1766:.
1729:^
1687:.
1646:,
1636:^
1627:.
1584:.
1582:20
1564:^
1552:^
1542:.
1507::
1505:}}
1501:{{
1489:.
1467:^
1449:.
1423:.
1413:.
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1401:.
1397:.
1385:^
1357::
1353:.
1285:.
1266:.
1239:.
1214:.
1170:^
560:,
418:or
400:,
348:.
324:,
261:.
253:,
249:,
245:,
241:,
237:,
233:,
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225:,
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118:,
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2357:"
2353:"
1987:e
1980:t
1973:v
1897:.
1864:.
1843:.
1829:.
1803:.
1777:.
1751:.
1723:.
1698:.
1594:.
1546:.
1518:)
1514:(
1497:.
1483::
1461:.
1431:.
1409::
1330:.
1289:.
1270:.
1251:.
1225:.
1201:.
1189:"
1134:.
899:"
481:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
