337:
913:
needles in pairs and always in opposite directions since there was no common wire provided. Many more codes are theoretically possible with common return signalling, but not all of them can conveniently be used with a grid indication display. The numerals were worked in by marking them around the edge of the diamond grid. Needles 1 through 5 when energised to the right pointed to numerals 1 through 5 respectively, and to the left numerals 6 through 9 and 0 respectively. Two additional buttons were provided on the telegraph sets to enable the common return to be connected to either the positive or negative terminal of the battery according to the direction it was desired to move the needle.
22:
182:. Indeed, this was the first commercial telegraph in the world. This was a five-needle, six-wire system. The cables were originally installed underground in a steel conduit. However, the cables soon began to fail as a result of deteriorating insulation. As an interim measure, a two-needle system was used with three of the remaining working underground wires, which despite using only two needles had a greater number of codes. Since the new code had to be learned, not just read off the display, this was the first time in telegraph history that skilled telegraph operators were required.
186:
and which rapidly became the most common method. This extension was done at Cooke's own expense, as the railway company was unwilling to finance a system it still considered experimental. Up to this point, the Great
Western had insisted on exclusive use and refused Cooke permission to open public telegraph offices. Cooke's new agreement gave the railway free use of the system in exchange for Cooke's right to open public offices, establishing a public telegraph service for the first time. A flat rate was charged (unlike all later telegraph services which charged per word) of one
123:
163:
91:. Their collaboration was not a happy one because their objectives differed. Cooke was an inventor and entrepreneur who wished to patent and commercially exploit his inventions. Wheatstone, on the other hand, was an academic with no interest in commercial ventures, and he intended to publish his results and allow others to freely make use of them. This difference in outlook eventually led to a bitter dispute between the two men over claims to priority for the invention. Their differences were taken to arbitration with
866:
955:
949:
895:
represent each letter), the one-needle system used a four-unit code but had enough codes to encode the entire alphabet. Like the preceding two-needle system, the code units consisted of rapid deflections of the needle to either left or right in quick succession. The needle struck a post when it moved, causing it to ring. Different tones were provided for the left and right movements so that the operator could hear the needle's direction without looking at it.
72:
1030:
1024:
937:
931:
159:. It was successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837. This was a similar application to the Liverpool project. The carriages were detached at Camden Town and travelled under gravity into Euston. A system was needed to signal to an engine house at Camden Town to start hauling the carriages back up the incline to the waiting locomotive. As at Liverpool, the electric telegraph was in the end rejected in favour of a pneumatic system with whistles.
1000:
right (that is, from M onwards) should be read right-to-left, not left-to-right (but still observing short stroke first). Shaffner, who was alive when this telegraph was still in operation and observed it in use in
England, is the source (page 221) for the principle of executing the short stroke first. Guillemin does not state the principle explicitly, but it can be inferred since he gives another code in both tick-mark glyphs and numbers.
904:
1018:
1012:
943:
925:
919:
275:
after receiving K-W-A which he assumed was a mistake. This continued until a small boy suggested the sending operator be allowed to complete the word, after which it was understood. After arriving, Tawell was followed to a nearby coffee shop by a detective and arrested there. Newspaper coverage of this incident gave a great deal of publicity to the electric telegraph and brought it firmly into public view.
246:
841:
wires and thence to one end of the coils at the receiving station. The other ends of the receiving coils, while in receive mode, were all commoned together. Thus the current flowed through the same two coils at both ends and energised the same two needles. With this system the needles were always energised in pairs and always rotated in opposite directions.
197:(another rope-hauled application) was equipped with the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph when it opened in 1840, and many others followed. The distance involved on the Blackwall Railway (four miles) was too far for steam signalling and the engineer, Robert Stephenson, strongly supported the electric solution. In February 1845, an 88-mile line from
139:
a few simple signals such as an indication to the engine house to start hauling. Cooke was requested to build a simpler version with fewer codes, which he did by the end of April 1837. However, the railway decided to use instead a pneumatic telegraph equipped with whistles. Soon after this Cooke went into partnership with
Wheatstone.
52:, and the first telegraph system to be put into commercial service. The receiver consisted of a number of needles that could be moved by electromagnetic coils to point to letters on a board. This feature was liked by early users who were unwilling to learn codes, and employers who did not want to invest in staff training.
63:. Once it was known that Tawell had boarded a train to London, the telegraph was used to signal ahead to the terminus at Paddington and have him arrested there. The novelty of this use of the telegraph in crime-fighting generated a great deal of publicity and led to increased public acceptance and use of the telegraph.
56:
which was related to the number of needles. The change became more urgent as the insulation of some of the early installations deteriorated, causing some of the original wires to be unusable. Cooke and
Wheatstone's most successful system was eventually a one-needle system that continued in service into the 1930s.
840:
At the sending end there were two rows of buttons, a pair of buttons for each coil in each row. The operator selected one button from each row. This connected two of the coils to the positive and negative ends of the battery respectively. The other ends of the coils were connected to the telegraph
274:
The Cooke and
Wheatstone system did not support punctuation, lower case, or some letters. Even the two-needle system omitted the letters J, Q, and Z; hence the misspellings of 'just' and 'Quaker'. This caused some difficulty for the receiving operator at Paddington who repeatedly requested a resend
236:
The Cooke and
Wheatstone telegraph was largely confined to the United Kingdom and the British Empire. However, it was also used in Spain for a time. After nationalisation of the telegraph sector in the UK, the Post Office slowly replaced the diverse systems it had inherited, including the Cooke and
185:
When the line was extended to Slough in 1843, a one-needle, two-wire system was installed. Cooke also changed from running the cables in buried lead pipes to the less expensive and easier to maintain system of suspending uninsulated wires on poles from ceramic insulators, a system which he patented,
142:
In May 1837 Cooke and
Wheatstone patented a telegraph system that used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. The patent recommended a five-needle system, but any number of needles could be used depending on the number of characters it was required to
138:
and a rope-haulage engine house at the top of a steep incline through a long tunnel outside the station. Rope-haulage into main stations was common at this time to avoid noise and pollution, and in this case the gradient was too steep for the locomotive to ascend unaided. All that was required were
55:
In later systems, the letter board was dispensed with, and the code was read directly from the movement of the needles. This occurred because the number of needles was reduced, leading to more complex codes. The change was motivated by the economic need to reduce the number of telegraph wires used,
849:
The five-needle telegraph with twenty possible needle positions was six codes short of being able to encode the complete alphabet. The letters omitted were C, J, Q, U, X and Z. A great selling point of this telegraph was that it was simple to use and required little operator training. There is no
356:
The number of wires required by the Cooke and
Wheatstone system is equal to the number of needles used. Cooke and Wheatstone's patent recommends five needles, and this was the number on their early demonstration models. The number of symbols that can be obtained using a code similar to the one the
269:
A MURDER HAS GUST BEEN COMMITTED AT SALT HILL AND THE SUSPECTED MURDERER WAS SEEN TO TAKE A FIRST CLASS TICKET TO LONDON BY THE TRAIN WHICH LEFT SLOUGH AT 742 PM HE IS IN THE GARB OF A KWAKER WITH A GREAT COAT ON WHICH REACHES NEARLY DOWN TO HIS FEET HE IS IN THE LAST COMPARTMENT OF THE SECOND CLASS
999:
Huurdeman (page 68) reads the glyph strokes in strict left-to-right order regardless of stroke length. This cannot be correct since it leads to ambiguous codes—for instance E and U would be identically left-left-right. Also, the mirror symmetry of the glyph markings suggests that the codes on the
907:
Original codes for the one-, two-, and five-needle telegraphs. A stroke leaning to the left indicates a needle rotated anti-clockwise, that is, with the top pointing to the left. A stroke leaning to the right indicates a needle pointing to the right. For multiple stroke codes, the first movement
352:
from an energising winding. The direction of movement was determined by the direction of the current in the telegraph wires. The board was marked with a diamond shaped grid with a letter at each grid intersection, and so arranged that when two needles were energised they would point to a specific
912:
The codes were refined and adapted as they were used. By 1867 numerals had been added to the five-needle code. This was achieved through the provision of a sixth wire for common return making it possible to move just a single needle. With the original five wires it was only possible to move the
894:
This system was developed to replace the failing multi-wire telegraph on the
Paddington to West Drayton line. It required only two wires but a more complex code and slower transmission speed. Whereas the two-needle system needed a three-unit code (that is, up to three movements of the needles to
881:
The two-needle telegraph required three wires, one for each needle and a common return. The coding was somewhat different from the five-needle telegraph and needed to be learned, rather than read from a display. The needles could move to the left or right either one, two, or three times in quick
861:
available, but using arbitrary codes would have required more extensive operator training since the display could not be read on sight from the grid as the simple alphabetic codes were. Because of this, the additional functionality was only used to add numerals by pointing a needle to the numeral
882:
succession, or a single time in both directions in quick succession. Either needle, or both together, could be moved. This gave a total of 24 codes, one of which was taken up by the stop code. Thus, three letters were omitted: J, Q and Z, which were substituted with G, K and S respectively.
989:
Shaffner (page 221) has the 1-needle codes for K and L swapped to those shown in the table. This appears to be an error. Both
Huurdeman (page 68) and Guillemin (page 551) give these codes as per table, as do examples of surviving instruments. Also, the glyphs are marked on the face of the
885:
Originally, the telegraph was fitted with a bell that rang when another operator wanted attention. This proved so annoying that it was removed. It was found that the clicking of the needle against its endstop was sufficient to draw attention.
278:
The widely publicised arrest of Tawell was one of two events which brought the telegraph to greater public attention and led to its widespread use beyond railway signalling. The other event was the announcement by telegraph of the birth of
862:
required marked around the edge of the board. The economic need to reduce the number of wires in the end proved a stronger incentive than simplicity of use and led Cooke and Wheatstone to develop the two-needle and one-needle telegraphs.
303:
is a train safety system that divides the track into blocks and uses signals to prevent another train entering a block until a train already in the block has left. The system was proposed by Cooke in 1842 in
324:. Instruments specific to block working were installed in 1841. Block working became the norm and remains so to the present day, except that modern technology has allowed fixed blocks to be replaced with
974:
where the two characters are run together without a character gap. The two-needle number shift and letter shift codes are also compounds, which is the reason they have been written with an overbar.
1117:
233:. The one-needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century. Some remained in service in the 1930s.
312:. Previously, separation of trains had relied on strict timetabling only, which was unable to allow for unforeseen events. The first use of block working was probably in 1839 when
1672:
425:
229:. This company bought out the Cooke and Wheatstone patents and solidly established the telegraph business. In 1869 the company was nationalised and became part of the
833:
812:
789:
745:
701:
657:
613:
569:
853:
At some point, the ability to move a single needle independently was added. This required an additional conductor for a common return, possibly by means of an
768:
724:
680:
636:
592:
548:
525:
504:
481:
460:
375:
348:
The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph consisted of a number of magnetic needles which could be made to turn a short distance either clockwise or anti-clockwise by
134:
a design for a 60-code mechanical telegraph. This was too complicated for their purposes; the immediate need was for a simple signal communication between the
1021:
should be read. He says that "each of these letters are composed of two deflections each way" (pages 221–222), which suggests that they are equivalent to
114:. However, much of the scientific knowledge for the model actually put into practice came from Wheatstone. Cooke's earlier ideas were largely abandoned.
908:
is in the direction of the short stroke. For example, in the one-needle code, E is left-right-left, L is right-left-right-left, and U is left-left-right.
990:
instrument with those on the right being the mirror image of the corresponding glyph on the left. Shaffner's arrangement breaks this mirror symmetry.
1114:
336:
1316:
280:
213:
paid half the capital cost and £1,500 per annum for a private two-needle telegraph on this line to connect it to its base in
135:
193:
From this point on, the use of the electric telegraph started to grow on the new railways being built from London. The
102:
Cooke had had some ideas for building a telegraph prior to his partnership with Wheatstone and had consulted scientist
1580:
206:
131:
1642:
1612:
1550:
1535:
1520:
1505:
265:
on 1 January 1845. This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer. The message was:
21:
156:
194:
850:
code to learn, as the letter being sent was visibly displayed to both the sending and receiving operator.
1649:
226:
946:) are marked on the plates of later needle telegraphs, together with six-unit codes for number shift (
349:
99:
acting for Wheatstone. Cooke eventually bought out Wheatstone's interest in exchange for royalties.
80:
41:
170:
Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a telegraph installed in 1838 on the
380:
300:
1587:
357:
five needle system used depends on the number of needles available; generalizing, with a number
854:
144:
321:
171:
96:
26:
92:
37:
122:
110:
system and a mechanical telegraph involving a clockwork mechanism with an electromagnetic
8:
1667:
1472:
309:
230:
928:) were added to the one-needle code, but not, apparently, for J. However, codes for Q (
818:
797:
774:
730:
686:
642:
598:
554:
858:
753:
709:
665:
621:
577:
533:
510:
489:
466:
445:
360:
222:
175:
162:
84:
45:
1638:
1623:
1608:
1593:
1576:
1561:
1546:
1531:
1516:
1501:
1386:
1312:
317:
313:
218:
210:
152:
88:
1378:
59:
Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraph played a part in the apprehension of the murderer
49:
1121:
214:
103:
284:
1661:
1390:
1597:
1124:
BT Group Connected Earth Online Museum. Accessed December 2010, 10 Feb 2013
325:
179:
107:
1627:
1565:
1475:, Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris, stkone, Flickr, retrieved 16 Feb 2013.
954:
948:
865:
254:
148:
60:
869:
Circuit diagram of the five-needle telegraph transmitting the character
971:
262:
71:
958:). Numerous compound codes were added for operator controls such as
257:
was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from
198:
187:
1382:
1029:
1023:
936:
930:
967:
291:
at the unprecedented speed of 40 minutes after the announcement.
202:
1543:
Communications: An International History of the Formative Years
1017:
1011:
942:
924:
918:
258:
190:, but many people paid this just to see the strange equipment.
111:
903:
245:
166:
Cooke and Wheatstone 5-wire telegraph cable in a wooden spacer
106:
for expert advice. In 1836, Cooke built both an experimental
1009:
Shaffner does not give a clear explanation of how the glyphs
1366:
25:
Cooke and Wheatstone's two-needle telegraph as used on the
40:
system dating from the 1830s invented by English inventor
1275:
1273:
130:
In January 1837, Cooke proposed to the directors of the
1313:"John Tawell, The Man Hanged by the Electric Telegraph"
237:
Wheatstone telegraph, with the Morse telegraph system.
209:, far longer than any other line up to that time. The
16:
Early electrical telegraph system dating from the 1830s
316:
had a Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph installed in the
126:
Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle, six-wire telegraph
1620:
The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History
1270:
821:
800:
777:
756:
733:
712:
689:
668:
645:
624:
601:
580:
557:
536:
513:
492:
469:
448:
383:
363:
1673:
History of telecommunications in the United Kingdom
827:
806:
783:
762:
739:
718:
695:
674:
651:
630:
607:
586:
563:
542:
519:
498:
475:
454:
419:
369:
143:code. A four-needle system was installed between
87:, best known to schoolchildren from the eponymous
79:The telegraph arose from a collaboration between
1659:
1490:
151:in London on a rail line being constructed by
1635:The Telephone: The Life Story of a Technology
1134:
1132:
1130:
1605:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications
1173:
1171:
340:Five-needle telegraph receiving the letter
1528:Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey
1473:"Single needle telegraph - Zeigertelegraf"
1307:
1305:
1303:
1127:
1560:, Simpkin, Marshall & Company, 1842
1168:
902:
864:
844:
335:
294:
244:
161:
121:
70:
20:
1371:The Electronic Journal of Combinatorics
1300:
1033:respectively, and not a different code.
889:
876:
1660:
1558:Telegraphic Railways or the Single Way
1451:Huurdeman, page 68 (one-needle, early)
1364:
1315:. University of Salford. 10 Feb 2013.
966:. These compounds are similar to the
306:Telegraphic Railways or the Single Way
1448:Shaffner, page 221 (one-needle, late)
1530:, University of Chicago Press, 2010
1526:Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys,
1445:Shaffner, pages 226–229 (two-needle)
1442:Shaffner, page 204–205 (five-needle)
977:
377:of needles it is possible to encode
221:. In September 1845, the financier
174:over the 13 miles (21 km) from
1637:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006
1589:The Applications of Physical Forces
857:. This dramatically increased the
75:Wheatstone (left) and Cooke (right)
13:
14:
1684:
1513:Sir Charles Wheatstone: 1802–1875
1060:Bowler & Morus, pages 403–404
1319:from the original on 13 May 2013
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
240:
207:London and South Western Railway
132:Liverpool and Manchester Railway
1478:
1466:
1457:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1365:Sloane, N. J. A. (1994-04-13).
1358:
1349:
1340:
1331:
1291:
1282:
1261:
1252:
1243:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1180:
1150:
1141:
1003:
993:
983:
1648:Shaffner, Taliaferro Preston,
1607:, John Wiley & Sons, 2003
1592:, Macmillan and Company, 1877
1108:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1054:
1045:
414:
402:
393:
387:
34:Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph
1:
1654:, Pudney & Russell, 1859.
308:as a safer way of working on
287:. The news was published in
1573:Electric Railways: 1880-1990
1491:General and cited references
1039:
331:
195:London and Blackwall Railway
66:
7:
916:Also by 1867, codes for Q (
420:{\displaystyle f(x)=x(x-1)}
10:
1689:
1622:, David and Charles, 1973
227:Electric Telegraph Company
117:
1115:The telegraphic age dawns
350:electromagnetic induction
328:on the busiest railways.
1367:""Sequence A002378 OEIS"
898:
249:John Tawell at his trial
217:, finally replacing the
205:was completed along the
81:William Fothergill Cooke
42:William Fothergill Cooke
1463:Shaffner, pages 204–206
1421:Shaffner, pages 204–207
301:signalling block system
1279:Huurdeman, pages 67–69
1159:Huurdeman, pages 67–68
909:
873:
829:
808:
785:
764:
741:
720:
697:
676:
653:
632:
609:
588:
565:
544:
521:
500:
477:
456:
421:
371:
345:
272:
250:
167:
127:
76:
44:and English scientist
29:
1603:Huurdeman, Anton A.,
1498:History of Telegraphy
1105:Bowers, pages 124–125
906:
868:
845:Five-needle telegraph
830:
809:
786:
765:
742:
721:
698:
677:
654:
633:
610:
589:
566:
545:
522:
501:
478:
457:
422:
372:
339:
322:North Midland Railway
295:Railway block working
267:
248:
225:and Cooke formed the
172:Great Western Railway
165:
157:London and Birmingham
125:
97:John Frederic Daniell
95:acting for Cooke and
74:
27:Great Western Railway
24:
1651:The Telegraph Manual
952:) and letter shift (
890:One-needle telegraph
877:Two-needle telegraph
819:
798:
775:
754:
731:
710:
687:
666:
643:
622:
599:
578:
555:
534:
511:
490:
467:
446:
381:
361:
281:Alfred Ernest Albert
93:Marc Isambard Brunel
48:. It was a form of
38:electrical telegraph
1618:Kieve, Jeffrey L.,
1586:Guillemin, Amédée,
1571:Duffy, Michael C.,
1556:Cooke, William F.,
431:
231:General Post Office
1541:Burns, Russel W.,
1484:Shaffner, page 221
1412:Shaffner, page 201
1403:Burns, pages 75–77
1346:Kieve, pages 33-34
1337:Burns, pages 78–79
1258:Kieve, pages 37–38
1240:Beauchamp, page 35
1222:Kieve, pages 31-32
1195:Huurdeman, page 69
1186:Kieve, pages 32-33
1162:Beauchamp, page 35
1147:Huurdeman, page 67
1120:2013-02-19 at the
1069:Shaffner, page 185
910:
874:
828:{\displaystyle 90}
825:
807:{\displaystyle 10}
804:
784:{\displaystyle 72}
781:
760:
740:{\displaystyle 56}
737:
716:
696:{\displaystyle 42}
693:
672:
652:{\displaystyle 30}
649:
628:
608:{\displaystyle 20}
605:
584:
564:{\displaystyle 12}
561:
540:
517:
496:
473:
452:
435:Number of needles
430:
417:
367:
346:
251:
223:John Lewis Ricardo
176:Paddington station
168:
128:
85:Charles Wheatstone
77:
46:Charles Wheatstone
30:
1288:Huurdeman, p. 107
1249:Kieve pages 30-31
1078:Schaffner, p. 190
978:Explanatory notes
838:
837:
763:{\displaystyle 9}
719:{\displaystyle 8}
675:{\displaystyle 7}
631:{\displaystyle 6}
587:{\displaystyle 5}
543:{\displaystyle 4}
520:{\displaystyle 6}
499:{\displaystyle 3}
476:{\displaystyle 2}
455:{\displaystyle 2}
438:Possible symbols
370:{\displaystyle x}
318:Clay Cross Tunnel
314:George Stephenson
219:optical telegraph
153:Robert Stephenson
136:Liverpool station
89:Wheatstone bridge
1680:
1496:Beauchamp, Ken,
1485:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1309:
1298:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1166:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1138:Bowers, page 129
1136:
1125:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1087:Bowers, page 123
1085:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1051:Bowers, page 119
1049:
1034:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1007:
1001:
997:
991:
987:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
834:
832:
831:
826:
813:
811:
810:
805:
790:
788:
787:
782:
769:
767:
766:
761:
746:
744:
743:
738:
725:
723:
722:
717:
702:
700:
699:
694:
681:
679:
678:
673:
658:
656:
655:
650:
637:
635:
634:
629:
614:
612:
611:
606:
593:
591:
590:
585:
570:
568:
567:
562:
549:
547:
546:
541:
526:
524:
523:
518:
505:
503:
502:
497:
482:
480:
479:
474:
461:
459:
458:
453:
432:
429:
426:
424:
423:
418:
376:
374:
373:
368:
283:, second son of
50:needle telegraph
1688:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1658:
1657:
1633:Mercer, David,
1511:Bowers, Brian,
1493:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1363:
1359:
1355:Duffy, page 378
1354:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1322:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1169:
1165:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1128:
1122:Wayback Machine
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1008:
1004:
998:
994:
988:
984:
980:
901:
892:
879:
847:
820:
817:
816:
799:
796:
795:
776:
773:
772:
755:
752:
751:
732:
729:
728:
711:
708:
707:
688:
685:
684:
667:
664:
663:
644:
641:
640:
623:
620:
619:
600:
597:
596:
579:
576:
575:
556:
553:
552:
535:
532:
531:
512:
509:
508:
491:
488:
487:
468:
465:
464:
447:
444:
443:
382:
379:
378:
362:
359:
358:
334:
297:
253:Murder suspect
243:
120:
104:Michael Faraday
69:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1686:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1631:
1616:
1601:
1584:
1569:
1554:
1539:
1524:
1509:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1477:
1465:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1430:Kieve, page 81
1423:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1357:
1348:
1339:
1330:
1299:
1290:
1281:
1269:
1267:Mercer, page 8
1260:
1251:
1242:
1233:
1231:Kieve, page 33
1224:
1215:
1206:
1204:Kieve, page 32
1197:
1188:
1179:
1177:Mercer, page 7
1167:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1140:
1126:
1107:
1098:
1096:Burns, page 72
1089:
1080:
1071:
1062:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1002:
992:
981:
979:
976:
900:
897:
891:
888:
878:
875:
846:
843:
836:
835:
824:
814:
803:
792:
791:
780:
770:
759:
748:
747:
736:
726:
715:
704:
703:
692:
682:
671:
660:
659:
648:
638:
627:
616:
615:
604:
594:
583:
572:
571:
560:
550:
539:
528:
527:
516:
506:
495:
484:
483:
472:
462:
451:
440:
439:
436:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
366:
333:
330:
296:
293:
285:Queen Victoria
242:
239:
119:
116:
68:
65:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1685:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1582:
1581:9780852968055
1578:
1575:, IEE, 2003,
1574:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1481:
1474:
1469:
1460:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1409:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1383:10.37236/1194
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1297:Kieve, p. 176
1294:
1285:
1276:
1274:
1264:
1255:
1246:
1237:
1228:
1219:
1213:Duffy, page 5
1210:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1172:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1066:
1057:
1048:
1044:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1006:
996:
986:
982:
975:
973:
969:
965:
961:
956:
950:
944:
938:
932:
926:
920:
914:
905:
896:
887:
883:
872:
867:
863:
860:
856:
851:
842:
822:
815:
801:
794:
793:
778:
771:
757:
750:
749:
734:
727:
713:
706:
705:
690:
683:
669:
662:
661:
646:
639:
625:
618:
617:
602:
595:
581:
574:
573:
558:
551:
537:
530:
529:
514:
507:
493:
486:
485:
470:
463:
449:
442:
441:
437:
434:
433:
428:
427:symbols. So:
411:
408:
405:
399:
396:
390:
384:
364:
354:
351:
343:
338:
329:
327:
326:moving blocks
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
302:
292:
290:
286:
282:
276:
271:
266:
264:
260:
256:
247:
241:Tawell arrest
238:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
191:
189:
183:
181:
177:
173:
164:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
140:
137:
133:
124:
115:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
73:
64:
62:
57:
53:
51:
47:
43:
39:
36:was an early
35:
28:
23:
19:
1650:
1634:
1619:
1604:
1588:
1572:
1557:
1545:, IEE, 2004
1542:
1527:
1515:, IET, 2001
1512:
1500:, IET, 2001
1497:
1480:
1468:
1459:
1435:
1426:
1417:
1408:
1399:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1321:. Retrieved
1293:
1284:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1209:
1200:
1191:
1182:
1152:
1143:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1056:
1047:
1005:
995:
985:
963:
959:
915:
911:
893:
884:
880:
870:
855:earth return
852:
848:
839:
355:
347:
341:
310:single lines
305:
298:
288:
277:
273:
268:
252:
235:
192:
184:
180:West Drayton
169:
141:
129:
108:electrometer
101:
78:
58:
54:
33:
31:
18:
270:COMPARTMENT
255:John Tawell
149:Camden Town
61:John Tawell
1668:Telegraphy
1662:Categories
1643:031333207X
1613:0471205052
1598:5894380237
1551:0863413277
1536:0226068625
1521:0852961030
1506:0852967926
1323:11 January
972:Morse code
940:), and J (
263:Paddington
215:Portsmouth
1628:655205099
1566:213732219
1391:1077-8926
1040:Citations
970:found in
922:) and Z (
859:codespace
409:−
332:Operation
289:The Times
211:Admiralty
199:Nine Elms
67:Inventors
1317:Archived
1118:Archived
968:prosigns
353:letter.
188:shilling
155:between
320:of the
203:Gosport
118:History
1641:
1626:
1611:
1596:
1579:
1564:
1549:
1534:
1519:
1504:
1389:
964:repeat
934:), Z (
259:Slough
145:Euston
112:detent
1377:(1).
899:Codes
1639:ISBN
1624:OCLC
1609:ISBN
1594:OCLC
1577:ISBN
1562:OCLC
1547:ISBN
1532:ISBN
1517:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1387:ISSN
1325:2009
1027:and
1015:and
962:and
960:wait
299:The
147:and
83:and
32:The
1379:doi
261:to
201:to
178:to
1664::
1385:.
1373:.
1369:.
1302:^
1272:^
1170:^
1129:^
823:90
802:10
779:72
735:56
691:42
647:30
603:20
559:12
1645:.
1630:.
1615:.
1600:.
1583:.
1568:.
1553:.
1538:.
1523:.
1508:.
1393:.
1381::
1375:1
1327:.
871:A
758:9
714:8
670:7
626:6
582:5
538:4
515:6
494:3
471:2
450:2
415:)
412:1
406:x
403:(
400:x
397:=
394:)
391:x
388:(
385:f
365:x
344:.
342:G
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
