1052:(DOCA) provides an open access archive of pretested variables and established codebooks for content analyses. Measures from the archive can be adopted in future studies to ensure the use of high-quality and comparable instruments. DOCA covers, among others, measures for the content analysis of fictional media and entertainment (e.g., measures for sexualization in video games), of user-generated media content (e.g., measures for online hate speech), and of news media and journalism (e.g., measures for stock photo use in press reporting on child sexual abuse, and measures of personalization in election campaign coverage).
1200:, the process by which meaning is formed out of language. Quantitative content analysts have been criticized for limiting the scope of content analysis to simple counting, and for applying the measurement methodologies of the natural sciences without reflecting critically on their appropriateness to social science. Conversely, qualitative content analysts have been criticized for being insufficiently systematic and too impressionistic. Krippendorff argues that quantitative and qualitative approaches to content analysis tend to overlap, and that there can be no generalisable conclusion as to which approach is superior.
36:
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1462:, if instead the target quantity manifestly is already directly measurable——typically on an interval or ratio scale——especially a continuous physical quantity, then such targets usually are not listed among those needing the "subjective" selections and formulations of content analysis. For example (from mixed research and clinical application), as medical images
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an "overlap" of qualitative and quantitative content analysis. Patterns are looked at more closely in qualitative analysis, and based on the latent meanings that the researcher may find, the course of the research could be changed. It is inductive and begins with open research questions, as opposed to a hypothesis.
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texts. While methods in quantitative content analysis in this way transform observations of found categories into quantitative statistical data, the qualitative content analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its implications. There are strong parallels between qualitative content analysis and
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provides a critique of quantitative analysis, asserting that it oversimplifies complex communications in order to be more reliable. On the other hand, qualitative analysis deals with the intricacies of latent interpretations, whereas quantitative has a focus on manifest meanings. He also acknowledges
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With either approach above, immersing oneself into the data to obtain an overall picture is recommendable for researchers to conduct. Furthermore, identifying a consistent and clear unit of coding is vital, and researchers' choices range from a single word to several paragraphs, from texts to iconic
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The process of the initial coding scheme or approach to coding is contingent on the particular content analysis approach selected. Through a directed content analysis, the scholars draft a preliminary coding scheme from pre-existing theory or assumptions. While with the conventional content analysis
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With the rise of common computing facilities like PCs, computer-based methods of analysis are growing in popularity. Answers to open ended questions, newspaper articles, political party manifestos, medical records or systematic observations in experiments can all be subject to systematic analysis of
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A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based (quantitative) approaches and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of categories derived from the frequency list of words and control the distribution of words and their respective categories over the
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Content analysis is research using the categorization and classification of speech, written text, interviews, images, or other forms of communication. In its beginnings, using the first newspapers at the end of the 19th century, analysis was done manually by measuring the number of columns given a
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and communication artifacts, which might be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video. Social scientists use content analysis to examine patterns in communication in a replicable and systematic manner. One of the key advantages of using content analysis to analyse social phenomena is their
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or "the amount of agreement or correspondence among two or more coders". Lacy and Riffe identify the measurement of inter-coder reliability as a strength of quantitative content analysis, arguing that, if content analysts do not measure inter-coder reliability, their data are no more reliable than
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Robert Weber notes: "To make valid inferences from the text, it is important that the classification procedure be reliable in the sense of being consistent: Different people should code the same text in the same way". The validity, inter-coder reliability and intra-coder reliability are subject to
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classifiers can greatly increase the number of texts that can be labeled, but the scientific utility of doing so is a matter of debate. Further, numerous computer-aided text analysis (CATA) computer programs are available that analyze text for predetermined linguistic, semantic, and psychological
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As a counterpoint, there are limits to the scope of use for the procedures that characterize content analysis. In particular, if access to the goal of analysis can be obtained by direct means without material interference, then direct measurement techniques yield better data. Thus, while content
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Computer-assisted analysis can help with large, electronic data sets by cutting out time and eliminating the need for multiple human coders to establish inter-coder reliability. However, human coders can still be employed for content analysis, as they are often more able to pick out nuanced and
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formulated the core questions of content analysis in its early-mid 20th-century mainstream version: "Who says what, to whom, why, to what extent and with what effect?". The strong emphasis for a quantitative approach started up by
Lasswell was finally carried out by another "father" of content
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Quantitative content analysis highlights frequency counts and statistical analysis of these coded frequencies. Additionally, quantitative content analysis begins with a framed hypothesis with coding decided on before the analysis begins. These coding categories are strictly relevant to the
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of content analysis onto an estimation of infarct extent, which instead is easily enough and more accurately measured as a volume directly on the images. ("Accuracy ... is the highest form of reliability.") The concomitant clinical assessment, however, by the
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Quantitative content analysis has enjoyed a renewed popularity in recent years thanks to technological advances and fruitful application in of mass communication and personal communication research. Content analysis of textual
1176:, who proposed a definition of content analysis which, from this point of view, is emblematic: "a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication".
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affirms that "comprehen ... may ... not conform at all to the process of classification and/or counting by which most content analyses proceed," suggesting that content analysis might materially distort a message.
1207:, which are documents from past times, and artifacts, which are non-linguistic documents. Texts are understood to be produced by communication processes in a broad sense of that phrase—often gaining mean through
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Computers are increasingly used in content analysis to automate the labeling (or coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data such as word frequencies and document lengths.
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The following table shows fifteen uses of content analysis in terms of their general purpose, element of the communication paradigm to which they apply, and the general question they are intended to answer.
2735:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 1–16. (Chapter 1, "The Methodology of Content Analysis," on the quantitative nature and uses of content analysis, and quoting "subjective" from page 12).
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According to today's reporting standards, quantitative content analyses should be published with complete codebooks and for all variables or measures in the codebook the appropriate inter-coder or
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researcher's hypothesis. Quantitative analysis also takes a deductive approach. Examples of content-analytical variables and constructs can be found, for example, in the open-access database
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Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions. That said, according to
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of all variables or measures in the codebook must be ensured. This can be achieved through the use of established measures that have proven their validity in earlier studies. Also, the
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Manifest content is readily understandable at its face value. Its meaning is direct. Latent content is not as overt, and requires interpretation to uncover the meaning or implication.
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intense methodological research efforts over long years. Neuendorf suggests that when human coders are used in content analysis at least two independent coders should be used.
2689:. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office. (ASCII transcription; Chapter 3:1.1, on uses according to scale type, and Appendix III, on intercoder reliability).
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By having contents of communication available in form of machine readable texts, the input is analyzed for frequencies and coded into categories for building up inferences.
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According to current standards of good scientific practice, each content analysis study should provide their codebook in the appendix or as supplementary material so that
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coding. The codebook includes detailed instructions for human coders plus clear definitions of the respective concepts or variables to be coded plus the assigned values.
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Graneheim, Ulla Hällgren; Lundman, Berit (2004). "Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness".
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of the measures can be checked by experts from the field who scrutinize and then approve or correct coding instructions, definitions and examples in the codebook.
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The data collection instrument used in content analysis is the codebook or coding scheme. In qualitative content analysis the codebook is constructed and improved
1007:. This database compiles, systematizes, and evaluates relevant content-analytical variables of communication and political science research areas and topics.
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1515:(mRS), retains the necessary form of content analysis. Recognizing potential limits of content analysis across the contents of language and images alike,
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latent meanings in text. A study found that human coders were able to evaluate a broader range and make inferences based on latent meanings.
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1167:, content analysis has known an increasing use to deeply analyze and understand media content and media logic. The political scientist
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Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between academic disciplines. They all involve systematic reading or observation of
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Conway, Mike (March 2006). "The
Subjective Precision of Computers: A Methodological Comparison with Human Coding in Content Analysis".
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978:(KWIC) routines address this by placing words in their textual context. This helps resolve ambiguities such as those introduced by
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subject. The approach can also be traced back to a university student studying patterns in
Shakespeare's literature in 1893.
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coding, while in quantitative content analysis the codebook needs to be developed and pretested for reliability and validity
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whose features are primarily categorical——limited usually to a nominal or ordinal scale——via selected conceptual units (the
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2770:. (§3, §6, and §7 for the nature of, risks of, and alternative to ASPECTS, and page 76 for comparison to content analysis).
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Lacy, Stephen R; Riffe, Daniel (1993). "Sins of
Omission and Commission in Mass Communication Quantitative Research".
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symbols. Last, constructing the relationships between codes by sorting out them within specific categories or themes.
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program. Analysis of simple word frequencies is limited because the meaning of a word depends on surrounding text.
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The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous characteristics of the text such as
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Oehmer-Pedrazzi, Franziska; Kessler, Sabrina; Humprecht, Edda; Sommer, Katharina; Castro
Herrero, Laia (2022).
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have long used content analysis to interpret sacred and profane texts and, in many cases, to attribute texts'
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Lasswell, Harold (1948). "The
Structure and Function of Communication in Society". In Bryson, L. (ed.).
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has become popular. These approaches take a simplified view of language that ignores the complexity of
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2280:. (On content analysis's quantitative nature, unitization and categorization, and uses by scale type).
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1759:"Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study"
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2720:. (On content analysis's quantitative nature, unitization and categorization, and descriptive role).
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University of
Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons, Annenberg School of Communication Departmental Papers
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Text
Analysis for the Social Sciences: Methods for Drawing Inferences from Texts and Transcripts
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Text as data: The promise and pitfalls of automatic content analysis methods for political texts
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non-invasive nature, in contrast to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers.
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a lot of codebooks of content analysis studies are freely available via search for "codebook".
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2672:. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office. pp. 19–21. (Linked to a PDF).
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White, Marilyn Domas; Marsh, Emily E. (2006). "Content
Analysis: A Flexible Methodology".
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Jang-Hwan Lee; Young-Gul Kim; Sung-Ho Yu (2001). "Stage model for knowledge management".
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2293:"On the choice of measures of reliability and validity in the content-analysis of texts"
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Note. Purpose, communication element, & question from Holsti. Uses primarily from
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Mapping Policy
Preferences. Estimates for Parties, Electors and Governments 1945-1998
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2140:." Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Knowledge capture. ACM, 2003.
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Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
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coefficients should be reported based on empirical pre-tests. Furthermore, the
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Content Analysis: A Methodology for Structuring and Analyzing Written Material
2669:
Content Analysis: A Methodology for Structuring and Analyzing Written Material
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Oleinik, Anton; Popova, Irina; Kirdina, Svetlana; Shatalova, Tatyana (2014).
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2023:"Iconography of Child Sexual Abuse in the News (Justice and Crime Reporting)"
1999:
1954:
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Kracauer, Siegfried (1952). "The Challenge of Qualitative Content Analysis".
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Sentiment analysis: Capturing favorability using natural language processing
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Describe & make inferences about the characteristics of communications
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Content Analysis: A Technique for Systematic Inference from Communications
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Over the years, content analysis has been applied to a variety of scopes.
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Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element, and Question
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Relate known characteristics of audiences to messages produced for them
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He also places these uses into the context of the basic communication
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pieces of content. By systematically labeling the content of a set of
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describe and make inferences about characteristics of a communication
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27:
2560:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 14–93. (Table 2-1, page 26).
2509:
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Vaismoradi, Mojtaba; Turunen, Hannele; Bondas, Terese (2013-09-01).
3584:
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1830:
1309:
1257:
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879:
2655:. (On the meanings of "categorical" and other measurement scales).
1825:(4, Special Issue on International Communications Research): 631.
966:, the page area taken by a newspaper column, or the duration of a
831:
16:
Research method for studying documents and communication artifacts
2748:"ASPECTS, The Mismeasure of Stroke: A Metrological Investigation"
2035:
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as being at least partly versus not at all infarcted in order to
1081:
of human coding is often measured using a statistical measure of
983:
979:
71:
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1990:
1945:
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Relate known characteristics of sources to messages they produce
1227:
Holsti groups fifteen uses of content analysis into three basic
997:
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1909:
1523:
1471:
1004:
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as 10 qualitatively delineated (unequal) brain regions in the
3021:
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1529:
approach, the initial coding scheme developed from the data.
967:
939:, six questions must be addressed in every content analysis:
2270:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. (passim).
2110:
Pfeiffer, Silvia, Stefan Fischer, and Wolfgang Effelsberg. "
3599:
1125:
audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos
1401:
Make inferences about the consequences of communications
1287:
Make inferences about the antecedents of communications
2603:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
2588:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
2558:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
1756:
1736:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. p. 413.
2986:
Krippendorff, Klaus; Bock, Mary Angela, eds. (2008).
1931:
Wulf, Tim; Possler, Daniel; Breuer, Johannes (2021).
1697:
1532:
2842:(2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. p. 17.
2425:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
2338:
Sumpter, Randall S. (July 2001). "News about News".
2267:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
1910:"DOCA - Database of Categories for Content Analysis"
1733:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
1635:
The interpretation of documents and material culture
1603:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Oxford University Press.
1119:
oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance
1203:Content analysis can also be described as studying
1122:
iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons
1109:There are five types of texts in content analysis:
2731:Hall, Calvin S.; Van de Castle, Robert L. (1966).
2645:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 2–4.
2065:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1490:the latter, with published series often assessing
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2072:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
2027:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1982:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1937:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1930:
1659:
1657:
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1163:In recent times, particularly with the advent of
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2201:(2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. p.
1718:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1086:the subjective impressions of a single reader.
3012:
2590:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 15–16.
2068:"Personalization (Election Campaign Coverage)"
1652:
1214:
914:methods to analyse meanings of content within
902:, researchers can analyse patterns of content
3037:
2783:"ASPECTS Distorts Infarct Volume Measurement"
2551:
2549:
2547:
2456:"Theory Construction in Qualitative Research"
2228:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
2152:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
998:Qualitative and quantitative content analysis
856:
2862:
2420:
2394:
2263:
2020:
1729:
1684:
1524:The development of the initial coding scheme
2630:. (On content analysis's descriptive role).
2620:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 52–54.
2127:." Political analysis 21.3 (2013): 267-297.
1442:analysis attempts to quantifiably describe
1071:
3044:
3030:
2781:Suss, Richard A.; Pinho, Marco C. (2020).
2573:Content Analysis in Communication Research
2544:
2403:Content Analysis in Communication Research
2123:Grimmer, Justin, and Brandon M. Stewart. "
1854:
1598:
1509:National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
1376:Compare communication content to standards
1050:Database of Variables for Content Analysis
863:
849:
34:
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2806:
2780:
2615:
2454:Timmermans, Stefan; Tavory, Iddo (2012).
2225:
2079:
2034:
1989:
1944:
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1774:
1638:. Thousand Oaks etc.: Sage. p. 155.
1474:(infarct) volume scale called ASPECTS is
1298:Answer questions of disputed authorship (
894:to indicate the presence of interesting,
3013:Wimmer, Roger; Dominick, Joseph (2005).
2999:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2570:
2400:
2390:. New York: Harper and Row. p. 216.
2380:
2021:Döring, Nicola; Walter, Roberto (2022).
1816:
1564:The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
1370:Describe trends in communication content
955:What are the boundaries of the analysis?
892:assigned labels (sometimes called codes)
3017:(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
3003:
2682:
2665:
2640:
2337:
1663:
1332:Provide legal & evaluative evidence
1131:, which are texts found on the Internet
4024:
2981:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
2699:
2600:
2585:
2555:
2149:
1978:"Hate speech (Hate Speech/Incivility)"
1670:. Bologna, IT: Il Mulino. p. 42.
1667:L'analisi del contenuto e i mass media
1631:
1055:
3025:
2976:
2837:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2259:
2257:
2192:
2136:Nasukawa, Tetsuya, and Jeonghee Yi. "
1850:
1848:
1812:
1810:
1698:Kimberly A. Neuendorf (30 May 2016).
3015:Mass Media Research: An Introduction
2885:
2875:. (Quote from 4th page, unnumbered).
2745:
2066:Leidecker-Sandmann, Melanie (2021).
1975:
949:From what population are data drawn?
1466:diagnostic features to physicians,
1329:Infer cultural aspects & change
13:
2933:
2787:American Journal of Neuroradiology
2702:"Content Analysis: A Review Essay"
2409:
2405:. Glencoe: Free Press. p. 18.
2254:
1845:
1807:
1533:The conventional process of coding
1424:Assess responses to communications
1394:Describe patterns of communication
14:
4053:
1599:Bryman, Alan; Bell, Emma (2011).
1450:) which are assigned values (the
3253:
2514:. IEEE Comput. Soc. p. 10.
2112:Automatic audio content analysis
1352:Analyse techniques of persuasion
1104:
1037:of the study is ensured. On the
830:
3008:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2879:
2856:
2831:
2774:
2739:
2724:
2693:
2676:
2659:
2634:
2616:Neuendorf, Kimberly A. (2002).
2609:
2594:
2579:
2564:
2503:
2447:
2374:
2331:
2284:
2219:
2186:
2143:
2130:
2117:
2114:." Technical Reports 96 (1996).
2104:
2059:
2014:
1969:
1924:
416:Peace, war, and social conflict
3051:
2997:The Content Analysis Guidebook
2733:The Content Analysis of Dreams
2718:10.1080/00182494.1971.10593939
2618:The Content Analysis Guidebook
2605:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2352:10.1080/00947679.2001.12062572
1901:
1750:
1701:The Content Analysis Guidebook
1625:
1592:
1:
3349:Industrial and organizational
2865:"Review of Thomas F. Carney,
2838:Weber, Robert Philip (1990).
2706:Historical Methods Newsletter
2429:. California: Sage. pp.
2193:Weber, Robert Philip (1990).
1933:"Sexualization (Video Games)"
1763:Nursing & Health Sciences
1585:
1326:Analyse traits of individuals
952:What is the relevant context?
3590:Human factors and ergonomics
2995:Neuendorf, Kimberly (2017).
2863:Krippendorff, Klaus (1974).
2421:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
2264:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
1730:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
1406:
1403:
1385:
1382:
1364:
1361:
1346:
1341:
1314:
1308:
1292:
1289:
1017:
7:
3004:Roberts, Carl, ed. (1997).
2988:The Content Analysis Reader
2683:Delfico, Joseph F. (1996).
2666:Delfico, Joseph F. (1996).
2575:. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press.
1541:
1239:about the antecedents of a
1215:Latent and manifest content
10:
4058:
2990:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2954:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001
2571:Berelson, Bernard (1952).
2384:The Communication of Ideas
2240:10.1177/107769909307000114
2164:10.1177/107769900608300112
1248:make inferences about the
1135:
1116:, such as books and papers
87:Human environmental impact
3976:
3913:
3620:
3530:
3442:
3279:Applied behavior analysis
3262:
3251:
3087:
3059:
2746:Suss, Richard A. (2020).
2643:Categorical Data Analysis
2520:10.1109/hicss.2001.927103
2309:10.1007/s11135-013-9919-0
1601:Business research methods
1430:
1338:
1286:
946:How are the data defined?
2977:Budge, Ian, ed. (2001).
2475:10.1177/0735275112457914
1976:Esau, Katharina (2021).
1819:Public Opinion Quarterly
1072:Reliability and Validity
943:Which data are analyzed?
930:
181:Structural functionalism
3555:Behavioral neuroscience
3119:Behavioral neuroscience
2886:Frey, Bruce B. (2018).
2601:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
2586:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
2556:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
1320:Secure political &
1222:
1091:inter-rater reliability
1083:inter-coder reliability
1043:Center for Open Science
958:What is to be measured?
890:or artifacts which are
201:Symbolic interactionism
96:Industrial revolutions
3605:Psychology of religion
3545:Behavioral engineering
3482:Human subject research
3138:Cognitive neuroscience
3104:Affective neuroscience
2840:Basic Content Analysis
2641:Agresti, Alan (2002).
2297:Quality & Quantity
2197:Basic Content Analysis
1575:Video content analysis
1502:impose the uncredited
1492:intercoder reliability
1480:middle cerebral artery
1460:intercoder reliability
1435:as adapted by Holsti.
1039:Open Science Framework
191:Social constructionism
4032:Quantitative research
3981:Wiktionary definition
3517:Self-report inventory
3512:Quantitative research
2942:Nurse Education Today
2898:10.4135/9781506326139
2760:10.31219/osf.io/c4tkp
2401:Berelson, B. (1952).
1869:10.1353/lib.2006.0053
1513:modified Rankin Scale
1500:italicized operations
1322:military intelligence
566:Conversation analysis
141:Social stratification
4037:Qualitative research
3507:Qualitative research
3462:Behavior epigenetics
2700:Carney, T F (1971).
1664:Tipaldo, G. (2014).
1482:territory, which it
1041:(OSF) server of the
3986:Wiktionary category
3550:Behavioral genetics
3522:Statistical surveys
3379:Occupational health
3114:Behavioral genetics
2463:Sociological Theory
1632:Hodder, I. (1994).
1548:Donald Wayne Foster
1420:flow of information
1300:authorship analysis
1269:
1252:of a communication.
1056:Computational tools
976:Key Word In Context
908:statistical methods
151:Social cycle theory
22:Part of a series on
3958:Schools of thought
3861:Richard E. Nisbett
3741:Donald T. Campbell
3419:Sport and exercise
2799:10.3174/ajnr.A6485
2340:Journalism History
1517:Klaus Krippendorff
1407:With what effect?
1267:
1165:mass communication
1011:Siegfried Kracauer
937:Klaus Krippendorff
837:Society portal
460:History of science
441:Race and ethnicity
121:Social environment
4019:
4018:
3996:Wikimedia Commons
3923:Counseling topics
3886:Ronald C. Kessler
3876:Shelley E. Taylor
3801:Lawrence Kohlberg
3776:Stanley Schachter
3575:Consumer behavior
3457:Archival research
3225:Psycholinguistics
3109:Affective science
2440:978-0-7619-1544-7
1776:10.1111/nhs.12048
1711:978-1-4129-7947-4
1677:978-88-15-24832-9
1458:while monitoring
1439:
1438:
1404:Decoding process
1048:Furthermore, the
992:thematic analysis
927:characteristics.
873:
872:
591:Social experiment
471:Social psychology
116:Social complexity
4049:
3953:Research methods
3896:Richard Davidson
3891:Joseph E. LeDoux
3766:George A. Miller
3756:David McClelland
3751:Herbert A. Simon
3651:Edward Thorndike
3472:Content analysis
3257:
3230:Psychophysiology
3046:
3039:
3032:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2982:
2973:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2889:Content Analysis
2883:
2877:
2876:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2810:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2553:
2542:
2541:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2491:
2485:. Archived from
2460:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2428:
2418:
2407:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2303:(5): 2703–2718.
2288:
2282:
2281:
2261:
2252:
2251:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2200:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2147:
2141:
2134:
2128:
2121:
2115:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2083:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2038:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1993:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1948:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1880:
1852:
1843:
1842:
1814:
1805:
1804:
1778:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1727:
1716:
1715:
1695:
1682:
1681:
1661:
1650:
1649:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1596:
1570:Transition words
1498:. The foregoing
1270:
1266:
1174:Bernard Berelson
1099:content validity
964:word frequencies
924:Machine learning
878:is the study of
876:Content analysis
865:
858:
851:
835:
834:
586:Network analysis
476:Sociocybernetics
466:Social movements
196:Social darwinism
146:Social structure
38:
19:
18:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4022:
4021:
4020:
4015:
3972:
3948:Psychotherapies
3909:
3866:Martin Seligman
3831:Daniel Kahneman
3771:Richard Lazarus
3721:Raymond Cattell
3625:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3526:
3438:
3265:
3258:
3249:
3210:Neuropsychology
3090:
3083:
3055:
3050:
2936:
2934:Further reading
2931:
2930:
2920:
2918:
2908:
2884:
2880:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2836:
2832:
2779:
2775:
2744:
2740:
2729:
2725:
2698:
2694:
2681:
2677:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2614:
2610:
2599:
2595:
2584:
2580:
2569:
2565:
2554:
2545:
2530:
2508:
2504:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2458:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2419:
2410:
2399:
2395:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2336:
2332:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2262:
2255:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2191:
2187:
2148:
2144:
2135:
2131:
2122:
2118:
2109:
2105:
2064:
2060:
2019:
2015:
1974:
1970:
1929:
1925:
1906:
1902:
1853:
1846:
1815:
1808:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1728:
1719:
1712:
1696:
1685:
1678:
1662:
1653:
1646:
1630:
1626:
1611:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1580:Grounded theory
1544:
1535:
1526:
1511:(NIHSS) or the
1225:
1217:
1188:, particularly
1169:Harold Lasswell
1138:
1107:
1074:
1058:
1035:reproducibility
1020:
1000:
933:
869:
829:
822:
821:
782:
772:
771:
699:
625:
611:
609:Major theorists
601:
600:
536:
526:
525:
216:
206:
205:
176:Critical theory
171:Conflict theory
166:
156:
155:
126:Social equality
67:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4055:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3919:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3906:Roy Baumeister
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3841:Michael Posner
3838:
3833:
3828:
3826:Elliot Aronson
3823:
3821:Walter Mischel
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3786:Albert Bandura
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3761:Leon Festinger
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3731:Neal E. Miller
3728:
3726:Abraham Maslow
3723:
3718:
3713:
3711:Ernest Hilgard
3708:
3706:Donald O. Hebb
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3686:J. P. Guilford
3683:
3681:Gordon Allport
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3661:John B. Watson
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3626:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3452:Animal testing
3448:
3446:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3270:
3268:
3260:
3259:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3155:Cross-cultural
3152:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3135:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3095:
3093:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3019:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2983:
2974:
2948:(2): 105–112.
2935:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2906:
2878:
2855:
2848:
2830:
2773:
2738:
2723:
2692:
2675:
2658:
2651:
2633:
2626:
2608:
2593:
2578:
2563:
2543:
2528:
2502:
2469:(3): 167–186.
2446:
2439:
2408:
2393:
2373:
2330:
2283:
2276:
2253:
2234:(1): 126–132.
2218:
2211:
2185:
2158:(1): 186–200.
2142:
2129:
2116:
2103:
2058:
2013:
1968:
1923:
1900:
1857:Library Trends
1844:
1831:10.1086/266427
1806:
1769:(3): 398–405.
1749:
1742:
1717:
1710:
1683:
1676:
1651:
1645:978-0761926870
1644:
1624:
1609:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1525:
1522:
1452:categorization
1444:communications
1437:
1436:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1416:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1387:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1316:
1313:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1254:
1253:
1246:
1243:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1194:mobile devices
1137:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1106:
1103:
1073:
1070:
1061:textual data.
1057:
1054:
1019:
1016:
999:
996:
960:
959:
956:
953:
950:
947:
944:
932:
929:
904:quantitatively
871:
870:
868:
867:
860:
853:
845:
842:
841:
840:
839:
824:
823:
820:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
783:
778:
777:
774:
773:
627:
626:
612:
607:
606:
603:
602:
599:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
537:
532:
531:
528:
527:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
236:Astrosociology
233:
228:
223:
217:
212:
211:
208:
207:
204:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
167:
162:
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
94:
89:
84:
82:Human behavior
79:
74:
68:
65:
64:
61:
60:
59:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
31:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4054:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3943:Psychologists
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3933:Organizations
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:John Anderson
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3811:Ulric Neisser
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3796:Endel Tulving
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3781:Robert Zajonc
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3736:Jerome Bruner
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3701:B. F. Skinner
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3666:Clark L. Hull
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3646:Sigmund Freud
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3636:William James
3634:
3632:
3631:Wilhelm Wundt
3629:
3627:
3624:
3623:Psychologists
3619:
3611:
3610:Psychometrics
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
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2752:OSF Preprints
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2529:0-7695-0981-9
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2492:on 2019-08-19
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802:Organizations
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556:Computational
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301:Environmental
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251:Consciousness
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131:Social equity
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4042:Hermeneutics
3856:Larry Squire
3851:Bruce McEwen
3846:Amos Tversky
3816:Jerome Kagan
3806:Noam Chomsky
3746:Hans Eysenck
3716:Harry Harlow
3696:Erik Erikson
3595:Intelligence
3492:Neuroimaging
3471:
3235:Quantitative
3200:Mathematical
3195:Intelligence
3185:Experimental
3180:Evolutionary
3170:Differential
3079:Psychologist
3014:
3005:
2996:
2987:
2978:
2945:
2941:
2921:December 16,
2919:. Retrieved
2888:
2881:
2872:
2866:
2858:
2839:
2833:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2751:
2741:
2732:
2726:
2712:(2): 52–61.
2709:
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2617:
2611:
2602:
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2572:
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2511:
2505:
2494:. Retrieved
2487:the original
2466:
2462:
2449:
2424:
2402:
2396:
2383:
2376:
2346:(2): 64–72.
2343:
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2227:
2221:
2196:
2188:
2155:
2151:
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2132:
2119:
2106:
2071:
2061:
2036:10.34778/2zu
2026:
2016:
1981:
1971:
1936:
1926:
1903:
1863:(1): 22–45.
1860:
1856:
1822:
1818:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1732:
1700:
1666:
1634:
1627:
1600:
1594:
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1553:Hermeneutics
1536:
1527:
1503:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1468:neuroimaging
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1418:Analyse the
1262:
1255:
1226:
1218:
1202:
1190:social media
1184:produced by
1178:
1162:
1158:authenticity
1146:Hermeneutics
1143:
1139:
1114:written text
1108:
1088:
1082:
1075:
1066:
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1032:
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988:
961:
934:
920:
885:
875:
874:
787:Bibliography
701:
629:
628:
615:
581:Mathematical
561:Ethnographic
541:Quantitative
226:Architecture
164:Perspectives
136:Social power
3928:Disciplines
3901:Susan Fiske
3791:Roger Brown
3691:Carl Rogers
3676:Jean Piaget
3641:Ivan Pavlov
3497:Observation
3477:Experiments
3424:Suicidology
3319:Educational
3274:Anomalistic
3245:Theoretical
3220:Personality
3150:Comparative
3133:Cognitivism
3124:Behaviorism
2081:10.34778/2g
1991:10.34778/5a
1946:10.34778/3e
1558:Text mining
1484:categorizes
1464:communicate
1456:enumeration
1448:unitization
1414:readability
1079:Reliability
912:qualitative
792:Terminology
761:Baudrillard
637:Tocqueville
551:Comparative
546:Qualitative
516:Victimology
346:Immigration
331:Generations
246:Criminology
4026:Categories
3991:Wikisource
3836:Paul Ekman
3671:Kurt Lewin
3565:Competence
3487:Interviews
3467:Case study
3344:Humanistic
3324:Ergonomics
3309:Counseling
3284:Assessment
3266:psychology
3215:Perception
3175:Ecological
3091:psychology
3069:Philosophy
3053:Psychology
2849:0803938632
2793:(5): E28.
2652:0471360937
2627:0761919783
2496:2018-12-09
2277:0761915451
1586:References
1383:Recipient
1237:inferences
1229:categories
1172:analysis,
1154:authorship
1129:hypertexts
972:television
896:meaningful
817:By country
571:Historical
496:Technology
436:Punishment
421:Philosophy
396:Mathematic
386:Literature
351:Industrial
341:Historical
266:Demography
186:Positivism
111:Popularity
66:Key themes
4011:Wikibooks
4001:Wikiquote
3871:Ed Diener
3656:Carl Jung
3560:Cognition
3389:Political
3299:Community
3129:Cognitive
2825:214767536
2768:242764761
2483:145177394
2368:140499059
2360:0094-7679
2325:144174429
2317:1573-7845
2248:144076335
2180:143292050
2172:1077-6990
2098:235520184
2090:2673-8597
2053:248329276
2045:2673-8597
2008:235551271
2000:2673-8597
1963:233683109
1955:2673-8597
1918:2673-8597
1887:1559-0682
1878:2142/3670
1839:0033-362X
1785:1442-2018
1619:746155102
1488:enumerate
1386:To whom?
1279:Question
1209:abduction
1186:new media
1150:philology
1018:Codebooks
910:, or use
880:documents
633:Martineau
576:Interview
501:Terrorism
481:Sociology
426:Political
366:Knowledge
286:Education
28:Sociology
4006:Wikinews
3963:Timeline
3585:Feelings
3580:Emotions
3540:Behavior
3531:Concepts
3409:Religion
3394:Positive
3384:Pastoral
3369:Military
3334:Forensic
3329:Feminist
3314:Critical
3304:Consumer
3294:Coaching
3289:Clinical
3264:Applied
3160:Cultural
3099:Abnormal
2970:17354453
2962:14769454
2892:. Sage.
2817:32241774
2538:34182315
1801:10881485
1793:23480423
1704:. SAGE.
1542:See also
1476:unitized
1433:Berelson
1412:Measure
1362:Message
1312:process
1310:Encoding
1276:Element
1273:Purpose
1258:paradigm
1198:semiosis
1182:big data
1095:validity
984:homonyms
980:synonyms
812:Timeline
797:Journals
765:Bourdieu
757:Habermas
753:Luhmann
749:Foucault
693:Mannheim
673:Durkheim
446:Religion
406:Military
371:Language
356:Internet
311:Feminist
295:Jealousy
281:Economic
276:Disaster
271:Deviance
214:Branches
92:Identity
3938:Outline
3434:Traffic
3429:Systems
3364:Medical
3190:Gestalt
3064:History
2916:4110403
2808:7228155
1895:6342233
1343:Channel
1290:Source
1250:effects
1136:History
769:Giddens
767:·
763:·
755:·
743:·
741:Goffman
737:Schoeck
723:·
715:·
691:·
689:Du Bois
687:·
679:·
675:·
667:·
661:Tönnies
659:·
645:Spencer
643:·
621:·
534:Methods
511:Utopian
456:Science
401:Medical
391:Marxist
381:Leisure
291:Emotion
256:Culture
72:Society
51:Outline
46:History
3968:Topics
3414:School
3339:Health
3240:Social
3143:Social
3089:Basic
3074:Portal
2968:
2960:
2914:
2904:
2846:
2823:
2815:
2805:
2766:
2649:
2624:
2536:
2526:
2481:
2437:
2366:
2358:
2323:
2315:
2274:
2246:
2209:
2178:
2170:
2096:
2088:
2051:
2043:
2006:
1998:
1961:
1953:
1916:
1893:
1885:
1837:
1799:
1791:
1783:
1740:
1708:
1674:
1642:
1617:
1607:
1472:stroke
1454:) for
1365:What?
1205:traces
1028:before
1024:during
906:using
807:People
745:Bauman
725:Nisbet
721:Merton
713:Gehlen
709:Adorno
702:1900s:
677:Addams
669:Simmel
665:Veblen
657:Pareto
649:Le Bon
630:1800s:
623:Sieyès
616:1700s:
596:Survey
521:Visual
431:Public
336:Health
326:Gender
316:Fiscal
306:Family
3915:Lists
3374:Music
3359:Media
3354:Legal
3205:Moral
2966:S2CID
2912:S2CID
2821:S2CID
2764:S2CID
2534:S2CID
2490:(PDF)
2479:S2CID
2459:(PDF)
2433:–89.
2388:(PDF)
2364:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2244:S2CID
2176:S2CID
2094:S2CID
2049:S2CID
2004:S2CID
1959:S2CID
1891:S2CID
1797:S2CID
1347:How?
1315:Why?
1293:Who?
1235:make
968:radio
931:Goals
916:texts
900:texts
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