Social stratification

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variables that contribute to an understanding of social stratification have long been identified, models of these variables and their role in constituting social stratification are still an active topic of theory and research. In general, sociologists recognize that there are no "pure" economic variables, as social factors are integral to economic value. However, the variables posited to affect social stratification can be loosely divided into economic and other social factors.

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notion of communism, removed from the context of domesticity and harnessed to support a project of social engineering for large-scale, industrialized states with populations of millions, eventually came to mean something quite different from what Morgan had intended: namely, a principle of redistribution that would override all ties of a personal or familial nature, and cancel out their effects."

1363:, is determined by one's relationship to the means of production. There exist at least two classes in any class-based society: the owners of the means of production and those who sell their labor to the owners of the means of production. At times, Marx almost hints that the ruling classes seem to own the working class itself as they only have their own 2800:, such as that which many scholars posit is practiced in more contemporary societies, is socially hidden and less easily detectable. Covert racism often feeds into stratification systems as an intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities, and housing. Both overt and covert racism can take the form of 1554:: A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have placed these people in the 2981:

reports that 21 percent of people worldwide, around 1.5 billion, live in extreme poverty, at or below $ 1.25 a day. Zygmunt Bauman has provocatively observed that the rise of the rich is linked to their capacity to lead highly mobile lives: "Mobility climbs to the rank of the uppermost among coveted

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Ethnic prejudice and discrimination operate much the same as do racial prejudice and discrimination in society. In fact, only recently have scholars begun to differentiate race and ethnicity; historically, the two were considered to be identical or closely related. With the scientific development of

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Whenever a hunter makes a kill, he is ceaselessly teased and ridiculed (in a friendly, joking fashion) to prevent him from becoming too proud or egotistical. The meat itself is then distributed evenly among the entire social group, rather than kept by the hunter. The level of teasing is proportional

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in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in

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recognition of a dominant wealthy and powerful class, Mills believed that the source for that power lay not only in the economic realm but also in the political and military arenas. During the 1950s, Mills stated that hardly anyone knew about the power elite's existence, some individuals (including

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exists in some societies such that men, typically, receive higher wages than women for the same type of work. Other differences in employment between men and women lead to an overall gender-based pay-gap in many societies, where women as a category earn less than men due to the types of jobs which

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Mills explains that the power elite embody a privileged class whose members are able to recognize their high position within society. In order to maintain their highly exalted position within society, members of the power elite tend to marry one another, understand and accept one another, and also

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argues that a position does not bring power and prestige because it draws a high income; rather, it draws a high income because it is functionally important and the available personnel is for one reason or another scarce. Most high-income jobs are difficult and require a high level of education to

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area. Some of these variables may have both causal and intervening effects on social status and stratification. For example, absolute age may cause a low income if one is too young or too old to perform productive work. The social perception of age and its role in the workplace, which may lead to

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Mills shows that the power elite has an "inner-core" made up of individuals who are able to move from one position of institutional power to another; for example, a prominent military officer who becomes a political adviser or a powerful politician who becomes a corporate executive. "These people

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dispute the "universal" nature of social stratification, holding that it is not the standard among all societies. John Gowdy (2006) writes, "Assumptions about human behaviour that members of market societies believe to be universal, that humans are naturally competitive and acquisitive, and that

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but also to the universities' highly exclusive clubs. These memberships in turn pave the way to the prominent social clubs located in all major cities and serving as sites for important business contacts." Examples of elite members who attended prestigious universities and were members of highly

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Four principles are posited to underlie social stratification. First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society. Second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. Third, social stratification is universal

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whose members are under-represented in positions of social power. As such, ethnic categories of persons can be subject to the same types of majority policies. Whether ethnicity feeds into a stratification system as a direct, causal factor or as an intervening variable may depend on the level of

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that explain how these many variables combine to produce stratification in a given society. Grusky (2011) provides a good overview of the historical development of sociological theories of social stratification and a summary of contemporary theories and research in this field. While many of the

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and property are arguably less emphasized in hunter-gatherer societies. This, combined with the very different social and economic situations of hunter-gatherers may account for many of the difficulties encountered when implementing communism in industrialized states. As Ingold points out: "The

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Core nations receive the greatest share of surplus production, and periphery nations receive the least. Furthermore, core nations are usually able to purchase raw materials and other goods from noncore nations at low prices, while demanding higher prices for their exports to noncore nations. A

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characteristics of individuals. Those societies having the highest levels of intragenerational mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable systems of stratification. Those systems in which there is little to no mobility, even on an intergenerational basis, are considered closed

1445:. Morgan spoke of a situation in which people living in the same community pooled their efforts and shared the rewards of those efforts fairly equally. He called this "communism in living". But when Marx expanded on these ideas, he still emphasized an economically oriented culture, with 2449:) in which status and material wealth are prized, and stratification, competition, and conflict are common. Kinship-oriented cultures actively work to prevent social hierarchies from developing because they believe that such stratification could lead to conflict and instability. 1371:') to offer the more powerful in order to survive. These relations fundamentally determine the ideas and philosophies of a society and additional classes may form as part of the superstructure. Through the ideology of the ruling class—throughout much of history, the land-owning 2944:, according to World-systems and Dependency theories. Core nations primarily own and control the major means of production in the world and perform the higher-level production tasks and provide international financial services. Periphery nations own very little of the world's 1564:: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. Poets or saints, for example, can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources. 1295:

is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or within a stratification system. This movement can be intragenerational or intergenerational. Such mobility is sometimes used to classify different systems of social stratification.

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club while attending Yale University. This club includes members of some of the most powerful men of the twentieth century, all of which are forbidden to tell others about the secrets of their exclusive club. Throughout the years, the Skull and Bones club has included

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Mills explains that during the 1950s, when the military emphasis was recognized, corporate leaders worked with prominent military officers who dominated the development of policies. Corporate leaders and high-ranking military officers were mutually supportive of each

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of any resource they have to any other person who needs or lacks it at the time. This has the benefit of largely eliminating social problems like theft and relative poverty. However, misunderstandings obviously arise when attempting to reconcile Aboriginal

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have more knowledge and a greater breadth of interests than their colleagues. Prominent bankers and financiers, who Mills considered 'almost professional go-betweens of economic, political, and military affairs,' are also members of the elite's inner core.

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was strongly influenced by Marx's ideas but rejected the possibility of effective communism, arguing that it would require an even greater level of detrimental social control and bureaucratization than capitalist society. Moreover, Weber criticized the

2948:(even when factories are located in periphery nations) and provide low to non-skilled labor. Semiperipheral nations are midway between the core and periphery. They tend to be countries moving towards industrialization and more diversified economies. 1692:

resulted in top military leaders and issues involving defense funding and military personnel training becoming a top priority within the United States. Most of the prominent politicians and corporate leaders have been strong proponents of military

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The upper class individuals who receive elite educations typically have the essential background and contacts to enter into the three branches of the power elite: The political leadership, the military circle, and the corporate elite.

1193:. Such values are not identical with "consensus" but can indeed be an impetus for social conflict, as has been the case multiple times through history. Parsons never claimed that universal values, in and by themselves, "satisfied" the 2469:

to the size of the kill. Lee found this out when he purchased an entire cow as a gift for the group he was living with, and was teased for weeks afterward about it (since obtaining that much meat could be interpreted as showing off).

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Gender is one of the most pervasive and prevalent social characteristics which people use to make social distinctions between individuals. Gender distinctions are found in economic-, kinship- and caste-based stratification systems.

937:(social and political). It is a hierarchy within groups that ascribe them to different levels of privileges. As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or 1637:

work together. The most crucial aspect of the power elite's existence lays within the core of education. "Youthful upper-class members attend prominent preparatory schools, which not only open doors to such elite universities as

2641:, which, at the least, have an intervening effect on social status and stratification in most places throughout the world. Additional variables include those that describe other ascribed and achieved characteristics such as 1235:

Although stratification is not limited to complex societies, all complex societies exhibit features of stratification. In any complex society, the total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally, wherein the most

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Today we have the means to gather and analyze data from economies across the globe. Although many societies worldwide have made great strides toward more equality between differing geographic regions, in terms of the

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alternately note the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due to the necessity of an educated workforce in technological economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning

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women are offered and take, as well as to differences in the number of hours worked by women. These and other gender-related values affect the distribution of income, wealth, and property in a given social order.

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report indicates that the 85 wealthiest individuals in the world have a combined wealth equal to that of the bottom 50% of the world's population, or about 3.5 billion people. By contrast, for 2012, the

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Social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility. However, data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups.

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ethnographic centrism within each of the various ethnic populations in a society, the amount of conflict over scarce resources, and the relative social power held within each ethnic category.

1543:. Weber examines how many members of the aristocracy lacked economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and power, for example, because they were 2677:

between different social categories, such as men and women, or workers with different levels of education. An index of stratification has been recently proposed by Zhou for this purpose.

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theories to create his own system. He emphasizes the difference between class, status and power, and treats these as separate but related sources of power, each with different effects on

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and other resources between nations. Rather than having separate national economies, nations are considered as participating in this world economy. The world economy manifests a global

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afforded to their peoples, we still find large gaps between the wealthiest and the poorest within a nation and between the wealthiest and poorest nations of the world. A January 2014

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the elite themselves) denied the idea of such a group, and other people vaguely believed that a small formation of a powerful elite existed. "Some prominent individuals knew that

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in a given society. Neither of these subclasses has much influence in Marx's two major classes, but it is helpful to know that Marx did recognize differences within the classes.

2788:. Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned a 4332: 3896: 2982:

values—and the freedom to move, perpetually a scarce and unequally distributed commodity, fast becomes the main stratifying factor of our late modern or postmodern time."

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Perry-Rivers, P. (October 2014). "Stratification, Economic Adversity, and Entrepreneurial Launch: The Converse Effect of Resource Position on Entrepreneurial Strategy".

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Stratification can yield various consequences. For instance, the stratification of neighborhoods based on spatial and racial factors can influence disparate access to

3984:'Toward a new vision: race, class and gender as categories of analysis and connection' in Social Class and Stratification: Classic Statements and Theoretical Debates 4307: 3490: 2445:-oriented", because they appear to value social harmony more than wealth or status. These cultures are contrasted with economically oriented cultures (including 964:; in turn, each class can be subdivided into an upper-stratum, a middle-stratum, and a lower stratum. Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of 3160: 4849: 2835:

is socially defined on the basis of biologically determined characteristics that can be observed within a society while ethnicity is defined on the basis of

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placed on each variable and specific combinations of these variables will differ from place to place over time. One task of research is to identify accurate

1682:, leaders of corporations became more prominent within the political sphere along with a decline in central decision-making among professional politicians. 3309: 2427:("headless") societies exist which have little or no concept of social hierarchy, political or economic status, class, or even permanent leadership." 2395: 1197:

of a society. Indeed, the constitution of society represents a much more complicated codification of emerging historical factors. Theorists such as

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than does income, alone. Wealth variables can also more vividly illustrate salient variations in the well-being of groups in stratified societies.

1122:. Each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. "upper middle"). Social strata may also be delineated on the basis of 1395:

mode would eventually give way, through its own internal conflict, to revolutionary consciousness and the development of more egalitarian, more

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in that society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including

1612:, contends that the imbalance of power in society derives from the complete absence of countervailing powers against corporate leaders of the 3212: 3282: 426: 5577: 5452: 2326: 3386: 5462: 5720: 1547:. Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy, which are; class, status, and power: 1223:(found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place). Fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative 4618: 1497: 1479: 3898:'The Past, Present and Future of Social Inequality.' In Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective 5569: 5507: 4261: 3667:

Holborn, M. & Langley, P. (2004) AS & A level Student Handbook, accompanies the Sixth Edition: Haralambos & Holborn,

1027:. Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of 4104:

Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination

3905: 1059:"Social stratification" is a concept used in the social sciences to describe the relative social position of persons in a given 5549: 4880: 4526: 3822: 1483: 451: 5544: 4071: 3759: 3253: 3140: 2696:

expectations often form along sex and gender lines. Entire societies may be classified by social scientists according to the

2388: 1078:(plural 'strata'; parallel, horizontal layers) referring to a given society's categorization of its people into rankings of 5554: 2338: 5587: 1284: 873: 470: 4311: 4246:

The Modern World-System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century

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about various characteristics of persons and peoples. While many such variables cut across time and place, the relative

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had been dropped on Japan in the name of the United States, but neither they nor anyone they knew had been consulted."

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Gowdy, John (2006). "Hunter-gatherers and the mythology of the market". In Lee, Richard B. and Richard H. Daly (ed.).

5699: 5582: 5425: 3617: 3593: 3569: 3538: 3512: 3156: 812: 802: 506: 466: 4462: 5447: 3483:"'Friending Bias' / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder" 3103: 2381: 261: 4482: 1664: 1575: 561: 346: 97: 2622: 1570:: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage 5797: 5437: 17: 4127:

Guess, Teresa J (July 2006). "The Social Construction of Whiteness: Racism by Intent, Racism by Consequence".

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ensures that companies in core countries can utilize the cheapest semi-and non-skilled labor for production.

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based in social perceptions of observable biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of

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Genesis Regained: Aboriginal Forms of Renunciation in Judeo-Christian Scriptures and Other Major Traditions,

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The concept of social stratification is often used and interpreted differently within specific theories. In

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had permitted a handful of political leaders to make critical decisions about peace and war; and that two

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processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources.

1036: 910: 790: 116: 66: 4360: 5827: 5812: 5659: 4998: 4519: 3812: 1838: 1539:. He notes that, contrary to Marx's theories, stratification is based on more than simple ownership of 1466: 1457:

The counter-argument to Marxist's conflict theory is the theory of structural functionalism, argued by

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Chetty, Raj; Jackson, Matthew O.; Kuchler, Theresa; Stroebel, Johannes; et al. (August 1, 2022).

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is historically found in the annals of most societies and such divisions increased with the advent of

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Weber derives many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structure of

1504:. Weber held there are more class divisions than Marx suggested, taking different concepts from both 1138: 797: 366: 236: 102: 3359:"Differential Access in Mortgage Credit: The Role of Neighborhood Spatial and Racial Stratification" 1465:, which states that social inequality places a vital role in the smooth operation of a society. The 1300:

stratification systems are those that allow for mobility between, typically by placing value on the

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Mason, K. & H. Carlsson (2004). "The Impact of Gender Equality in Land Rights on Development".

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The social status variables underlying social stratification are based in social perceptions and

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despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell their labor instead of owning capital.

1516:. Working half a century later than Marx, Weber claims there to be four main social classes: the 1352: 1326: 866: 606: 596: 566: 446: 431: 396: 316: 311: 211: 4333:

Rigged rules mean economic growth increasingly "winner takes all" for rich elites all over world

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perform, and their compensation is a motivator in society for people to strive to achieve more.

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social stratification is natural, do not apply to many hunter-gatherer peoples. Non-stratified

2188: 2045: 1758: 1579: 1414:, those with little to no social status. This includes prostitutes, street gangs, beggars, the 1351:

consists of two main economic parts: the base and the superstructure. The base encompasses the

1340: 1322: 1189:, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are regulated, in part, by 1178: 1020: 591: 521: 511: 491: 476: 406: 376: 296: 201: 2257: 5689: 5664: 5654: 5644: 5639: 5492: 4512: 3358: 3237: 2801: 2769: 2552: 2371: 2331: 1252:

social resources. The term "stratification system" is sometimes used to refer to the complex

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found in stratified societies. Many sociological theorists have criticized the fact that the

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Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour

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presumption of a proletariat revolt, maintaining it to be unlikely. Instead, he develops a

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become the owners of the means of production in the capitalist system. Marx predicted the

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Davis, Kingsley; Moore, Wilbert E. (1 April 1945). "Some Principles of Stratification".

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afforded to men or women, especially those associated with ownership and inheritance of

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stratification systems. For example, in caste systems, all aspects of social status are

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is promoted both through political and non-political institutions but also through the

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that generate these observed inequalities. The key components of such systems are: (a)

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Barnard, Alan (2006) "Images of hunters and gatherers in European social thought," in

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learned behavior. Ethnic identification can include shared cultural heritage such as

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Noel, Donald L. (Autumn 1968). "A Theory of the Origin of Ethnic Stratification".

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of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the

5485: 5177: 4988: 4734: 4724: 4339: 4265: 3528: 3109: 2914: 2863:. As with race, ethnic categories of persons may be socially defined as minority 2848: 2817: 2595:

GDP, is sometimes used to describe economic inequality and stratification at the

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societies, the latter being based upon socio-economic relations among classes of

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processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desirable, (b) the

1210:, suggest that these effects are due to changes in the status of workers to the 5442: 5386: 5225: 5182: 5110: 4854: 4825: 4750: 4704: 4646: 4603: 4450: 4140: 3456: 3098: 3033: 2999: 2933: 2898: 2893:

forces lead to rapid international integration arising from the interchange of

2765: 2756: 2752: 2477: 2446: 2227: 2077: 2009: 1968: 1963: 1763: 1651: 1458: 1419: 1331: 1309:, such that one's social position at birth persists throughout one's lifetime. 1174: 1064: 984: 890: 847: 763: 755: 751: 747: 699: 659: 246: 92: 4231: 983:

The categorization of people by social stratum occurs most clearly in complex

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Ingold, Tim (2006) "On the social relations of the hunter-gatherer band," in

3524: 3068: 3053: 2921: 2890: 2864: 2797: 2713: 2608: 2576: 2409: 2267: 2232: 2072: 1953: 1932: 1828: 1768: 1609: 1571: 1529: 1513: 1426: 1203: 1119: 1091: 961: 945: 930: 735: 723: 707: 703: 629: 141: 87: 5316: 5243: 5022: 5012: 4931: 4681: 4588: 4538: 4432:"Theoretical models of inequality transmission across multiple generations" 3872:

Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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is the most common variable used to describe stratification and associated

2489: 2415: 2067: 1958: 1917: 1883: 1873: 1778: 1679: 1596: 1501: 1415: 1249: 1150: 1115: 1107: 1106:, stratification is often broadly classified into three major divisions of 1068: 1060: 1012: 957: 949: 938: 727: 679: 4413:

Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective

3321: 1574:. For example, individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the 1437:'s accounts of egalitarian hunter-gatherers formed part of Karl Marx' and 5480: 5311: 5301: 5251: 5233: 5144: 5105: 4899: 4810: 4793: 3904:(Second ed.). Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 3–51. Archived from 3412:

Grusky, David B. & Ann Azumi Takata (1992). "Social Stratification".

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Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory

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Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and Their Neighbors,

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Social scientists are sometimes interested in quantifying the degree of

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defining the fundamental relationships between people. Yet, issues of

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to a minority that are granted to other members of the society. More

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The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture

2792:, a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic 5381: 5353: 5339: 5206: 5172: 5130: 5115: 5075: 4820: 4175: 2910: 2852: 2840: 2824: 2785: 2705: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1783: 1773: 1446: 1043: 996: 2993: 1582:, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable 842: 5377: 5362: 5358: 5120: 5070: 5062: 5052: 4956: 4944: 4803: 4699: 4693: 3073: 3063: 3043: 2860: 2844: 2836: 2789: 2461: 2442: 1788: 1726: 1689: 1617: 1536: 1509: 1384: 1318: 1162: 1123: 1031:

determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the

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Zhou, Xiang (2012). "A Nonparametric Index of Stratification".

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Like a stratified class system within a nation, looking at the

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have suggested that social stratification is commonly found in

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of a society, the more social stratification exists, by way of

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Stever, H. Guyford (1972). "Science, Systems, and Society".

3430: 3271:"The Emergence of Complex Societies: A Comparative Approach" 5167: 4709: 4358: 2924:

one can see class positions in the unequal distribution of

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individuals and families enjoy a disproportionate share of

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but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status.

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Human Rights and Development: Towards Mutual Reinforcement

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societies, the opposite holds true. Sex- and gender-based

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are often unlikely to advance socioeconomically while the

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Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society

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Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society

3425: 3423: 2913:, are major factors in globalization, generating further 2571:

in a society. However, the distribution of individual or

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how social stratification is constituted or maintained.

2503:, in this arrangement, every person is expected to give 1165:, point to the inaccessibility of resources and lack of 3547: 3981: 3420: 3986:. Boston: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 231–247. 2831:

as fields of study, most scholars now recognize that

1359:, and property relations. Social class, according to 948:, social stratification is defined in terms of three 4046: 3924:

Who Rules America? The Triumph of the Corporate Rich

3685:. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc. p. 243. 3586:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers,

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The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers,

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research regarding social stratification, either as

1272:(e.g., physician, farmer, 'housewife'), and (c) the 3921: 3610:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers

2519: 1355:: employer–employee work conditions, the technical 4310:. Population Research Bureau. 2013. Archived from 4279: 3785: 3241: 2617:, typically provide the most explanatory power in 2441:Anthropologists identify egalitarian cultures as " 1688:During the 1950s–1960s, increasing concerns about 1402:Marx also described two other classes, the petite 1003:. Whether social stratification first appeared in 4359:Olinto, Pedro & Jaime Saavedra (April 2012). 4196:Albrow, Martin and Elizabeth King (eds.) (1990). 5789: 4410: 4361:"An Overview of Global Income Inequality Trends" 4101: 4061: 4032:Friedman, Ellen & Jennifer Marshall (2004). 3946: 3843: 3680: 3612:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 391–393. 3307: 4161: 4126: 4064:New Family Values: Liberty, Equality, Diversity 3894: 3312:. In Ritzer, George and J. Michael Ryan (ed.). 2764:positions of social power, i.e., they become a 2516:introduced to Australia by European colonists. 1177:tend to hold political power which they use to 4439:Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 4277: 3588:p. 379. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3564:p. 400. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3416:. Macmillan Publishing Co. pp. 1955–1970. 3268: 3232: 3230: 2453:is one process by which this is accomplished. 4520: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3135:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2389: 1217: 867: 5424: 5204: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3695:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3603: 3601: 3407: 3405: 3403: 2583:tells us more about variation in individual 4429: 4211: 4086: 3888: 3607: 3310:"Theories of Stratification and Inequality" 3227: 2629:. Three important social variables include 2327:Matrilineal / matrilocal societies 1708: 4527: 4513: 3848:. London: LIT Verlag Münster. p. 93. 3632: 3296: 2905:infrastructure, including the rise of the 2712:societies, such rights and privileges are 2396: 2382: 1658:. Both Bush and Kerry were members of the 874: 860: 45: 4415:(4th ed.). Boulder: Westview Press. 3768: 3598: 3480: 3464: 3400: 2666:, typically has an intervening effect on 5412: 3990: 3975: 3801: 3799: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3236: 3130: 2871: 2613:Social variables, both quantitative and 1498:three-component theory of stratification 1480:Three-component theory of stratification 1330: 1283: 4286:. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3721: 2657:level, education level of parents, and 2512:with the competition/scarcity-oriented 1054: 14: 5790: 4282:Social Change in the Twentieth Century 4217: 4190: 4066:. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. 3949:Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice 3681:Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). 3523: 3183:"6.S: Social Stratification (Summary)" 2555:economic variables are more useful to 2430: 1616:. Mills both incorporated and revised 1484:Tripartite classification of authority 1149:may be necessary in order to maintain 5803:Anthropological categories of peoples 5411: 4768: 4508: 4394:Globalization: The Human Consequences 4198:Globalization, Knowledge and Society 3796: 3783: 3709: 3338:from the original on 1 September 2016 3316:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 622–624. 3314:The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology 3189:from the original on 12 December 2019 3133:Cambridge IGCSE® sociology coursebook 2917:of economic and cultural activities. 1678:Mills held that, prior to the end of 1339:" cartoon is an example of socialist 3996: 3749: 3718: 3714:(10th ed.). Thompson Wadsworth. 3507:(1st ed.), Pearson Education, 2012, 3493:from the original on August 1, 2022. 3356: 2339:Sex and Repression in Savage Society 4036:. New York: Pearson Education, Inc. 3825:from the original on 7 October 2012 3669:Sociology: Themes and perspectives, 3481:Leonhardt, David (August 1, 2022). 2806:racism has become institutionalized 1015:societies or whether it began with 24: 4770: 4769: 4403: 4308:"2013 World Population Data Sheet" 4251: 3792:. London: Oxford University Press. 3215:from the original on 16 April 2021 2909:and its modern representation the 2348:Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship 1590: 1387:. When the aristocracy falls, the 1279: 1023:remains a matter of debate in the 25: 5844: 3805: 3163:from the original on 4 March 2021 1839:Parallel / cross cousins 5772: 5771: 4534: 3157:"What Is Social Stratification?" 3104:Systems of social stratification 2992: 2932:with three overarching classes: 2520:Variables in theory and research 1733: 841: 4468:from the original on 2020-02-27 4386: 4375:from the original on 2014-09-01 4352: 4326: 4300: 4271: 4238: 4155: 4120: 4095: 4080: 4055: 4040: 4025: 3982:Collins, Patricia Hill (1998). 3940: 3915: 3875: 3862: 3837: 3703: 3674: 3661: 3626: 3574: 3517: 3497: 3389:from the original on 2023-04-16 3285:from the original on 2014-06-27 3244:Social Class and Stratification 1650:exclusive clubs can be seen in 1604:, drawing from the theories of 1576:Federal Bureau of Investigation 1067:, geographical region or other 427:Peace, war, and social conflict 5413: 4244:Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974). 3350: 3262: 3201: 3175: 3149: 3124: 2716:granted to men over women; in 1347:In Marxist theory, the modern 13: 1: 4091:. London: Palgrave MacMillan. 3414:The Encyclopedia of Sociology 3117: 2956:employed through a system of 1981:Household forms and residence 1230: 1137:, for example, proponents of 3926:. McGraw-Hill. p. 288. 3922:Domhoff, G. William (2013). 3846:Gender and Rural Development 3635:American Sociological Review 3584:and Richard H. Daly (eds.), 3560:and Richard H. Daly (eds.), 2811: 2046:Classificatory terminologies 1473: 1343:and of social stratification 1337:Pyramid of Capitalist System 1312: 1082:tiers based on factors like 7: 4248:. New York: Academic Press. 3671:London: Collins Educational 3269:Toye, David L. (May 2004). 3131:Blundell, Jonathan (2014). 2985: 2759:, practices or beliefs, or 2559:social stratification than 2540: 2456:A good example is given by 1049: 10: 5849: 4619:Weberian (three-component) 4451:10.1016/j.rssm.2013.09.005 4430:Solon, Gary (March 2014). 4141:10.1163/156916306779155199 3819:) (accessed 12 March 2012) 3784:Mills, Charles W. (1956). 3750:Doob, Christopher (2013). 3457:10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4 2875: 2815: 2740: 2684: 2606: 2544: 2434: 2407: 1594: 1477: 1316: 1218:Four underlying principles 98:Human environmental impact 5767: 5708: 5600: 5568: 5535: 5461: 5433: 5420: 5407: 5325: 5282: 5242: 5224: 5143: 5061: 5021: 4930: 4923: 4878: 4781: 4777: 4764: 4627: 4581: 4577: 4548: 4497:Resources in your library 4411:Grusky, David B. (2014). 4232:10.1080/01969727208542909 4102:Henrard, Kristen (2000). 4062:Struening, Karen (2002). 3881:Turner, David H. (1999), 3844:Deji, Olanike F. (2011). 3683:Sociology 7th Canadian Ed 3308:Grusky, David B. (2011). 2680: 2602: 2437:Original affluent society 1676:The Political Leadership: 1019:and large-scale means of 5741:Pre-industrial East Asia 4011:10.1177/0081175012452207 3999:Sociological Methodology 3895:Grusky, David B (2011). 3868:Lee, Richard B. (1976), 3079:Religious stratification 2938:semi-periphery countries 2747:Racism consists of both 2410:Hierarchy § Biology 1709:Anthropological theories 1195:functional prerequisites 192:Structural functionalism 4789:Administrative detainee 4278:Chirot, Daniel (1977). 3275:World History Connected 2736: 2675:economic stratification 2472:Another example is the 1620:ideas. While he shared 1353:relations of production 1327:Base and superstructure 212:Symbolic interactionism 107:Industrial revolutions 5205: 4220:Journal of Cybernetics 4106:. New York: Springer. 3710:Stark, Rodney (2007). 2958:global labor arbitrage 2804:in a society in which 2589:Gross Domestic Product 2510:renunciative economics 2474:Australian Aboriginals 2460:in his account of the 2356:"The Traffic in Women" 2189:Coming of Age in Samoa 1580:United States Congress 1467:Davis–Moore hypothesis 1383:and other elements of 1344: 1341:critique of capitalism 1323:Historical materialism 1289: 1071:. It derives from the 1037:social differentiation 889:refers to a society's 202:Social constructionism 5798:Social stratification 5746:Pre-industrial Europe 4488:Social stratification 4396:. Cambridge: Polity 3885:pp. 1–9, Peter Lang. 3322:10.1002/9781405165518 2872:Global stratification 2802:structural inequality 2627:intervening variables 2466:"insulting the meat". 2372:Cultural anthropology 2332:Feminist anthropology 2124:Australian Aboriginal 1578:, or a member of the 1334: 1287: 1153:and provide a stable 1145:societies, wherein a 897:into groups based on 887:Social stratification 577:Conversation analysis 152:Social stratification 5603: or countries 5414:By country or region 4652:Class discrimination 4365:Inequalitty in Focus 4087:Mies, Maria (1999). 3185:. 13 December 2016. 3094:Socioeconomic status 3019:Class stratification 2882:World-systems theory 2878:Modernization theory 2263:Bronisław Malinowski 1697:The Corporate Elite: 1686:The Military Circle: 1522:white collar workers 1262:social-institutional 1254:social relationships 1055:Definition and usage 27:Concept in sociology 5135:Vanniar (Chieftain) 3503:Doob, Christopher. 3449:2022Natur.608..108C 3357:Loya, Jose (2023). 3029:Dominance hierarchy 2946:means of production 2942:periphery countries 2730:wage discrimination 2569:economic inequality 2547:Economic inequality 2534:mathematical models 2484:, off the coast of 2458:Richard Borshay Lee 2451:Reciprocal altruism 2431:Kinship-orientation 2368:Social anthropology 2258:Claude Lévi-Strauss 2041:Kinship terminology 1864:Joking relationship 1859:Posthumous marriage 1500:and the concept of 1377:false consciousness 1147:dominance hierarchy 162:Social cycle theory 33:Part of a series on 5833:Urban anthropology 5716:18th-century Spain 5570:Standard of living 5274:Upper middle class 5269:Lower middle class 4860:Political prisoner 4642:Chattering classes 4614:Spoon class theory 4392:Bauman, Z. (1988) 4338:2014-08-03 at the 4264:2007-10-26 at the 4129:Critical Sociology 3961:10.1111/etap.12137 3487:The New York Times 3375:10.1111/ruso.12485 3009:Age stratification 2966:standard of living 2903:telecommunications 2591:(GDP), especially 2298:David M. Schneider 2144:Polyandry in Tibet 1526:petite bourgeoisie 1441:' inspiration for 1435:Lewis Henry Morgan 1357:division of labour 1349:mode of production 1345: 1290: 1185:(laboring class). 848:Society portal 471:History of science 452:Race and ethnicity 132:Social environment 5828:Economic problems 5813:Social inequality 5785: 5784: 5763: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5596: 5595: 5403: 5402: 5399: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5297:Lumpenproletariat 4799:illegal immigrant 4760: 4759: 4672:Classless society 4483:Library resources 4073:978-0-7425-1231-3 3808:"Skull and Bones" 3761:978-0-205-79241-2 3443:(7921): 108–121. 3255:978-0-415-04125-6 3142:978-1-107-64513-4 3089:Social inequality 3059:Intersectionality 3024:Cultural hegemony 2930:division of labor 2886:Dependency theory 2766:minority category 2761:political systems 2726:industrialization 2722:division of labor 2687:Gender inequality 2599:or global level. 2406: 2405: 2303:Marilyn Strathern 2283:Stephen O. Murray 2197: 2196: 2104: 2103: 2022: 2021: 1976: 1975: 1528:, and the manual 1408:lumpenproletariat 1270:division of labor 1258:social structures 1208:dependency theory 1159:Conflict theories 1104:Western societies 1033:social complexity 1029:social inequality 946:Western societies 884: 883: 602:Social experiment 482:Social psychology 127:Social complexity 16:(Redirected from 5840: 5775: 5774: 5602: 5503:Mexican-American 5431: 5430: 5422: 5421: 5409: 5408: 5210: 5153:Business magnate 5043:Knowledge worker 4928: 4927: 4816:dual or multiple 4779: 4778: 4766: 4765: 4720:Social exclusion 4715:Social cleansing 4629: 4579: 4578: 4568:Economic classes 4529: 4522: 4515: 4506: 4505: 4476: 4474: 4473: 4467: 4436: 4426: 4397: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4356: 4350: 4349:20 January 2014. 4330: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4285: 4275: 4269: 4255: 4249: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4215: 4209: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4034:Issues of Gender 4029: 4023: 4022: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3903: 3892: 3886: 3879: 3873: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3806:Leung, Rebecca. 3803: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3781: 3766: 3765: 3747: 3716: 3715: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3694: 3686: 3678: 3672: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3605: 3596: 3578: 3572: 3554: 3545: 3544: 3521: 3515: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3478: 3468: 3427: 3418: 3417: 3409: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3305: 3294: 3293: 3291: 3290: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3247: 3234: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3128: 3049:Gini coefficient 3002: 2997: 2996: 2954:global workforce 2849:symbolic systems 2625:variables or as 2575:accumulation of 2482:Bickerton Island 2414:Most if not all 2398: 2391: 2384: 2316:Related articles 2288:Michelle Rosaldo 2117: 2116: 2035: 2034: 1903: 1902: 1890: 1748: 1747: 1737: 1725:Anthropology of 1713: 1712: 1439:Friedrich Engels 1191:universal values 1155:social structure 876: 869: 862: 846: 845: 597:Network analysis 487:Sociocybernetics 477:Social movements 207:Social darwinism 157:Social structure 49: 30: 29: 21: 5848: 5847: 5843: 5842: 5841: 5839: 5838: 5837: 5823:Conflict theory 5788: 5787: 5786: 5781: 5755: 5704: 5592: 5564: 5531: 5515:Underprivileged 5457: 5416: 5415: 5391: 5321: 5278: 5238: 5220: 5139: 5057: 5017: 4919: 4874: 4773: 4772: 4756: 4735:Social position 4725:Social mobility 4623: 4573: 4544: 4543: 4533: 4503: 4502: 4501: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4471: 4469: 4465: 4434: 4423: 4406: 4404:Further reading 4401: 4400: 4391: 4387: 4378: 4376: 4357: 4353: 4340:Wayback Machine 4331: 4327: 4317: 4315: 4314:on 26 June 2014 4306: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4276: 4272: 4266:Wayback Machine 4256: 4252: 4243: 4239: 4216: 4212: 4195: 4191: 4164:Social Problems 4160: 4156: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4100: 4096: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4060: 4056: 4045: 4041: 4030: 4026: 3995: 3991: 3980: 3976: 3945: 3941: 3934: 3920: 3916: 3908: 3901: 3893: 3889: 3880: 3876: 3867: 3863: 3856: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3804: 3797: 3788:The Power Elite 3782: 3769: 3762: 3748: 3719: 3708: 3704: 3688: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3666: 3662: 3647:10.2307/2085643 3631: 3627: 3620: 3606: 3599: 3579: 3575: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3522: 3518: 3502: 3498: 3428: 3421: 3410: 3401: 3392: 3390: 3363:Rural Sociology 3355: 3351: 3341: 3339: 3332: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3286: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3238:Saunders, Peter 3235: 3228: 3218: 3216: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3192: 3190: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3164: 3155: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110:The Power Elite 2998: 2991: 2988: 2915:interdependence 2888: 2876:Main articles: 2874: 2820: 2818:Ethnocentricity 2814: 2745: 2739: 2689: 2683: 2611: 2605: 2549: 2543: 2522: 2501:David H. Turner 2464:, who practice 2439: 2433: 2416:anthropologists 2412: 2402: 2370: 2362: 2361: 2358: 2351: 2342: 2322:Alliance theory 2317: 2309: 2308: 2307: 2278:Lewis H. Morgan 2273:Henrietta Moore 2253:Eleanor Leacock 2248:Louise Lamphere 2243:Roger Lancaster 2218:Tom Boellstorff 2207: 2206:Major theorists 2199: 2198: 2175: 2152: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2093:Dravidian 2032: 2024: 2023: 2003: 1888:Nurture kinship 1878: 1844:Cousin marriage 1745: 1711: 1660:Skull and Bones 1606:Vilfredo Pareto 1602:C. Wright Mills 1599: 1593: 1591:C. Wright Mills 1486: 1478:Main articles: 1476: 1329: 1317:Main articles: 1315: 1302:achieved status 1293:Social mobility 1282: 1280:Social mobility 1274:social mobility 1233: 1220: 1199:Ralf Dahrendorf 1187:Talcott Parsons 1171:working classes 1167:social mobility 1057: 1052: 1025:social sciences 1021:social exchange 1005:hunter-gatherer 999:and classes of 980:, or all four. 880: 840: 833: 832: 793: 783: 782: 710: 636: 622: 620:Major theorists 612: 611: 547: 537: 536: 227: 217: 216: 187:Critical theory 182:Conflict theory 177: 167: 166: 137:Social equality 78: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5846: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5808:Social classes 5805: 5800: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5761: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5736:Ottoman Empire 5733: 5728: 5723: 5721:Ancient Greece 5718: 5712: 5710: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5702: 5697: 5695:United Kingdom 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5606: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5590: 5588:Home-ownership 5585: 5580: 5574: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5541: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5529: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5490: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5467: 5465: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5443:American Dream 5440: 5434: 5428: 5418: 5417: 5405: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5356: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5331: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5288: 5286: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5248: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5230: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5218: 5211: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5149: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5137: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5067: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5056: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5039: 5038: 5027: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5015: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4936: 4934: 4925: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4886: 4884: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4855:Migrant worker 4852: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4835: 4834: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4791: 4785: 4783: 4775: 4774: 4771:By demographic 4762: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4755: 4754: 4751:Status Anxiety 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4705:Ranked society 4702: 4697: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4647:Class conflict 4644: 4639: 4633: 4631: 4630: topics 4625: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4604:Mudsill theory 4601: 4596: 4591: 4585: 4583: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4571: 4564: 4557: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4524: 4517: 4509: 4500: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4481: 4480: 4478: 4477: 4427: 4422:978-0813346717 4421: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4399: 4398: 4385: 4351: 4325: 4299: 4293:978-0155814202 4292: 4270: 4250: 4237: 4210: 4206:978-0803983243 4200:London: Sage. 4189: 4176:10.2307/800001 4170:(2): 157–172. 4154: 4135:(4): 649–673. 4119: 4113:978-9041113597 4112: 4094: 4079: 4072: 4054: 4039: 4024: 4005:(1): 365–389. 3989: 3974: 3939: 3933:978-0078026713 3932: 3914: 3911:on 2016-10-08. 3887: 3874: 3861: 3855:978-3643901033 3854: 3836: 3795: 3767: 3760: 3717: 3702: 3673: 3660: 3641:(2): 242–249. 3625: 3618: 3597: 3582:Richard B. Lee 3573: 3558:Richard B. Lee 3546: 3539: 3525:Harris, Marvin 3516: 3496: 3419: 3399: 3369:(2): 546–577. 3349: 3331:978-1405124331 3330: 3295: 3261: 3254: 3226: 3200: 3174: 3148: 3141: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3113: 3106: 3101: 3099:Social justice 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3034:Egalitarianism 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3005: 3004: 3003: 3000:Society portal 2987: 2984: 2934:core countries 2899:transportation 2873: 2870: 2816:Main article: 2813: 2810: 2757:social actions 2753:discrimination 2741:Main article: 2738: 2735: 2685:Main article: 2682: 2679: 2607:Main article: 2604: 2601: 2545:Main article: 2542: 2539: 2521: 2518: 2478:Groote Eylandt 2432: 2429: 2404: 2403: 2401: 2400: 2393: 2386: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2352: 2345: 2343: 2336: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2228:W. D. Hamilton 2225: 2220: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2194: 2193: 2192: 2182: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2150: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2120: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2108: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2078:Eskimo (Inuit) 2075: 2070: 2065: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2050: 2049: 2048: 2043: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2025: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1972: 1971: 1969:Patrilineality 1966: 1964:Matrilineality 1961: 1956: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1761: 1756: 1746: 1744:Basic concepts 1743: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1730: 1729: 1722: 1721: 1710: 1707: 1702: 1701: 1694: 1683: 1652:George W. Bush 1595:Main article: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1565: 1559: 1475: 1472: 1459:Kingsley Davis 1314: 1311: 1281: 1278: 1232: 1229: 1219: 1216: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 950:social classes 891:categorization 882: 881: 879: 878: 871: 864: 856: 853: 852: 851: 850: 835: 834: 831: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 794: 789: 788: 785: 784: 638: 637: 623: 618: 617: 614: 613: 610: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 548: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 247:Astrosociology 244: 239: 234: 228: 223: 222: 219: 218: 215: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 178: 173: 172: 169: 168: 165: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 105: 100: 95: 93:Human behavior 90: 85: 79: 76: 75: 72: 71: 70: 69: 64: 59: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 18:Class division 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5845: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5818:Social status 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5778: 5770: 5769: 5766: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5701: 5700:United States 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5601:Other regions 5599: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5571: 5567: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5426:United States 5423: 5419: 5410: 5406: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5328: 5324: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5241: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5146: 5142: 5136: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5026: 5024: 5020: 5014: 5011: 5007: 5004: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4865:Socioeconomic 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4840: 4839: 4836: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4767: 4763: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4740:Social stigma 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4730:Social orphan 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4689: 4688:Nouveau riche 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4662:Class traitor 4660: 4658: 4657:Class society 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4594:Gilbert model 4592: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4556: 4555: 4551: 4550: 4547: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4530: 4525: 4523: 4518: 4516: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4414: 4409: 4408: 4395: 4389: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4346: 4341: 4337: 4334: 4329: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4295: 4289: 4284: 4283: 4274: 4268:, August 1997 4267: 4263: 4260: 4257:Paul Halsall 4254: 4247: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4115: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4083: 4075: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4043: 4035: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3935: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3907: 3900: 3899: 3891: 3884: 3878: 3871: 3865: 3857: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3824: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3800: 3790: 3789: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3763: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3713: 3706: 3698: 3692: 3684: 3677: 3670: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3629: 3621: 3619:0-521-60919-4 3615: 3611: 3604: 3602: 3595: 3594:0-521-60919-4 3591: 3587: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3570:0-521-60919-4 3567: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3551: 3542: 3540:0-7591-0133-7 3536: 3533:. Routledge. 3532: 3531: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3513:0-205-79241-3 3510: 3506: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3424: 3415: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3257: 3251: 3248:. Routledge. 3246: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3231: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3162: 3158: 3152: 3144: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3123: 3112: 3111: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3069:Microinequity 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3054:Globalization 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3006: 3001: 2995: 2990: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2949: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2922:world economy 2918: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2809: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2798:covert racism 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786:extermination 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2744: 2734: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2678: 2676: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2609:Social status 2600: 2598: 2597:international 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2548: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2502: 2499:According to 2498: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2438: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2411: 2399: 2394: 2392: 2387: 2385: 2380: 2379: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2365: 2357: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2313: 2312: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2268:Margaret Mead 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2233:Gilbert Herdt 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2203: 2202: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2179: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2163: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2118: 2110: 2109: 2097: 2096: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2058: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2047: 2044: 2042: 2039: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2028: 2027: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1954:Ambilineality 1952: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1933:House society 1931: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1895: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1829:Bride service 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1770: 1769:Consanguinity 1767: 1765: 1762: 1760: 1757: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1706: 1698: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1668: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1610:Gaetano Mosca 1607: 1603: 1598: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1572:social change 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1530:working class 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1514:social action 1511: 1507: 1506:functionalist 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1481: 1471: 1468: 1464: 1463:Wilbert Moore 1460: 1455: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1427:Marvin Harris 1425:According to 1423: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1310: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1286: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1228: 1226: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1204:globalization 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139:action theory 1136: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1092:social status 1089: 1085: 1081: 1080:socioeconomic 1077: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 942: 940: 936: 933:, or derived 932: 931:social status 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 901:factors like 900: 899:socioeconomic 896: 892: 888: 877: 872: 870: 865: 863: 858: 857: 855: 854: 849: 844: 839: 838: 837: 836: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 813:Organizations 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 795: 792: 787: 786: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 762: · 761: 758: · 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 718: · 717: 714: 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 650: · 649: 645: 642: 635: 631: 628: 625: 624: 621: 616: 615: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 567:Computational 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 549: 546: 541: 540: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 472: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 312:Environmental 310: 307: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 262:Consciousness 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 229: 226: 221: 220: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 176: 171: 170: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 142:Social equity 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 114: 110: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 88:Globalization 86: 84: 81: 80: 74: 73: 68: 65: 63: 60: 58: 55: 54: 53: 52: 48: 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