Class action - Knowledge

908: 1623:. Citing its deference to freedom to contract principles, the Epic Systems opinion opened the door dramatically to the use of these waivers as a condition of employment, consumer purchases and the like. Some commentators in opposition to the ruling see it as a "death knell" to many employment and consumer class actions, and have increasingly pushed for legislation to circumvent it in hopes of reviving otherwise-underrepresented parties' ability to litigate on a group basis. Supporters (mostly pro-business) of the high court's ruling argue its holding is consistent with private contract principles. Many of those supporters had long-since argued that class action procedures were generally inconsistent with due process mandates and unnecessarily promoted litigation of otherwise small claims—thus heralding the ruling's anti-litigation effect. 2440:. Class action is regulated by art. 140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and has been in force since 1 July 2009. On May 19, 2021, the reform of the Italian legal framework on class actions finally entered into force. The new rules, designed by Law n. 31 and published on April 18, 2019, (Law n. 31/2019), were initially intended to become effective on April 19, 2020, but had been delayed twice. The new rules on class actions are now included in the Italian Civil Procedure Code (ICPC). Overall, the new class action appears to be a viable instrument which, through a system of economic incentives, could overcome the rational apathy of small-claims holders and ensure redress. 1840:" (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive a small benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding many people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages. However, existing law requires judicial approval of all class-action settlements, and in most cases, class members are given a chance to opt out of class settlement, though class members, despite opt-out notices, may be unaware of their right to opt-out because they did not receive the notice, did not read it or did not understand it. 1486: 2465:

right during the opt-out period set by the Court, usually 3 to 6 months. Settlements involving injured parties from outside The Netherlands can also be declared binding by the Court. Since US courts are reluctant to take up class actions brought on behalf of injured parties not residing in the US who have suffered damages due to acts or omissions committed outside the US, combinations of US class actions and Dutch collective actions may come to a settlement that covers plaintiffs worldwide. An example of this is the Royal Dutch Shell Oil Reserves Settlement that was declared binding upon both US and non-US plaintiffs.

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interest in the subject matter of a proceeding". The presence and expansion of litigation funders have been playing a significant role in the emergence of class actions in New Zealand. For example, the "Fair Play on Fees" proceedings in relation to penalty fees charged by banks were funded by Litigation Lending Services (LLS), a company specializing in the funding and management of litigation in Australia and New Zealand. It was the biggest class-action suit in New Zealand history.

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ineffective. Within ten years, the Supreme Court interpreted Rule 48 in such a way so that it could apply to absent parties under certain circumstances, but only by ignoring the plain meaning of the rule. In the rules published in 1912, Equity Rule 48 was replaced with Equity Rule 38 as part of a major restructuring of the Equity Rules, and when federal courts merged their legal and equitable procedural systems in 1938, Equity Rule 38 became Rule 23 of the

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actions tra efficientismo processuale, aumento di competitività e risparmio di spesa: l’esame di un contenzioso seriale concreto (le S.U. sul rapporto tra indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima), in Corr. Giur. 2006, 535; FAVA P., Indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima: il "no secco" delle Sezioni Unite. Un caso pratico per valutare le potenzialità delle azioni rappresentative (class actions) nel contenzioso seriale italiano, Rass. Avv. Stato 2005]

1714: – must compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders. Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing. 879:

countries, class actions are most common where the allegations usually involve at least 40 people who the same defendant has injured in the same way. Instead of each damaged person bringing one's own lawsuit, the class action allows all the claims of all class members—whether they know they have been damaged or not—to be resolved in a single proceeding through the efforts of the representative plaintiff(s) and appointed class counsel.

1962:) have brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers. In these cases, the individual consumers assigned their claims to one entity, who has then brought an ordinary (two-party) lawsuit over the assigned claims. The monetary benefits were redistributed among the class. This technique, labeled as "class action Austrian style," allows for a significant reduction of overall costs. The 2460:) (section 3:305a Dutch Civil Code). All types of actions are permitted. This includes a claim for monetary damages, provided the event occurred after 15 November 2016 (pursuant to new legislation which entered into force 1 January 2020). Most class actions over the past decade have been in the field of securities fraud and financial services. The acting association or foundation may come to a 1905:

scrutiny, and notice. There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action. Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example. Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims.

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litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement.

2134:) is a legal act that may permit plaintiffs that are in the same legal community with respect to the dispute, or are entitled by the same factual or legal reason. These are not typically regarded as class action suits, as each individual plaintiff is entitled to compensation for their individual, incurred damages and not as a result of being a member of a class. 1876:

some groups (such as former customers) much greater benefits than others. In one paper presented at an ABA conference on class actions in 2007, authors commented that "competing cases can also provide opportunities for collusive settlement discussions and reverse auctions by defendants anxious to resolve their new exposure at the most economic cost".

1803:, 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment. 2185:) is an attempt to enable model cases to be brought by a large number of potentially affected parties in the event of disputes, limited to the investment market. In contrast to the US class actions, each affected party must file a lawsuit in its own name in order to participate in the model proceedings. 1981:, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June 2005. With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September 2005. With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached. 2708:

For the case to proceed as a class action and bind absent class members, the court must certify the class under Rule 23 on a motion from the party wishing to proceed on a class basis. For a class to be certified, the moving party must meet all of the criteria listed under Rule 23(a), and at least one

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Italy has class action legislation. Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers. These types of claims are increasing, and Italian courts have allowed them against banks that continue to

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expressly or by judicial opinion has been read to allow for what are informally known as national "opt-out" class actions, whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt-out in a prescribed

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There are several criticisms of class actions. The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions have harmed class members possessing legitimate claims and defendants acting responsibly; have adversely affected interstate commerce; and have undermined public respect

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that the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 preempts state laws that prohibit contracts from disallowing class-action lawsuits, which will make it more difficult for consumers to file class-action lawsuits. The dissent pointed to a saving clause in the federal act which allowed states to determine how a

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By 1850, Parliament had enacted several statutes on a case-by-case basis to deal with issues regularly faced by certain types of organizations, like joint-stock companies, and with the impetus for most types of group litigation removed, it went into a steep decline in English jurisprudence from which

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provide for four separate types of class actions. As a result, there are two separate treatises devoted solely to the complex topic of California class actions. As of March 2024, only Virginia and Massachusetts do not provide for any class actions. Others, such as New York, limit the types of claims

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of the 1933 Act in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can "trace" his shares to the registration statement in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission. In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued

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The class representative must be able to represent the interests of all the members of the class, by being typical of the class members and not having conflicts with them. He or she is responsible for hiring the attorney, filing the lawsuit, consulting on the case, and agreeing to any settlement. In

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Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers. A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the "collective interest" and groups of injured

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with the defendant. The settlement may also include – and usually primarily consists of – monetary compensation of damages. Such settlement can be declared binding for all injured parties by the Amsterdam Court of Appeal (section 7:907 Dutch Civil Code). The injured parties have an opt-out

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Judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces. The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces

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Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court. For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court

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As of 2010, there was no publicly maintained list of nonsecurities class-action settlements, although a securities class-action database exists in the Stanford Law School Securities Class Action Clearinghouse and several for-profit companies maintain lists of the securities settlements. One study of

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In 2017, the US Supreme Court issued its opinion in Bristol-Meyer Squibb Co. v. Superior Court of California, 137 S. Ct. 1773 (2017), holding that over five hundred plaintiffs from other states cannot bring a consolidated mass action against the pharmaceutical giant in the State of California. This

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requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members. As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice allowing class members to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own

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refers to the number of people in the class. To be certified, the class has to have enough members that simply adding each of them as a named party to the lawsuit would be impractical. There is no bright-line rule to determine numerosity, but classes with hundreds of members are generally deemed to

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to appropriate all the claims of the victims and proceeded to litigate on their behalf, first in the New York courts and later, in the Indian courts. Ultimately, the matter was settled between the Union of India and Union Carbide (in a settlement overseen by the Supreme Court of India) for a sum of

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In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly situated persons. Not every plaintiff looks for or could obtain such approval. As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly situated person that counsel can

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Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions. Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members;

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In a typical class action, a plaintiff sues a defendant or a number of defendants on behalf of a group, or class, of absent parties. This differs from a traditional lawsuit, where one party sues another party, and all of the parties are present in court. Although standards differ between states and

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FAVA P., L'importabilità delle class actions in Italia, in Contratto e Impresa 1/2004 FAVA P., Class actions all'italiana: "Paese che vai, usanza che trovi" (l’esperienza dei principali ordinamenti giuridici stranieri e le proposte A.A.C.C. n. 3838 e n. 3839), in Corr. Giur. 3/2004; FAVA P., Class

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can be used then to pursue damages in the same procedure or in individual ones in different jurisdictions. If the latter is the case, the liability cannot be discussed, but only the damages. There under the Chilean procedural rules, one particular case works as an opt-out class action for damages.

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Class action cases present significant ethical challenges. Defendants can hold reverse auctions and any of several parties can engage in collusive settlement discussions. Subclasses may have interests that diverge greatly from the class but may be treated the same. Proposed settlements could offer

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and 28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d). Cases in federal courts are only allowed to proceed as class actions if the court has jurisdiction to hear the case, and if the case meets the criteria set out in Rule 23. In the vast majority of federal class actions, the class is acting as the plaintiff. However,

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Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers. The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who

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Likewise, class actions appeared slowly in the New Zealand legal system. However, a group can bring litigation through the action of a representative under the High Court Rules which provide that one or a multitude of persons may sue on behalf of, or for the benefit of, all persons "with the same

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Where the parties on either side are very numerous, and cannot, without manifest inconvenience and oppressive delays in the suit, be all brought before it, the court in its discretion may dispense with making all of them parties, and may proceed in the suit, having sufficient parties before it to

1892:. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement. Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action. 1766:

Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to

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In 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals found incentive awards are impermissible. Incentive awards are a relatively modest payment made to class representatives as part of a class settlement. The ruling was a response to an objector who claimed Rule 23 required that the fee petition be filed

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in limited circumstances (under Part 19.6). These have not been much used, with only two reported cases at the court of first instance in the first ten years after the Civil Procedure Rules took effect. However, a sectoral mechanism was adopted by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, taking effect on

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Class actions are generally not permitted in Germany, as German law does not recognize the concept of a targeted class being affected by certain actions. This requires each plaintiff to individually prove that they were affected by an action, and present their individual damages, and prove the

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The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 addresses these concerns. An independent expert may scrutinize coupon settlements before judicial approval in order to ensure that the settlement will be of value to the class members (28 U.S.C.A. 1712(d)). Further, if the action provides for settlement in

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A major revision of the FRCP in 1966 radically transformed Rule 23, made the opt-out class action the standard option, and gave birth to the modern class action. Entire treatises have been written since to summarize the huge mass of law that sprang up from the 1966 revision of Rule 23. Just as

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The Advisory Committee that drafted the new Rule 23 in the mid-1960s was influenced by two major developments. First was the suggestion of Harry Kalven Jr. and Maurice Rosenfield in 1941 that class-action litigation by individual shareholders on behalf of all shareholders of a company could

2285:. The sort of remedies sought from courts in Public Interest Litigation go beyond mere award of damages to all affected groups, and have sometimes (controversially) gone on to include Court monitoring of the implementation of legislation and even the framing of guidelines in the absence of 1526:

This allowed for representative suits in situations where there were too many individual parties (which now forms the first requirement for class-action litigation – numerosity). However, this rule did not allow such suits to bind similarly situated absent parties, which rendered the rule

2700:(MDL). It is also possible to bring class actions under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant. 2337:

The Supreme Court has observed that the PIL has tended to become a means to gain publicity or obtain relief contrary to constitutionally valid legislation and policy. Observers point out that many High Courts and certain Supreme Court judges are reluctant to entertain PILs filed by

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Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm.

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Registered Consumer Protection Associations can file – if they represent at least 10 individuals – for a (general) judicial finding whether the factual and legal requirements for of claims or legal relationships are met or not. These individuals have to register in order to

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where one of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by a member or members of that group. The class action originated in the United States and is still predominantly an American phenomenon, but Canada, as well as several European countries with

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This is the case when defendants can identify and compensate consumers directly, i.e. because it is their banking institution. In such cases, the judge can skip the compensatory stage and order redress directly. Since 2005 more than 100 cases have been filed, mostly by

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Following the change of majority in France in 2012, the new government proposed introducing class actions into French law. The project of "loi Hamon" of May 2013 aimed to limit the class action to consumer and competition disputes. The law was passed on March 1, 2014.

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Chile approved class actions in 2004. The Chilean model is technically an opt-out issue class action, followed by a compensatory stage which can be collective or individual. This means that the class action is designed to declare the defendant generally liable with

2334:; the monitoring of forest use by the High Courts and the Supreme Court to ensure that there is no unjustified loss of forest cover; and the directions mandating the disclosure of assets of electoral candidates for the Houses of Parliament and State Assembly. 1798:

are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. See

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First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same

2169:§), the court decision concerning the dismissal or direction of a binding arrangement of an adequate compensation is effective for and against all shareholders, including those who have already agreed to a previous settlement in this matter. 2423:

passed a class-action law in Finanziaria 2008, a financial document for the economy management of the government. From 10 December 2007, in order of Italian legislation system, the law is before the House and has to be passed also by the

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federal settlements required the researcher to manually search databases of lawsuits for the relevant records, although state class actions were not included due to the difficulty in gathering the information. Another source of data is

2432:, to become an effective law. In 2004, the Italian parliament considered the introduction of a type of class action, specifically in the area of consumer law. No such law has been enacted, but scholars demonstrated that class actions ( 1571:

Businesses targeted by class actions for inflicting massive aggregate harm have sought ways to avoid class actions altogether. In the 1990s, the US Supreme Court issued several decisions that strengthened the "federal policy favoring

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Class Actions Seven Years After the Class Action Fairness Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, June 1,

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Public interest litigation has now broadened in scope to cover larger and larger groups of citizens who may be affected by government inaction. Examples of this trend include the conversion of all public transport in the city of

2374:). A representative action is "where one claimant or defendant, with the same interest as a group of claimants or defendants in an action, institutes or defends proceedings on behalf of that group of claimants or defendants." 2657:

of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations).

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find as a client. Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called "mass action", hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified.

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Rejecting arguments that they violated employees' rights to collective bargaining, and that modestly-valued consumer claims would be more efficiently litigated within the parameters of one lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court, in

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The New Federal Equity Rules Promulgated by the United States Supreme Court at the October Term, 1912: Together with the Cognate Statutory Provisions and Former Equity Rules; with an Introduction, Annotations and Forms, p.

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requirements to permit the filing of suits on behalf of rights of deprived sections of society by public-minded individuals or bodies. Although not strictly "class action litigation" as it is understood in American law,

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have suffered the same harm. Also, any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment.

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October 1, 2015. Under the provisions therein, opt-in or opt-out collective procedures may be certified for breaches of competition law. This is currently the closest mechanism to a class action in England and Wales.

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coupons, "the portion of any attorney's fee award to class counsel that is attributable to the award of the coupons shall be based on the value to class members of the coupons that are redeemed". 28 U.S.C.A. 1712(a).

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is the named party in a class-action lawsuit. Although the class representative is named as a party to the litigation, the court must approve the class representative when it certifies the lawsuit as a class action.

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Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs. Many class actions are filed initially in state court. The defendant will frequently try to

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their claims. Since these Adjudications are more of a general nature, each individual must assert their claims in their own court proceedings. The competent court is bound by the Model Declaratory Action decision.

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at multiple times are held by the Depository Trust Company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing.

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represent all the adverse interests of the plaintiffs and the defendants in the suit properly before it. But in such cases, the decree shall be without prejudice to the rights and claims of all the absent parties.

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used by laypersons unfamiliar with the critical distinction between the legal terms of art "action" and "suit" (which traditionally refer, respectively, to legal proceedings at common law and in equity). Thus,

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for all class actions with damages exceeding $ 5,000,000 exclusive of interest and costs. The Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, among other things, shareholder class actions covered by the

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proximately flowing from the failure to report the suspected injuries. Previously, many physicians had remained reluctant to report cases of apparent child abuse, despite existing law that required it.

2737:, there must be a common question of law and fact such that "determination of its truth or falsity will resolve an issue that is central to the validity of each one of the claims in one stroke". The 2153:

A genuine extension of the legal effect of a court decision beyond the parties involved in the proceedings is offered under corporate law. This procedure applies to the review of stock payoffs under

1698:, 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone's (usually an attorney's) labor." 2278: 1609:

Companies may insert the phrase "may elect to resolve any claim by individual arbitration" into their consumer and employment contracts to use arbitration and prevent class-action lawsuits.

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Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP. However, some states, like California, have civil procedure systems, which deviate significantly from the federal rules; the

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Other legislation may provide for representative actions on behalf of a large number of plaintiffs, independent of class action procedures. For instance, under Ontario's Condominium Act, a

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litigation, two provincial courts certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents were class members in two class actions in two provinces. Both decisions are under appeal.

1855:, who published a famous law review article in 1971 calling the class action a form of "legalized blackmail". It has garnered the support of a significant minority of the justices of the 4538: 3138: 2510:

is alien to European legal thought to allow somebody to exercise rights on the behalf of a large number of people if these do not participate as parties in the action. ... Moreover, the

4221: 3879: 2051:'s governing corporation may launch a lawsuit on behalf of the owners for damage to the condominium's common elements, even though the corporation does not own the common elements. 1727:

that aimed at purposefully changing the behavior of doctors, encouraging them to report suspected child abuse. Otherwise, they would face the threat of civil action for damages in

4456: 1560:. The groups behind these movements, as well as many others in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, all turned to class actions as a means for achieving their goals. For example, a 1978 4417: 1690:

Second, a class action may overcome "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights".

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in the various states lack significant commonalities. Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of

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Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit. On January 4, 2005,

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manner and time. Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an "opt-out" basis.

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In two major 21st-century cases, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 against certification of class actions due to differences in each individual members' circumstances: first in

1510:(1820). However, Story did not necessarily endorse class actions, because he "could not conceive of a modern function or a coherent theory for representative litigation." 4520: 3621: 3570: 2506:

proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that

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the time frame for class member objections to be filed; and payments to the class representative violates doctrine from two US Supreme Court cases from the 1800s.

2362:, there is no such thing as a "class action" per se. Third-party litigation funding is prohibited under Irish law. Instead, there is the 'representative action' ( 2197:) introduced the Model Declaratory Action (§ 606 ZPO) that created the ability to bundle similar claims by many affected parties efficiently into one proceeding. 1794:

depends on the case and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that

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can be openly or discretely abused. The sums sued for are usually enormous, so that the respondent can be forced to concede, if they do not want to face sudden

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led to the wealthy supporters of the corporate form becoming suspicious of all unincorporated legal entities, which in turn led to the modern concept of the

4810: 4179: 2473:"Pozew zbiorowy" or class action has been allowed under Polish law since July 19, 2010. A minimum of 10 persons, suing based on the same law, is required. 2456:) to bring a so-called collective action on behalf of other persons, provided they can represent the interests of such persons according to their by-laws ( 3179:"Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals Holds that Incentive Payments Commonly Awarded to Class Representatives are Impermissible in a Classwide Settlement" 3082: 4875: 1659:

Proponents of class actions state that they offer a number of advantages because they aggregate many individualized claims into one representational

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is represented by a foreign body in the matter of asserting and enforcing individual claims and the claimant can no longer control the proceedings.

1966:, in a judgment, confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds. 2234:

Class actions can be brought by Germans in the US for events in Germany if the facts of the case relate to the US. For example, in the case of the

1885: 1314: 907: 4876:"The Legislation Enacting Virginia's New Class Action Statute Should Be Amended to Protect Virginia Businesses from In Terrorem Statutory Damages" 4155: 2481:

Collective litigation has been allowed under Russian law since 2002. Basic criteria are, like in the US, numerosity, commonality, and typicality.

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medieval group litigation bound all members of the group regardless of whether they all actually appeared in court, the modern class action binds

3296: 900:. These groups were usually based on existing societal structures like villages, towns, parishes, and guilds. Unlike modern courts, the medieval 4550: 3155: 1548:

effectively supplement direct government regulation of securities markets and other similar markets. The second development was the rise of the

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any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or

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amended the Federal Court of Australia Act in 1992 to introduce "representative proceedings", the equivalent of the American "class actions".

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From 1400 to 1700, group litigation gradually switched from being the norm in England to the exception. The development of the concept of the

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Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult if the

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to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims. Together with the

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Barroilhet, Agustin (2016-05-27). "Self-interested gatekeeping? Clashes between public and private enforcers in two Chilean class actions".

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any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state.

4043: 81: 3872: 2141:) is another method that permits a judge to combine multiple separate court cases into a single trial with a single verdict. According to 1829:

and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights.

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opinion may arguably render nationwide mass action and class action impossible in any single state besides the defendant's home state.

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was next, with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992. As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces had enacted comprehensive class actions legislation. In

1954: – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class-action litigation. However, Austrian consumer organizations ( 2514:

is controversial even in its country of origin, the U.S., because it can result in significant procedural problems. ... Finally, the

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requirement ensures that the claims or defenses of the named plaintiff are typical of those of everyone else in the class. Finally,

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did not question the right of the actual plaintiffs to sue on behalf of a group or a few representatives to defend an entire group.

4700: 4020: 3971: 2654: 2615: 2607:, "officers and directors are liable together with the corporation for material misrepresentations in the registration statement." 2600: 1458: 4827: 4206: 3289: 892:

The antecedent of the class action was what modern observers call "group litigation," which appears to have been quite common in

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called "collective action waivers", which prohibit those signing the contracts from bringing class-action suits. In 2011, the

4513: 3998: 3507: 1974: 4581: 3628: 2745:

requirement states that the named plaintiff must fairly and adequately represent the interests of the absent class members.

2591:

exchange, the class representative may be entitled to compensation (at the court's discretion) out of the recovery amount.

962: 4777: 4302: 2674:§ 1332(d). Under § 1332(d)(2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the 3388: 3111: 1353: 2277:

arose out of the wide powers of judicial review granted to the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts under

2114:

urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection. A draft bill was proposed in April 2006 but did not pass.

4482: 4393: 3924: 3593: 2461: 2300:

due to procedural rules that would make such litigation impossible to conclude and unwieldy to carry out. Instead, the

1402: 828: 4972: 4090: 4787: 3813: 3523: 3434: 3011: 2916: 2645: 1807: 1717:

Third, class-action cases may be brought to purposely change behavior of a class of which the defendant is a member.

1407: 1122: 3688: 2628: 2238:, the lawsuit was allowed because several aggrieved parties came from the US and had purchased rail tickets there. 1528: 1358: 973: 3950: 4992: 1947: 1884:

Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the

547: 4987: 4954: 4804: 4268: 2359: 1586: 935:

resulted in periods during which the common law courts were frequently paralyzed, and out of the confusion the

479: 2833: 2339: 2296:, who were unable to fully prosecute a class-action litigation (as understood in the American sense) against 2222:), which is comparable to the class action and is predominantly used in environmental law. In civil law, the 2194: 1004: 20: 4959: 4539:"Morrison, the Restricted Scope of Securities Act Section 11 Liability, and Prospects for Regulatory Reform" 3770:"BancoEstado devolverá US$ 12 millones a clientes por cobro de comisiones en cuentas de ahorro - LA TERCERA" 3745: 3705:

Barroilhet, Agustin (2012-01-30). "Class Actions in Chile". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.

3221:

Fitzpatrick, Brian T. (2010-12-01). "An Empirical Study of Class Action Settlements and Their Fee Awards".

2667: 2382: 1645: 1363: 978: 911:

Engraving of the Star Chamber, published in "Old and new London" in 1873, taken from a drawing made in 1836

337: 3498:

Johnston, Robert; Karageorge, Felicity; Solomonidis, Rena; Briggs, Nicholas; Gaertner, Sara (April 2023).

896:

from about 1200 onward. These lawsuits involved groups of people either suing or being sued in actions at

370: 4906: 3354: 3044:

Deborah R. Hensler, Nicholas M. Pace, Bonita Dombey-Moore, Beth Giddens, Jennifer Gross, Erik K. Moller,

1992:

in Canada allow class actions. All provinces permit plaintiff classes and some permit defendant classes.

1615: 1348: 999: 553: 4359:"Class Actions 101: An Introduction to UK Collective Actions and How They Differ from US Class Actions" 2838: 2274: 2247: 1919: 1496:

Class actions survived in the United States thanks to the influence of Supreme Court Associate Justice

1113: 327: 3293: 2347: 1052: 1015: 642: 491: 4418:"The Limits of Delaware Corporate Law: Internal Affairs, Federal Forum Provisions, and Sciabacucchi" 3731: 2131: 3942: 3480: 3134: 2697: 1724: 1602: 1501: 863: 675: 659: 226: 186: 2318:(US$ 91 million) as a complete settlement of all claims of all victims for all time to come. 2145:, this is only permissible if all cases are regarding the same factual and legal event and basis. 1544:

members of the class, except for those who choose to opt out (if the rules permit them to do so).

4937: 2844: 2793:, a contract clause that attempts to prevent lawsuits by requiring arbitration in a private forum 2693: 2420: 2013: 2005: 1276: 540: 365: 332: 3313:"FindLaw Class Action and Mass Tort Center: Legal Research: Cohelan on California Class Actions" 4694:"William B. Rubenstein, "Understanding the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005" (briefing paper)" 3957: 3829: 3312: 2604: 2552: 2327: 2235: 1963: 1577: 1237: 1232: 1009: 821: 736: 558: 469: 312: 257: 161: 56: 4476: 4237: 3710: 3424: 2906: 2748:

Rule 23(b)(3) allows class certification if "questions of law or fact common to class members

2648:

increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts

1832:

For example, in the United States, class lawsuits sometimes bind all class members with a low

1710:

who engages in widespread harm – but does so minimally against each individual

4749: 3718: 3332: 2813:, a provision in some contracts which prevents one or both parties from filing a class action 2675: 2649: 2548: 2503: 2419:. The introduction of class actions is on the government's agenda. On November 19, 2007, the 2282: 2253: 1549: 1485: 1332: 1269: 1032: 924: 867: 696: 670: 589: 474: 436: 231: 191: 178: 3538: 2682:

any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; or

1867:. However, empirical studies have generally found the extortion thesis to be "overstated". 2641: 2343: 2263: 2138: 2082: 2001: 1779:

could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant

1514: 1413: 1081: 1020: 168: 108: 3795: 1755:, 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one 951:

of 1874 and 1875. Group litigation was essentially dead in the United Kingdom after 1850.

8: 2810: 2803: 2425: 2301: 2286: 2091: 2063: 1970: 1620: 1264: 1169: 1143: 1045: 533: 527: 486: 423: 246: 47: 4693: 4117: 3264: 3058: 1683:, 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving 4619: 4203: 3517: 3246: 2999: 2816: 2790: 2632: 2429: 2257: 1931: 1856: 1214: 1184: 1149: 776: 663: 594: 563: 454: 418: 394: 350: 133: 75: 4637: 3851: 3373: 4783: 4389: 4173: 4116:

Collins, Niall; Johnston, Peter; Gilvarry, Ailbhe; Farrell, Kevin (1 December 2019).

3809: 3706: 3646: 3503: 3430: 3238: 3234: 3146: 3017: 3007: 2912: 2826: 2756:

to other available methods for fairly and efficiently adjudicating the controversy."

2412: 1837: 1719: 1596: 1561: 1398: 936: 928: 814: 721: 716: 706: 701: 517: 496: 360: 306: 293: 241: 201: 3903: 3450: 3336: 2142: 4611: 4602:

Miller, Scott D. (1984). "Certification of Defendant Classes under Rule 23(b)(2)".

4314: 3801: 3250: 3230: 2777: 2331: 2202: 1833: 1783:. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. See, e.g., 1581: 1553: 1259: 1254: 1224: 893: 731: 711: 584: 512: 464: 413: 346: 288: 196: 173: 115: 103: 4255: 4214: 1504:

through summary discussions in his two equity treatises as well as his opinion in

4901: 4823: 4383: 4225: 4210: 3975: 3692: 3486: 3358: 3300: 3065: 2881: 2752:

over any questions affecting only individual members, and that a class action is

2551:

of the courts of England and Wales came into force in 1999 and have provided for

2437: 2293: 1506: 1219: 1209: 1108: 1075: 948: 726: 388: 317: 300: 3805: 2012:, 2 S.C.R. 534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court. The 1739:

receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the

1513:

The oldest predecessor to the class-action rule in the United States was in the

3420: 2944: 2820: 2611: 2363: 2306: 2111: 1989: 1864: 1860: 1852: 1768: 1343: 1189: 766: 522: 404: 322: 124: 70: 65: 4981: 3347: 3242: 3150: 2796: 2297: 1368: 901: 606: 3928: 3571:"Slater and Gordon announces launch of New Zealand class action against ANZ" 3021: 1847:

A common critique is that class actions are a form of judicially sanctioned

4894: 2872: 2398: 2268: 2055: 2020: 2004:, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the 1772: 1497: 1490: 1383: 1199: 1179: 1154: 1139: 987: 944: 932: 784: 771: 761: 266: 4951: 4318: 1979:

Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection

1930:

Class actions became part of the Australian legal landscape only when the

1672: 4333: 4288: 3598: 3083:"Supreme Court: AT&T can force arbitration, block class-action suits" 2764: 2048: 2032: 1780: 1776: 1756: 1676: 1573: 1557: 1296: 1066: 1038: 947:

pleading, in general, was falling into disfavor, which culminated in the

916: 637: 236: 151: 3852:"with a list of the KapMuG proceedings published in the Federal Gazette" 3682: 2058:

initiated efforts that led to an estimated 79,000 survivors of Canada's

1996:

was the first province to enact class proceedings legislation, in 1978.

4623: 4044:"Chief Justice launches report on litigation funding and class actions" 2523: 2388: 2292:

However, this innovative jurisprudence did not help the victims of the

2077: 1791: 1760: 1748: 1444: 1388: 1159: 897: 802: 746: 649: 601: 271: 212: 138: 30: 4438: 3951:"Union of India Vs. Association for Democratic Reforms & Another" 3205: 2670:

if the claim arises under federal law or if the claim falls under 28

2529: 2416: 2040:

whose courts have certified a parallel class action. However, in the

1848: 1795: 1740: 1736: 1711: 1707: 1668: 1568:

text of Rule 23 and mentioned "class actions" 14 times in its index.

1325: 1306: 1301: 1174: 1103: 780: 4615: 797: 445: 4422:

Harvard Law School on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation

4143: 3497: 2876: 2024: 1684: 1437: 1134: 1091: 756: 616: 379: 276: 98: 3502:(7th ed.). United Kingdom: Law Business Research. p. 8. 2229: 2054:

The largest class action suit in Canada was settled in 2005 after

2016:

permits class actions under Part V.1 of the Federal Courts Rules.

1706:, 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a 4944: 4868: 3105: 2394: 2028: 1997: 1735:

Fourth, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all

1660: 1393: 1164: 858: 611: 579: 459: 281: 3746:"Class Actions in Chile: Update | Global Class Actions Exchange" 2502:

Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action. When the

3265:"Data Collection: Civil Justice Survey of State Courts (CJSSC)" 2671: 1993: 1851:. The extortion thesis was first articulated by law professor 1426: 654: 621: 4952:

Class Action Lawsuits: A Legal Overview for the 115th Congress

4115: 3878:. Deutscher Bundestag: Wissenschaftliche Dienste. 2012-03-19. 3536: 3352:"Harm-Less Lawsuits? What's Wrong with Consumer Class Actions" 3351: 2911:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 162. 2081:

effects if and only if the defendant is found liable, and the

1759:

where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the

4289:"Different class: UK representative actions suffer a setback" 3046:

Class Action Dilemmas: Pursuing Public Goals for Private Gain

2863:

The proper term used by specialists in complex litigation is

2830:(2011), the largest civil rights class-action lawsuit to date 2323: 2041: 1744: 1286: 943:

it never recovered. It was further weakened by the fact that

431: 4254:

Message to Parliament on the Swiss Code of Civil Procedure,

2193:

Effective on November 1, 2018, the Code of Civil Procedure (

2875:

courts. "Class action lawsuit" or "class action suit" are

2519: 1728: 1320: 939:

emerged with exclusive jurisdiction over group litigation.

38: 3831:

LOI n° 2014-344 du 17 mars 2014 relative à la consommation

1576:". In response, lawyers have added provisions to consumer 19:

This article is about the legal term. For other uses, see

4664:"Class Action Fairness Act Public Law 109-2, 119 Stat. 4" 3004:

From Medieval Group Litigation to the Modern Class Action

4258:

et seq. The quote, p. 7290, is the author's translation.

3133: 1918:

Class actions were recognized in "Halabi" leading case (

4496:"Pleading Section 11 Liability for Secondary Offerings" 3426:

Entrepreneurial Litigation: Its Rise, Fall, and Future

3139:"Arbitration Everywhere, Stacking the Deck of Justice" 2599:

In securities class actions that allege violations of

4782:. Chicago: American Bar Association. pp. 57–59. 2819:, a similar legal framework under development in the 2066:. The settlement amounted to upwards of $ 5 billion. 4848:(Quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(3) (emphasis added)). 3429:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 133. 2703: 1517:, specifically Equity Rule 48, promulgated in 1842. 4457:"Securities Fraud Plaintiff Need Not Show Reliance" 4021:"Law firms excluded from EU consumer class actions" 2636:Rule 23 also provides for defendant class actions. 4089:McClusky, Aoife; McClements, April (28 May 2019). 4088: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3154: 3110: 2172: 4433: 4431: 4217:or visit Italian reference site for Class Action 3948: 3101:"Supreme Court rules for Comcast in class action" 2627:In federal courts, class actions are governed by 1790:Whether a class action is superior to individual 887: 4979: 4863:California Class Actions: Practice and Procedure 4238:"La class action nel codice di procedura civile" 4178:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3964: 3337:"Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look" 2010:Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton 1886:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon 4303:"The United Kingdom's New Opt-Out Class Action" 4118:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview" 4066:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview" 3406: 2230:Class Action With Relation to the United States 1810:, passed by the United States Congress, found: 4946:Stanford Securities Class Action Clearinghouse 4907:Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute 4732: 4428: 4357:Yoshino, Troy M.; Labi, Suzanne (2023-11-27). 2898: 2884:has criticized "class action suit" as "wordy". 4735:"A View from the Panel: Part of the Solution" 3800:. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 362–384. 2436:) do not contrast with Italian principles of 1651:, which offers statistics for the year 2005. 1466: 866:, have made changes in recent years to allow 822: 3925:"Introduction to Public Interest Litigation" 3451:"Ethical Issues In Class Action Settlements" 1925: 82:Intentional infliction of emotional distress 4537:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 22, 2015). 4356: 3999:"Revisiting the potential of class actions" 3960:Judgement on Civil Appeal No. 7178 of 2001. 3220: 2188: 1908: 4363:Class Action Insider, Winston & Strawn 4350: 4204:Class Action Italia, Dalle origini ad oggi 4161:. Archived from the original on 2013-10-05 3793: 3704: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2377:Some test cases in Ireland have included: 2330:engines on the basis of the orders of the 1958:(VKI) and the Federal Chamber of Labour / 1723:(1976) was a landmark case decided by the 1473: 1459: 829: 815: 222:Negligent infliction of emotional distress 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4536: 4415: 3594:"Thousands sign up for bank class action" 3539:"Class Actions in Australia - An Overnew" 3389:"Do Class Actions Benefit Class Members?" 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2799:, an English predecessor to class actions 2709:of the criteria listed under Rule 23(b). 1879: 1767:determine whether they may convert their 4771: 4769: 4472: 4470: 4381: 4300: 3177:Troutman, Eric J. (September 18, 2020). 3176: 3051: 2759: 2655:Private Securities Litigation Reform Act 1591:contract or its clauses may be revoked. 1484: 906: 870:to bring claims on behalf of consumers. 4828:"The Plight of the Individual Investor" 4779:A Practitioner's Guide to Class Actions 4416:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 2019). 4331: 4215:Italy introduces consumer class actions 4041: 3591: 3537:Stuart Clark and Colin Loveday (2004). 3290:Association of Trial Lawyers of America 3098: 2998: 1775:. Refusing to litigate the case in one 4980: 4822: 4601: 4565: 3996: 3651:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3563: 3419: 2963: 2904: 2781:that may be brought as class actions. 2712:The 23(a) criteria are referred to as 2148: 1534: 4939:Manual for Complex Litigation, Fourth 4775: 4766: 4467: 3585: 3383: 3381: 3315:. Classaction.findlaw.com. 1966-07-01 3216: 3214: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2867:, which replaced the historical term 2733:be sufficiently numerous. To satisfy 2183:Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahrensgesetz 1975:Austrian Federal Minister for Justice 3671:Wuttunee v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. 3006:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2542: 1787:, 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966). 1694:, 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting 1649:Civil Justice Survey of State Courts 4859:Cohelan on California Class Actions 4091:"Class action procedure in Ireland" 4042:McKeown, Andrew (31 January 2020). 3917: 3896: 3099:Stempel, Jonathan (27 March 2013). 2871:after the merger of common law and 2841:, a similar system adopted in India 2415:on retail clients' current account 2209: 1859:, along with prominent judges like 1825:for the country's judicial system. 13: 4931: 4832:Northwestern University Law Review 4584:. federalrulesofcivilprocedure.org 4483:Supreme Court of the United States 4334:"Class action legal change for UK" 3667:Tiboni v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. 3592:Meadows, Richard (11 March 2013). 3378: 3223:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 3211: 3048:(Santa Monica: RAND, 2000), 10–11. 2932: 2908:Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage 2565: 2559: 2342:and activists, citing concerns of 14: 5004: 4926: 4514:"CITIC Trust_FIC_Order_PACER.pdf" 3997:Boland, James (12 October 2018). 3695:Archived at Arnold Pizzo McKiggan 3573:. Slater and Gordon. 18 June 2013 3137:; Gebeloff, Robert (2015-10-31). 2704:Class certification under Rule 23 2646:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2622: 2566:Class_action § United_States 2537: 2161:. Pursuant to Sec. 13 Sentence 2 1956:Verein für Konsumenteninformation 1890:Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal 1808:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 4526:from the original on 2015-10-08. 3949:Justice M.B. Shah (2 May 2002). 3669:, O.J. No. 2996. Saskatchewan: 3235:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2010.01196.x 2807:, 1991 American legal drama film 2666:Class actions may be brought in 2629:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 2393:Damages claims brought by Irish 2137:The combination of court cases ( 2127:causality between both parties. 2094:agency. Salient cases have been 2088:Servicio Nacional del Consumidor 1948:Austrian Code of Civil Procedure 1529:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 974:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 954: 927:. The tumultuous history of the 796: 4851: 4816: 4796: 4726: 4717: 4706:from the original on 2006-11-02 4686: 4677: 4656: 4630: 4595: 4530: 4506: 4488: 4449: 4409: 4375: 4325: 4307:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 4294: 4282: 4261: 4248: 4230: 4196: 4186: 4148: 4136: 4109: 4082: 4058: 4035: 4013: 3990: 3885:from the original on 2019-10-20 3865: 3844: 3822: 3787: 3762: 3750:globalclassactions.stanford.edu 3738: 3698: 3676: 3659: 3614: 3551:from the original on 2012-03-30 3530: 3491: 3474: 3463:from the original on 2011-07-13 3443: 3393:www.instituteforlegalreform.com 3363: 3341: 3326: 3305: 3283: 3257: 3193: 3170: 3127: 2771: 2661: 2644:the case to federal court. The 2448:Dutch law allows associations ( 2214:German law also recognizes the 2179:Capital Investor Model Case Act 2173:Investor Model Case Proceedings 1895: 1646:US Bureau of Justice Statistics 1587:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 548:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio 4955:Congressional Research Service 4805:Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes 3927:. Karmayog.org. Archived from 3873:"Sachstand WD 7 –3000/070 –12" 3092: 3075: 3038: 3028: 2857: 2497: 2443: 2340:non-governmental organizations 1692:Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor 1681:Jenkins v. Raymark Indus. Inc. 1359:Notwithstanding verdict (JNOV) 888:England and the United Kingdom 873: 1: 4332:Coleman, Clive (2015-10-01). 3522:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 2891: 2834:List of class action lawsuits 2266:in the 1980s loosened strict 1819: 1654: 1638: 658:(term used for torts in some 4973:Collective Redress in Europe 4865:by Elizabeth Cabraser et al. 4382:Sullivan, E. Thomas (2009). 4271:. Justice.gov.uk. 2013-09-27 4256:Federal Journal 2006 p. 7221 3500:The Class Actions Law Review 3271:. Office of Justice Programs 3269:Bureau of Justice Statistics 2383:CervicalCheck cancer scandal 1913: 979:Doctrines of civil procedure 7: 4776:Greer, Marcy Hogan (2010). 4748:: 2225–2331. Archived from 4723:28 U.S.C. § 1332(d)(2) 4388:. LexisNexis. p. 441. 3806:10.4337/9781783470440.00027 2784: 2594: 1702:, 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting 1696:Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp. 1619:(2018), enabled the use of 1616:Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis 1584:ruled in a 5–4 decision in 554:Joint and several liability 10: 5009: 4683:28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d) 4666:. Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov 4543:Journal of Corporation Law 4439:"Bloomberg Industry Group" 4301:Mulheron, Rachael (2017). 3686:article on Bernard in 2006 2839:Public Interest Litigation 2570:In the United States, the 2563: 2353: 2275:Public Interest Litigation 2251: 2248:Public Interest Litigation 2245: 2121: 1973:unanimously requested the 1941: 1801:Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co. 1114:Case Information Statement 882: 328:Comparative responsibility 18: 4966: 3208: September 17, 2020). 3201:Johnson v. NPAS Solutions 3135:Silver-greenberg, Jessica 2905:Garner, Bryan A. (2011). 2476: 2468: 2348:parliamentary sovereignty 2287:Parliamentary legislation 2105: 2060:residential school system 1984: 1926:Australia and New Zealand 1870: 1753:Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp. 1349:As a matter of law (JMOL) 643:Non-economic damages caps 4902:"Rule 23. Class Actions" 3797:Class Actions in Context 3485:January 6, 2009, at the 2850: 2698:multidistrict litigation 2678:exceeds $ 5,000,000 and 2584:representative plaintiff 2484: 2405: 2401:by European truck makers 2241: 2189:Model Declaratory Action 2069: 1909:Class action legislation 1888:was sued as part of the 1785:Van Gemert v. Boeing Co. 1751:may be compensated. See 1725:California Supreme Court 1603:Comcast Corp. v. Behrend 1246:Resolution without trial 676:Private attorney general 630:Other topics in tort law 258:Principles of negligence 187:Alienation of affections 4880:The National Law Review 4638:"Unintended Precedents" 4549:(1): 38. Archived from 4097:. Law Business Research 3906:. Legalserviceindia.com 3059:Opting Out of Liability 2845:Securities Class Action 2553:group litigation orders 2421:Senato della Repubblica 2326:from diesel engines to 2304:exercised its right of 2281:and Article 226 of the 2163:Mediation Procedure Act 2096:Condecus v. BancoEstado 2014:Federal Court of Canada 2006:Supreme Court of Canada 1564:treatise reprinted the 1500:, who imported it into 541:Volenti non fit injuria 366:Ultrahazardous activity 333:Contributory negligence 4993:Civil law (common law) 4219:Class Action Community 3958:Supreme Court of India 3904:"PIL A Boon Or A Bane" 3726:Cite journal requires 3294:Class Action Press Kit 2605:Securities Act of 1933 2535: 2434:azioni rappresentative 2428:, the second house of 2367: 2328:compressed natural gas 2236:Eschede train disaster 2167:Spruchverfahrensgesetz 1964:Austrian Supreme Court 1880:Defendant class action 1817: 1763:if they win the case. 1524: 1493: 1238:Request for production 1233:Request for admissions 912: 868:consumer organizations 559:Market share liability 492:Shopkeeper's privilege 470:Statute of limitations 313:Restitutio ad integrum 162:Intrusion on seclusion 57:Trespass to the person 4988:Class action lawsuits 4642:The American Prospect 3974:. ADR. Archived from 3776:(in European Spanish) 2760:Notice and settlement 2676:amount in controversy 2650:original jurisdiction 2549:Civil Procedure Rules 2508: 2462:collective settlement 2283:Constitution of India 2254:Constitution of India 2155:Stock Corporation Act 1812: 1578:contracts of adhesion 1550:civil rights movement 1519: 1488: 1271:Involuntary dismissal 925:voluntary association 910: 855:representative action 671:Conflict of tort laws 437:Tortious interference 192:Criminal conversation 179:Malicious prosecution 4733:John G. Heyburn II. 4244:. December 10, 2019. 2949:Wex Legal Dictionary 2572:class representative 2344:separation of powers 2264:Indian Supreme Court 2132:Streitgenossenschaft 2083:declaratory judgment 2002:Prince Edward Island 1806:The preamble to the 1621:class action waivers 1600:(2011) and later in 1515:Federal Equity Rules 1414:Declaratory judgment 1082:Forum non conveniens 965:in the United States 847:class action lawsuit 169:Breach of confidence 4910:. February 28, 1966 4644:. February 28, 2010 4604:Columbia Law Review 4500:www.americanbar.org 4461:www.americanbar.org 4319:10.1093/ojls/gqx016 4144:Class Action Italia 3070:Michigan Law Review 3000:Yeazell, Stephen C. 2811:Class action waiver 2452:) and foundations ( 2426:Camera dei Deputati 2302:Government of India 2195:Zivilprozessordnung 2149:Mediation Procedure 2092:consumer protection 2064:Canadian government 1971:Austrian Parliament 1960:Bundesarbeitskammer 1952:Zivilprozessordnung 1700:Amchem Prods., Inc. 1535:Modern developments 1364:Motion to set aside 1265:Voluntary dismissal 1170:Indispensable party 1144:affirmative defense 664:mixed legal systems 534:Respondeat superior 528:Vicarious liability 487:Defence of property 424:Insurance bad faith 338:Attractive nuisance 157:Invasion of privacy 4813:, 2541 (2011). 4443:Bloomberg Industry 4385:Complex Litigation 4224:2010-01-31 at the 4209:2008-02-12 at the 4046:. Irish Legal news 3972:"Our Achievements" 3691:2008-09-30 at the 3684:Halifax Daily News 3395:. 11 December 2013 3357:2009-07-15 at the 3299:2006-12-03 at the 3143:The New York Times 3064:2009-04-02 at the 2817:Collective redress 2791:Arbitration clause 2430:Italian Parliament 2387:financial product 2370:) or 'test case' ( 2294:Bhopal gas tragedy 2258:Judiciary of India 2224:Associative Action 2216:Associative Action 2130:Joint litigation ( 2100:SERNAC v. La Polar 1932:Federal Parliament 1857:U.S. Supreme Court 1838:coupon settlements 1494: 1489:Associate Justice 1215:Initial conference 1200:Pretrial procedure 913: 845:, also known as a 564:Transferred intent 455:Assumption of risk 419:Restraint of trade 395:Rylands v Fletcher 227:Employment-related 76:False imprisonment 4742:Tulane Law Review 4553:on August 6, 2020 4142:More information 4124:. Thomson Reuters 4001:. The Irish Times 3602:. Fairfax Digital 3509:978-1-80449-160-7 3057:Giles M. (2005). 2827:Dukes v. Wal-Mart 2543:England and Wales 2413:compound interest 2368:gníomh ionadaíoch 2262:Decisions of the 2139:Prozessverbindung 1720:Landeros v. Flood 1597:Wal-Mart v. Dukes 1562:environmental law 1483: 1482: 937:Court of Chancery 929:Wars of the Roses 839: 838: 712:England and Wales 667: 518:Last clear chance 513:Intentional torts 497:Neutral reportage 480:Defense of others 428: 361:Product liability 307:Res ipsa loquitur 294:Reasonable person 202:Breach of promise 51: 5000: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4872: 4866: 4855: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4824:Webber, David H. 4820: 4814: 4808: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4773: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4760: 4754: 4739: 4730: 4724: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4711: 4705: 4698: 4690: 4684: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4599: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4578: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4518: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4492: 4486: 4474: 4465: 4464: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4435: 4426: 4425: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4276: 4269:"CPR, Part 19.6" 4265: 4259: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4234: 4228: 4200: 4194: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4113: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4076: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4023:. 4 January 2019 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4006: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3968: 3962: 3961: 3955: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3936: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3890: 3884: 3877: 3869: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3859: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3839: 3834:, March 17, 2014 3826: 3820: 3819: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3781: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3756: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3729: 3724: 3722: 3714: 3702: 3696: 3680: 3674: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3650: 3642: 3640: 3639: 3633: 3627:. 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Archived from 3096: 3090: 3079: 3073: 3055: 3049: 3042: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3025: 2996: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2941: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2902: 2885: 2861: 2778:California Codes 2574:, also called a 2332:Delhi High Court 2317: 2315: 2210:Associate Action 2112:President Chirac 1675:and issues from 1582:US Supreme Court 1554:environmentalism 1475: 1468: 1461: 1272: 1260:Summary judgment 1255:Default judgment 1005:Federal question 959: 958: 894:medieval England 831: 824: 817: 801: 800: 657: 426: 289:Standard of care 174:Abuse of process 84: 45: 26: 25: 5008: 5007: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4978: 4977: 4969: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4923: 4913: 4911: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4885: 4883: 4882:. March 7, 2024 4874: 4873: 4869: 4856: 4852: 4841: 4839: 4821: 4817: 4802: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4774: 4767: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4737: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4692: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4669: 4667: 4662: 4661: 4657: 4647: 4645: 4636: 4635: 4631: 4616:10.2307/1122354 4600: 4596: 4587: 4585: 4580: 4579: 4566: 4556: 4554: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4516: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4494: 4493: 4489: 4475: 4468: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4414: 4410: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4380: 4376: 4367: 4365: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4340: 4330: 4326: 4299: 4295: 4287: 4283: 4274: 4272: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4253: 4249: 4242:www.tedioli.com 4236: 4235: 4231: 4226:Wayback Machine 4211:Wayback Machine 4201: 4197: 4191: 4187: 4171: 4170: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4153: 4149: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4114: 4110: 4100: 4098: 4087: 4083: 4074: 4072: 4064: 4063: 4059: 4049: 4047: 4040: 4036: 4026: 4024: 4019: 4018: 4014: 4004: 4002: 3995: 3991: 3981: 3979: 3978:on 29 June 2009 3970: 3969: 3965: 3953: 3947: 3943: 3934: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3909: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3866: 3857: 3855: 3850: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3835: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3792: 3788: 3779: 3777: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3754: 3752: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3727: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3703: 3699: 3693:Wayback Machine 3681: 3677: 3664: 3660: 3644: 3643: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3622:"Archived copy" 3620: 3619: 3615: 3605: 3603: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3554: 3552: 3548: 3544:. Clayton Utz. 3541: 3535: 3531: 3515: 3514: 3510: 3496: 3492: 3487:Wayback Machine 3479: 3475: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3421:Coffee, John C. 3418: 3407: 3398: 3396: 3387: 3386: 3379: 3374:"Class Actions" 3368: 3364: 3359:Wayback Machine 3346: 3342: 3333:Richard Epstein 3331: 3327: 3318: 3316: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3301:Wayback Machine 3288: 3284: 3274: 3272: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3219: 3212: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3184: 3182: 3175: 3171: 3162: 3160: 3132: 3128: 3118: 3116: 3097: 3093: 3080: 3076: 3066:Wayback Machine 3056: 3052: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3029: 3014: 2997: 2964: 2954: 2952: 2943: 2942: 2933: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2888: 2882:Bryan A. Garner 2862: 2858: 2853: 2787: 2774: 2762: 2706: 2664: 2625: 2614:" to sue under 2597: 2580:named plaintiff 2568: 2562: 2545: 2540: 2520:huge indebtness 2500: 2487: 2479: 2471: 2446: 2438:civil procedure 2408: 2356: 2313: 2312: 2260: 2250: 2244: 2232: 2212: 2191: 2175: 2151: 2124: 2108: 2072: 2019:Legislation in 1990:Provincial laws 1987: 1944: 1928: 1916: 1911: 1898: 1882: 1873: 1822: 1657: 1641: 1537: 1507:West v. Randall 1479: 1450: 1419: 1386: 1377: 1346: 1337: 1333:Burden of proof 1281: 1270: 1229: 1220:Interrogatories 1194: 1128: 1109:Cause of action 1106: 1076:Change of venue 1059: 1035: 1026: 1014: 1002: 964: 963:Civil procedure 957: 949:Judicature Acts 890: 885: 876: 857:, is a type of 835: 795: 689:By jurisdiction 389:Public nuisance 318:Rescue doctrine 301:Proximate cause 213:Negligent torts 125:Dignitary torts 80: 24: 17: 16:Type of lawsuit 12: 11: 5: 5006: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4976: 4975: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4957: 4949: 4942: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4927:External links 4925: 4922: 4921: 4893: 4867: 4850: 4815: 4795: 4788: 4765: 4725: 4716: 4685: 4676: 4655: 4629: 4594: 4564: 4529: 4505: 4487: 4478:Slack v. Prani 4466: 4448: 4427: 4408: 4395:978-1422411469 4394: 4374: 4349: 4324: 4313:(4): 814–843. 4293: 4281: 4260: 4247: 4229: 4195: 4185: 4156:"art. 140 bis" 4147: 4135: 4108: 4081: 4057: 4034: 4012: 3989: 3963: 3941: 3916: 3895: 3864: 3843: 3821: 3814: 3786: 3761: 3737: 3728:|journal= 3697: 3675: 3673:, 2008 SKQB 78 3658: 3613: 3584: 3562: 3529: 3508: 3490: 3473: 3442: 3435: 3405: 3377: 3362: 3340: 3325: 3304: 3282: 3256: 3229:(4): 811–846. 3210: 3192: 3169: 3126: 3115:on 2 June 2016 3091: 3074: 3050: 3037: 3027: 3012: 2962: 2945:"Class Action" 2931: 2917: 2896: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2886: 2855: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2842: 2836: 2831: 2823: 2821:European Union 2814: 2808: 2800: 2794: 2786: 2783: 2773: 2770: 2761: 2758: 2705: 2702: 2690: 2689: 2686: 2683: 2663: 2660: 2624: 2623:Federal courts 2621: 2596: 2593: 2576:lead plaintiff 2561: 2558: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2538:United Kingdom 2536: 2499: 2496: 2486: 2483: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2445: 2442: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2391: 2385: 2355: 2352: 2307:parens patriae 2246:Main article: 2243: 2240: 2231: 2228: 2211: 2208: 2190: 2187: 2174: 2171: 2150: 2147: 2123: 2120: 2107: 2104: 2090:, the Chilean 2071: 2068: 1986: 1983: 1943: 1940: 1927: 1924: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1897: 1894: 1881: 1878: 1872: 1869: 1865:Richard Posner 1861:Henry Friendly 1853:Milton Handler 1821: 1818: 1656: 1653: 1640: 1637: 1536: 1533: 1481: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1470: 1463: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1448: 1441: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1423: 1422: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1417: 1411: 1405: 1399:Attorney's fee 1396: 1391: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1340: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1318: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1304: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1283: 1282: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1267: 1262: 1257: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1235: 1228: 1227: 1222: 1217: 1212: 1206: 1203: 1202: 1196: 1195: 1193: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1137: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1127: 1126: 1116: 1111: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1070: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1058: 1057: 1049: 1042: 1029: 1027: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1012: 1007: 1000:Subject-matter 996: 991: 990: 984: 983: 982: 981: 976: 968: 967: 956: 953: 921:unincorporated 902:English courts 889: 886: 884: 881: 875: 872: 837: 836: 834: 833: 826: 819: 811: 808: 807: 806: 805: 803:Law portal 790: 789: 788: 787: 774: 769: 764: 759: 751: 750: 742: 741: 740: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 717:European Union 714: 709: 704: 699: 691: 690: 686: 685: 684: 683: 678: 673: 668: 652: 647: 646: 645: 632: 631: 627: 626: 625: 624: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 598: 597: 592: 587: 574: 573: 569: 568: 567: 566: 561: 556: 551: 544: 537: 530: 525: 523:Eggshell skull 520: 515: 507: 506: 502: 501: 500: 499: 494: 489: 484: 483: 482: 472: 467: 462: 457: 449: 448: 442: 441: 440: 439: 434: 429: 427:(American law) 421: 416: 408: 407: 405:Economic torts 401: 400: 399: 398: 391: 383: 382: 376: 375: 374: 373: 368: 363: 355: 354: 343: 342: 341: 340: 335: 330: 325: 323:Duty to rescue 320: 315: 310: 303: 298: 297: 296: 286: 285: 284: 279: 274: 261: 260: 254: 253: 252: 251: 250: 249: 244: 234: 229: 224: 216: 215: 209: 208: 207: 206: 205: 204: 199: 194: 189: 181: 176: 171: 166: 165: 164: 154: 149: 148: 147: 144: 136: 128: 127: 121: 120: 119: 118: 113: 112: 111: 106: 93: 92: 91:Property torts 88: 87: 86: 85: 78: 73: 68: 60: 59: 53: 52: 42: 41: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5005: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4962: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4936: 4935: 4932:United States 4909: 4908: 4903: 4897: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4819: 4812: 4811:131 S. Ct 4807: 4806: 4799: 4791: 4789:9781604429558 4785: 4781: 4780: 4772: 4770: 4755:on 2012-04-26 4751: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4729: 4720: 4702: 4695: 4689: 4680: 4665: 4659: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4598: 4583: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4533: 4522: 4515: 4509: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4484: 4480: 4479: 4473: 4471: 4462: 4458: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4434: 4432: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4397: 4391: 4387: 4386: 4378: 4364: 4360: 4353: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4290: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4257: 4251: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4227: 4223: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4205: 4199: 4189: 4181: 4175: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4123: 4122:Practical Law 4119: 4112: 4096: 4092: 4085: 4071: 4070:Practical Law 4067: 4061: 4045: 4038: 4022: 4016: 4000: 3993: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3959: 3952: 3945: 3931:on 2013-10-05 3930: 3926: 3920: 3905: 3899: 3881: 3874: 3868: 3853: 3847: 3833: 3832: 3825: 3817: 3815:9781783470440 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3798: 3790: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3733: 3720: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3679: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3654: 3648: 3634:on 2006-08-11 3630: 3623: 3617: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3588: 3572: 3566: 3547: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3519: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3459: 3452: 3446: 3438: 3436:9780674736795 3432: 3428: 3427: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3382: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3360: 3356: 3353: 3349: 3348:Michael Greve 3344: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3314: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3215: 3207: 3202: 3196: 3185:September 19, 3180: 3173: 3159:on 2015-11-15 3157: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3113: 3108: 3107: 3102: 3095: 3088: 3084: 3078: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3060: 3054: 3047: 3041: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3013:9780300037760 3009: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2950: 2946: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2920: 2918:9780195384208 2914: 2910: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2801: 2798: 2797:Bill of Peace 2795: 2792: 2789: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2769: 2766: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2680: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2668:federal court 2659: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2620: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2592: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2567: 2560:United States 2557: 2554: 2550: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2505: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2474: 2466: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2351: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2319: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2298:Union Carbide 2295: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2270: 2265: 2259: 2255: 2249: 2239: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2220:Verbandsklage 2217: 2207: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2133: 2128: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2079: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1939: 1935: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1920:Supreme Court 1906: 1902: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1877: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1747:before other 1746: 1743:) of all its 1742: 1738: 1733: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1721: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1664: 1662: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1636: 1634: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1598: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 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