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450:, generally referred to as Title VII. The two statutes, passed nearly a century apart, approached the issue of employment discrimination very differently: Section 1981 prohibited only discrimination based on race or color, but Title VII also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and national origin. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages and trial by jury. Title VII, passed in the 1960s when it was assumed that Southern juries could not render a fair verdict, allowed only trial by the court and provided for only traditional
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623:, it was uncomfortable with how that case gave the employer the ability to prove that it would have made the same decision in any event, as a complete defense in a case in which it had been shown that race or gender or another unlawful factor played a significant role in its decision. Congress amended the Act to provide that the employer's proof that it would have made the same decision in any case was a defense to back pay, reinstatement and other remedies but not to liability
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540: (1989), which held that the burden of proof shifted, once an employee had proved that an unlawful consideration had played a part in the employer's personnel decision, to the employer to prove that it would have made the same decision if it had not been motivated by that unlawful factor, but such proof by the employer would constitute a complete defense for the employer.
490: (1989), which held that an employee could not sue for damages caused by racial harassment on the job because even if the employer's conduct were discriminatory, the employer had not denied the employee the "same right... to make and enforce contracts... as is enjoyed by white citizens," the language that Congress chose in passing the law in 1866.
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whole if the plaintiff can show that "the elements of decisionmaking process are not capable of separation for analysis." Congress also established that the employer has the burden of proof on the business necessity defense and restored the meaning of "business necessity" to how it was interpreted before
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The Act also authorized jury trials on Title VII claims and allowed Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, while imposing caps on such relief. The 1991 Act also made technical changes affecting the length of time allowed to challenge unlawful seniority provisions, to
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describing the plaintiff's burden with respect to statistical proof, in which the court had held: "The mere existence of a statistical imbalance in an employer's workforce on account of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is not alone sufficient to establish a prima facie case of disparate
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case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. While the amended Act still generally requires that a plaintiff identify particular employment practice(s) allegedly causing a disparate impact, Congress added that an employer's decisionmaking process may be analyzed as a
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had attracted much criticism since it appeared to leave employees victimized by racial harassment on the job with no effective remedies, as they could not prove a violation of
Section 1981 and could rarely show any wage losses that they could recover under Title VII. In addition, the Court's narrow
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to modify some of the basic procedural and substantive rights provided by federal law in employment discrimination cases. It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award. It
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Congress addressed the issue by redefining the phrase "make and enforce contracts" to include "the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship." Congress also clarified that
627:. The practical effect of this change was to allow a party that proved that the employer discriminated but could not show that it made any practical difference to the outcome could still recover attorney's fees after showing that the employer discriminated, even if no other remedy was awarded.
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sue the federal government for discrimination, and to bring age discrimination claims, but it allowed successful plaintiffs to recover expert witness fees as part of an award of attorney's fees and to collect interest on any judgment against the federal government.
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Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. It was moved to overhaul Title VII in 1991 and to harmonize it with
Section 1981 jurisprudence, as a result of a series of controversial Supreme Court decisions:
559: (1989), which permitted white firefighters who had not been party to the litigation, establishing a consent decree governing hiring and promotion of black firefighters in the Birmingham, Alabama, Fire Department, to bring suit to challenge the decree.
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reading of the phrase "make or enforce contracts" eliminated any liability under
Section 1981 for lost promotions and most other personnel decisions that did not constitute a refusal to hire on the basis of race or color.
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Finally, Congress limited the rights of non-parties to attack consent decrees by barring any challenges by parties who knew or should have known of the decree or who were adequately represented by the original parties.
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Flood, Julee Tate, "Judicial
Influence on Academic Decision-Making: A Study of Tenure Denial Litigation Cases in which Higher Education Institutions Did Not Wholly Prevail. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2012.
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Section 1981 applied to both governmental and private discrimination, the issue that the
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against future acts of discrimination. By the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys' fees.
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Cable
Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992
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United States statutes that abrogate
Supreme Court decisions
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Changes in Title VII made by the Civil Rights Act of 1991
712:. Library of Congress. October 30, 1991. Archived from
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Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990
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Alien
Species Prevention and Enforcement Act of 1992
611:. Congress did not, however, alter the portion of
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United
Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc.
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1536:Post–civil rights era in African-American history
1340:Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act
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1363:Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
521:and show that it, in isolation, had that effect.
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749:https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/1293
1521:Anti-discrimination law in the United States
1356:Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
688:"S. 1745 (102nd): Civil Rights Act of 1991"
670:"S. 1745 (102nd): Civil Rights Act of 1991"
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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837:
1419:Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990
415:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
1541:Industrial and organizational psychology
1405:North American Wetlands Conservation Act
822:) is being considered for deletion. See
175:This article includes a list of general
1463:Water Resources Development Act of 1992
1456:Water Resources Development Act of 1990
1384:Matsunaga Hydrogen RD&D Act of 1990
1201:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
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454:remedies: back pay, reinstatement, and
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88:adding citations to reliable sources
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706:"S.1745 - Civil Rights Act of 1991"
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1310:Global Change Research Act of 1990
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324:Title 42—Public Health And Welfare
181:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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826:to help reach a consensus. ›
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377:on November 7, 1991 (381–38)
34:This article has multiple issues.
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1229:Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
602:Congress also believed that the
495:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
476:Patterson v. McLean Credit Union
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860:Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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802:Statute Compilations collection
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430:against the more comprehensive
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42:or discuss these issues on the
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759:Sturm, Susan P. (April 2007).
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353:in the Senate as S.1745 by
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243:Civil Rights Act of 1991
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421:United States President
402:United States labor law
365:) on September 24, 1991
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978:Judicial appointments
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1426:Truth in Savings Act
1377:Lead and Copper Rule
1252:FDIC Improvement Act
1102:Soviet Union summits
950:Presidential pardons
413:added provisions to
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84:improve this article
1449:1992 VRA Amendments
1442:Ryan White CARE Act
957:International trips
616:impact violation."
340:Legislative history
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