1027:
441:
303:
403:
4341:
4352:
135:
39:
237:
80:
603:
computer monitor than in an 8×10 print of the same original image viewed at the same distance. If the image is to be viewed only on a low-resolution device, a larger CoC may be appropriate; however, if the image may also be viewed in a high-resolution medium such as a print, the criteria discussed above will govern.
1061:
2247:) takes a similar approach based on a visual acuity of one minute of arc, and chooses a circle of confusion of 0.025 cm for viewing at 40–50 cm, essentially making the same factor-of-two error in metric units. It is unclear whether Abney or Dallmeyer was earlier to set the CoC standard thereby.
2103:
This spherical aberration produces an indistinctness of vision, by spreading out every mathematical point of the object into a small spot in its picture; which spots, by mixing with each other, confuse the whole. The diameter of this circle of confusion, at the focus of the central rays F, over which
545:
Enlargement from the original image to the final image. If there is no enlargement (e.g., a contact print of an 8×10 original image), the CoC for the original image is the same as that in the final image. But if, for example, the long dimension of a 35 mm original image is enlarged to 25 cm
484:
In idealized ray optics, where rays are assumed to converge to a point when perfectly focused, the shape of a defocus blur spot from a lens with a circular aperture is a hard-edged circle of light. A more general blur spot has soft edges due to diffraction and aberrations, and may be non-circular due
2267:
To find how quickly a shutter must act to take an object in motion that there may be a circle of confusion less than 1/100 in. in diameter, divide the distance of the object by 100 times the focus of the lens, and divide the rapidity of motion of object in inches per second by the results, when
2234:
and when the circles of confusion are sufficiently small the eye fails to see them as such; they are then seen as points only, and the picture appears sharp. At the ordinary distance of vision, of from twelve to fifteen inches, circles of confusion are seen as points, if the angle subtended by them
2225:
Thus every point in an object out of focus is represented in the picture by a disc, or circle of confusion, the size of which is proportionate to the aperture in relation to the focus of the lens employed. If a point in the object is 1/100 of an inch out of focus, it will be represented by a circle
594:
However, images seldom are viewed at the so-called 'correct' distance; the viewer usually does not know the focal length of the taking lens, and the "correct" distance may be uncomfortably short or long. Consequently, criteria based on lens focal length have generally given way to criteria (such as
428:
rather than points; the greater the distance an object is from the plane of focus, the greater the size of the blur spot. Such a blur spot has the same shape as the lens aperture, but for simplicity, is usually treated as if it were circular. In practice, objects at considerably different distances
1068:
To calculate the diameter of the circle of confusion in the image plane for an out-of-focus subject, one method is to first calculate the diameter of the blur circle in a virtual image in the object plane, which is simply done using similar triangles, and then multiply by the magnification of the
587:
is the lens focal length. For a 50 mm lens on full-frame 35 mm format, the corresponding CoC is 0.0291 mm. This criterion evidently assumed that a final image would be viewed at perspective-correct distance (i.e., the angle of view would be the same as that of the original image):
564:
Since the final-image size is not usually known at the time of taking a photograph, it is common to assume a standard size such as 25 cm width, along with a conventional final-image CoC of 0.2 mm, which is 1/1250 of the image width. Conventions in terms of the diagonal measure are also
551:
The common values for CoC limit may not be applicable if reproduction or viewing conditions differ significantly from those assumed in determining those values. If the original image will be given greater enlargement, or viewed at a closer distance, then a smaller CoC will be required. All three
602:
If an image is viewed on a low-resolution display medium such as a computer monitor, the detectability of blur will be limited by the display medium rather than by human vision. For example, the optical blur will be more difficult to detect in an 8 in × 10 in image displayed on a
541:
is 8.5 in × 11 in, 216 mm × 279 mm). It often may be reasonable to assume that, for whole-image viewing, a final image larger than 8 in × 10 in will be viewed at a distance correspondingly greater than 25 cm, and for which a larger CoC may be
528:
Viewing conditions. If the final image is viewed at approximately 25 cm, a final-image CoC of 0.2 mm often is appropriate. A comfortable viewing distance is also one at which the angle of view is approximately 60°; at a distance of 25 cm, this corresponds to about 30 cm,
542:
acceptable; the original-image CoC is then the same as that determined from the standard final-image size and viewing distance. But if the larger final image will be viewed at the normal distance of 25 cm, a smaller original-image CoC will be needed to provide acceptable sharpness.
509:) is often defined as the largest blur spot that will still be perceived by the human eye as a point, when viewed on a final image from a standard viewing distance. The CoC limit can be specified on a final image (e.g. a print) or on the original image (on film or image sensor).
1011:, an increase in one is equivalent to a corresponding decrease in the other. For example, if it is known that a lens DoF scale is based on a CoC of 0.035 mm, and the actual conditions require a CoC of 0.025 mm, the CoC must be decreased by a factor of
987:
572:/1500, or 0.029 mm for full-frame 35 mm format, which corresponds to resolving 5 lines per millimeter on a print of 30 cm diagonal. Values of 0.030 mm and 0.033 mm are also common for full-frame 35 mm format.
2104:
every point is spread, will be L K (fig. 17.); and when the aperture of the reflector is moderate it equals the cube of the aperture, divided by the square of the radius (...): this circle is called the aberration of latitude.
1734:
1600:
565:
commonly used. The DoF computed using these conventions will need to be adjusted if the original image is cropped before enlarging to the final image size, or if the size and viewing assumptions are altered.
2033:
1361:
1015:; this can be accomplished by increasing the f-number determined from the DoF scale by the same factor, or about 1 stop, so the lens can simply be closed down 1 stop from the value indicated on the scale.
1928:
558:
For example, to support a final-image resolution equivalent to 5 lp/mm for a 25 cm viewing distance when the anticipated viewing distance is 50 cm and the anticipated enlargement is 8:
1843:
1177:
1436:
878:
455:
For describing the blur spot achieved by a lens, at its best focus or more generally. Recognizing that real lenses do not focus all rays perfectly under even the best conditions, the term
433:(DoF). The common criterion for "acceptable sharpness" in the final image (e.g., print, projection screen, or electronic display) is that the blur spot be indistinguishable from a point.
1277:
1492:
479:
of a lens determine the circle of least confusion; the more general usage of 'circle of confusion' for out-of-focus points can be computed purely in terms of ray (geometric) optics.
2163:
384:
all rays perfectly, so that even at best focus, a point is imaged as a spot rather than a point. The smallest such spot that a lens can produce is often referred to as the
2239:
Numerically, 1/100 inch at 12–15 inches is closer to two minutes of arc. This choice of CoC limit remains (for a large print) the most widely used even today.
1218:
418:
For describing the largest blur spot that is indistinguishable from a point. A lens can precisely focus objects at only one distance; objects at other distances are
618:
to achieve the same DoF, and if the lens is stopped down sufficiently far, the reduction in defocus blur is offset by the increased blur from diffraction. See the
459:
is often used for the smallest blur spot a lens can make, for example by picking a best focus position that makes a good compromise between the varying effective
2221:(in material that is not in the 1874 edition and appears to have been added from a paper by J.H.D. "On the Use of Diaphragms or Stops" of unknown date), says:
1622:
485:
to the aperture shape. Therefore, the diameter concept needs to be carefully defined in order to be meaningful. Suitable definitions often use the concept of
489:, the fraction of the total optical energy of the spot that is within the specified diameter. Values of the fraction (e.g., 80%, 90%) vary with application.
869:
The f-number determined from a lens DoF scale can be adjusted to reflect a CoC different from the one on which the DoF scale is based. It is shown in the
4309:
1847:
If either the focus distance or the out-of-focus subject distance is infinite, the equations can be evaluated in the limit. For infinite focus distance:
1501:
2121:, p. 138) calculation of a circle-of-confusion diameter from a subject distance, for a lens focused at infinity; this article was pointed out by
1937:
4256:
1295:
98:
555:
CoC (in mm) = (viewing distance (in cm) / 25 cm ) / (desired final-image resolution in lp/mm for a 25 cm viewing distance) / enlargement
1852:
2597:
Ray, Sidney F. (2000). "The geometry of image formation". In Ralph E. Jacobson; Sidney F. Ray; Geoffrey G. Atteridge; Norman R. Axford (eds.).
546:(10 inches), the enlargement factor is approximately 7, and the CoC for the original image is 0.2 mm / 7, or 0.029 mm.
2478:" is a common format for digital SLRs. Dimensions vary slightly among different manufacturers; for example, Canon’s APS-C format is nominally
2637:
2457:
The frame size is an average of cameras that take photographs of this format. For example, not all 6×7 cameras take frames that are exactly
512:
With this definition, the CoC limit in the original image (the image on the film or electronic sensor) can be set based on several factors:
4299:
4251:
1766:
4036:
1103:
2283:
1370:
199:
2901:
2058:
Before it was applied to photography, the concept of circle of confusion was applied to optical instruments such as telescopes.
171:
2230:
This latter statement is clearly incorrect, or misstated, being off by a factor of focal distance (focal length). He goes on:
1231:
3007:
2754:
2374:
1445:
4304:
2293:
660:
178:
152:
52:
4246:
3798:
2041:
value is fixed as a circle of confusion diameter limit, either of these can be solved for subject distance to get the
568:
For full-frame 35 mm format (24 mm × 36 mm, 43 mm diagonal), a widely used CoC limit is
4007:
2627:
2606:
2587:
287:
218:
185:
116:
66:
2130:
1746:. More complex lens designs with a non-unity pupil magnification will need a more complex analysis, as addressed in
3974:
4377:
4266:
3760:
2576:
The INs and OUTs of FOCUS: An
Alternative Way to Estimate Depth-of-Field and Sharpness in the Photographic Image
247:
167:
3939:
3422:
3209:
2498:. Exact dimensions sometimes vary slightly among models with the same nominal format from a given manufacturer.
156:
3848:
3780:
3533:
3055:
1190:
464:
429:
from the camera can still appear sharp; the range of object distances over which objects appear sharp is the
575:
Criteria relating CoC to the lens focal length have also been used. Kodak recommended 2 minutes of arc (the
4276:
4271:
4382:
4281:
3558:
3060:
2125:. The formula he comes up with for what he terms "the indistinctness" is equivalent, in modern terms, to
471:
is applied more generally, to the size of the out-of-focus spot to which a lens images an object point.
4012:
3700:
3603:
2896:
2552:
2338:
982:{\displaystyle \mathrm {DoF} ={\frac {2Nc\left(m+1\right)}{m^{2}-\left({\frac {Nc}{f}}\right)^{2}}}\,,}
357:, the part of an image that is acceptably sharp. A standard value of CoC is often associated with each
2235:
does not exceed one minute of arc, or roughly, if they do not exceed the 1/100 of an inch in diameter.
1761:
diameter, the subject distances are measured from the entrance pupil, and the magnification is known:
521:, is approximately 25 cm. At this distance, a person with good vision can usually distinguish an
3979:
3929:
3889:
3742:
3628:
3578:
3270:
3214:
3070:
2822:
2747:
2255:
The common 1/100 inch CoC limit has been applied to blur other than defocus blur. For example,
579:
criterion of 30 cycles/degree for normal vision) for critical viewing, yielding a CoC of about
4180:
3775:
3503:
3295:
2363:"Virtual reconstruction of heritage sites: opportunities and challenges created by 3D technologies"
58:
4145:
3949:
3853:
3717:
3568:
3400:
3305:
2948:
2866:
2832:
2720:
2096:
1742:
thin lens or a symmetrical lens, in which the entrance pupil and exit pupil are both of diameter
192:
145:
4356:
4200:
4175:
3984:
3969:
3904:
3884:
3790:
3712:
3543:
3462:
3457:
3432:
3360:
3350:
3300:
3290:
3224:
3187:
3115:
3090:
2362:
2244:
525:
of 5 line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm), equivalent to a CoC of 0.2 mm in the final image.
4261:
4056:
3964:
3959:
3944:
3934:
3909:
3894:
3755:
3688:
3658:
3618:
3528:
3518:
3355:
3234:
3197:
3120:
2530:
2348:
2308:
2260:
2063:
728:
715:
702:
689:
254:
94:
27:
3813:
2617:
2516:
2465:. Check with the specifications of a particular camera if this level of exactness is needed.
2391:
4345:
3954:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3899:
3553:
3472:
3442:
3395:
3340:
3330:
3255:
3080:
3027:
2740:
2658:
2540:
2210:
2194:
He finally observes "long-focus lenses have usually a larger aperture than short ones, and
1753:
More generally, this approach leads to an exact paraxial result for all optical systems if
757:
610:
imply that any arbitrary DoF can be achieved by using a sufficiently small CoC. Because of
1026:
870:
8:
4051:
4024:
3994:
3648:
3563:
3467:
3345:
3325:
3315:
3310:
3280:
3172:
2913:
2908:
2532:
A Treatise on the
Reflection and Refraction of light: being Part I. of a System of Optics
2188:
2042:
538:
2662:
4195:
3858:
3808:
3633:
3488:
3447:
3427:
3365:
3320:
3285:
3260:
2817:
2782:
1181:
The circle of confusion in the image plane is obtained by multiplying by magnification
676:
607:
1094:
as shown in the diagram. It depends only on these distances and the aperture diameter
448:, not all rays pass through a focal point. The smallest circle that they pass through
306:
Diagram showing circles of confusion for point source too close, in focus, and too far
4165:
4101:
4088:
4019:
3683:
3608:
3598:
3588:
3573:
3437:
3405:
3265:
3100:
2871:
2623:
2602:
2583:
2512:
2370:
517:
Visual acuity. For most people, the closest comfortable viewing distance, termed the
1932:
And for the blur circle of an object at infinity when the focus distance is finite:
864:
614:, however, this is not quite true. Using a smaller CoC requires increasing the lens
440:
302:
4220:
4170:
4128:
4113:
4096:
4066:
4061:
3705:
3663:
3613:
3375:
3335:
3275:
3130:
2666:
2526:
1021:
522:
486:
4316:
2566:
Optical
Formulas and Their Application, Kodak Publication No. AA-26, Rev. 11-72-BX
4225:
4133:
3750:
3498:
3380:
3075:
3022:
3017:
2985:
2970:
2928:
2687:
2487:
1007:
is the lens focal length. Because the f-number and CoC occur only as the product
331:
4002:
3828:
3770:
3538:
3219:
3125:
3110:
3105:
3000:
2807:
2797:
2787:
2114:
1758:
1747:
619:
430:
365:, viewing conditions, and the amount of enlargement. Usages in context include
354:
327:
1018:
The same approach can usually be used with a DoF calculator on a view camera.
4371:
4155:
4123:
4108:
4073:
3833:
3678:
3643:
3229:
3202:
3182:
3150:
3095:
2649:
Stokseth, Per A. (October 1969). "Properties of a
Defocused Optical System".
2636:
2574:
2313:
2092:
2078:
This we may consider as the nearest approach to a simple focus, and term the
1440:
and express the magnification in terms of focused distance and focal length:
576:
362:
323:
3593:
2714:
4321:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4160:
4046:
4041:
3695:
3415:
3385:
3167:
3162:
3145:
2990:
2812:
2802:
2792:
2670:
2303:
828:
530:
460:
319:
1064:
An early calculation of CoC diameter ("indistinctness") by "T.H." in 1866.
4326:
4190:
4185:
4118:
4031:
3868:
3843:
3673:
3668:
3653:
3508:
3390:
3370:
3239:
3140:
3032:
2995:
2965:
2918:
2886:
2881:
2842:
2763:
2701:
A Dictionary of
Photography for the Amateur and Professional Photographer
2642:
Natural
Philosophy: With an Explanation of Scientific Terms, and an Index
2365:. In Manos Baltsavias; Armin Gruen; Luc Van Gool; Maria Pateraki (eds.).
2298:
644:
611:
498:
472:
358:
20:
1729:{\displaystyle c={|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}
1060:
402:
3838:
3818:
3732:
3722:
3583:
3548:
3523:
3452:
3192:
3177:
3157:
3039:
2975:
2891:
2837:
2191:), nor does he consider focusing at any other distance than infinity.
1030:
Lens and ray diagram for calculating the circle of confusion diameter
396:
Two important uses of this term and concept need to be distinguished:
4230:
3803:
3765:
3727:
3623:
3513:
2980:
2943:
2938:
2923:
2876:
2859:
2278:
2086:
625:
537:
is 8.3 in × 11.7 in, 210 mm × 297 mm;
492:
134:
3823:
3638:
3135:
3065:
2933:
2854:
2849:
2726:
1739:
1605:
741:
615:
534:
476:
2268:
you have the longest duration of exposure in fraction of a second.
2226:
of confusion measuring but 1/100 part of the aperture of the lens.
1595:{\displaystyle c=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f \over S_{1}-f}\,.}
414:. However at other distances from the lens the rays form a circle.
3863:
3012:
2958:
865:
Adjusting the circle of confusion diameter for a lens's DoF scale
420:
381:
353:
In photography, the circle of confusion is used to determine the
2028:{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{1}-f}={f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}
1281:
Using the lens equation we can solve for the auxiliary variable
1069:
system, which is calculated with the help of the lens equation.
1022:
Determining a circle of confusion diameter from the object field
3410:
2827:
2777:
1098:, via similar triangles, independent of the lens focal length:
1056:
in the object plane (dashed line) makes the calculation easier.
311:
2732:
1356:{\displaystyle {1 \over f}={1 \over f_{1}}+{1 \over S_{1}}\,,}
4078:
3493:
2953:
2475:
2288:
591:
Viewing distance = focal length of taking lens × enlargement
2599:
The Manual of
Photography: Photographic and Digital Imaging
2209:, p. 24), in an expanded re-publication of his father
2412:
2367:
Recording, modeling and visualization of cultural heritage
1923:{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{2}}={f^{2} \over NS_{2}}\,.}
1085:, is an unfocused virtual image of the object at distance
262:
2389:
2113:
Circle-of-confusion calculations: An early precursor to
258:
2400:
2723:– includes discussion of circle of confusion criteria
2133:
1940:
1855:
1769:
1625:
1504:
1448:
1373:
1298:
1234:
1193:
1106:
881:
2429:
2427:
2093:
Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1832
318:(CoC) is an optical spot caused by a cone of light
159:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
89:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
2157:
2087:Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1832
2027:
1922:
1838:{\displaystyle c=Am{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}
1837:
1728:
1594:
1486:
1430:
1355:
1271:
1212:
1171:
981:
552:factors above are accommodated with this formula:
463:of different lens zones due to spherical or other
2439:
1604:This can optionally be expressed in terms of the
1172:{\displaystyle C=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}
493:Circle of confusion diameter limit in photography
26:For the closely related topic in microscopy, see
4369:
2424:
2326:
19:"Blur circle" redirects here. For the film, see
2644:. London: Baldwin and Cradock, Paternoster-Row.
1431:{\displaystyle f_{1}={fS_{1} \over S_{1}-f}\,,}
2360:
2748:
2638:Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
2568:. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company.
257:. Consider transferring direct quotations to
2557:On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses
2545:On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses
2219:On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses
626:Circle of confusion diameter limit based on
361:, but the most appropriate value depends on
4300:Conservation and restoration of photographs
67:Learn how and when to remove these messages
4037:Comparison of digital and film photography
2755:
2741:
2572:
2525:
2418:
2187:criterion (i.e. he does not solve for the
2179:. But he does not invert this to find the
2059:
1226:is given by the ratio of focus distances:
1076:, in the focused object plane at distance
661:1" sensor (Nikon 1, Sony RX10, Sony RX100)
501:, the circle of confusion diameter limit (
410:, all the rays pass through a focal point
4257:Photographs considered the most important
2651:Journal of the Optical Society of America
2551:
2539:
2214:
2206:
2099:) applied it to third-order aberrations:
2045:, with approximately equivalent results.
2021:
1916:
1831:
1722:
1588:
1480:
1424:
1349:
1265:
1206:
1165:
975:
288:Learn how and when to remove this message
219:Learn how and when to remove this message
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
101:, without removing the technical details.
2715:Circles of Confusion for Digital Cameras
2703:. New York: E. and H. T. Anthony and Co.
2686:
2648:
2406:
2122:
2053:
1272:{\displaystyle m={f_{1} \over S_{1}}\,.}
1059:
1034:for an out-of-focus subject at distance
1025:
622:article for a more detailed discussion.
475:effects from wave optics and the finite
452:is called the circle of least confusion.
439:
424:. Defocused object points are imaged as
401:
301:
2547:. New York: E. and H.T. Anthony and Co.
367:maximum permissible circle of confusion
4370:
2678:T.H. (1866). "Long and Short Focus".
2201:
1487:{\displaystyle m={f \over S_{1}-f}\,,}
561:CoC = (50 / 25) / 5 / 8 = 0.05 mm
2736:
2601:(9th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
2563:
2511:
2445:
2369:. Taylor & Francis. p. 145.
2240:
606:Depth of field formulas derived from
599:/1500) related to the camera format.
248:too many or overly lengthy quotations
99:make it understandable to non-experts
2698:
2361:J.-A. Beraldin; et al. (2006).
2256:
2074:for a spherical reflecting surface.
230:
157:adding citations to reliable sources
128:
73:
32:
4252:Museums devoted to one photographer
2615:
2596:
2433:
2344:
2332:
1738:This formula is exact for a simple
13:
3799:Timeline of photography technology
2677:
2582:. Bedford, N.S.: H.M. Merklinger.
2118:
889:
886:
883:
371:circle of confusion diameter limit
14:
4394:
2727:What Is the "Circle of Confusion"
2708:
2694:. Berlin: Verlag Julius Springer.
2521:. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
2390:Walter Bulkeley Coventry (1901).
529:approximately the diagonal of an
519:near distance for distinct vision
48:This article has multiple issues.
4350:
4340:
4339:
2513:Abney, Sir William de Wiveleslie
639:/1500 for several image formats
235:
133:
78:
37:
4351:
2762:
2622:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal.
2468:
2393:The technics of the hand camera
144:needs additional citations for
56:or discuss these issues on the
2680:British Journal of Photography
2573:Merklinger, Harold M. (1992).
2564:Eastman Kodak Company (1972).
2451:
2383:
2354:
2158:{\displaystyle c={fA \over S}}
2015:
1996:
1814:
1786:
1716:
1697:
1664:
1636:
1546:
1518:
1496:which gives the final result:
1148:
1120:
1043:when the camera is focused at
1:
3849:Painted photography backdrops
3781:Golden triangle (composition)
3056:35 mm equivalent focal length
2721:Depth of Field in Depth (PDF)
2505:
1072:The blur circle, of diameter
375:circle of confusion criterion
2396:. Sands & Co. p. 9.
2250:
2198:have less depth of focus" .
2108:
1052:. The auxiliary blur circle
733:19.0 mm × 28.7 mm
720:15.7 mm × 23.6 mm
707:14.8 mm × 22.2 mm
694:15.0 mm × 22.5 mm
7:
3559:Intentional camera movement
2619:Applied Photographic Optics
2272:
668:8.8 mm × 13.2 mm
531:8-inch × 10-inch image
391:
10:
4399:
4247:Most expensive photographs
3604:Multi-exposure HDR capture
2699:Wall, Edward John (1889).
2048:
1003:is the magnification, and
855:203 mm × 254 mm
844:127 mm × 178 mm
833:102 mm × 127 mm
681:13.5 mm × 18 mm
25:
18:
4335:
4292:
4239:
4144:
4087:
3993:
3877:
3789:
3741:
3481:
3248:
3048:
2770:
2518:A Treatise on Photography
2183:corresponding to a given
2080:circle of least confusion
2072:least circle of confusion
2068:circle of least confusion
851:
840:
827:
824:
817:56 mm × 168 mm
813:
806:56 mm × 112 mm
802:
791:
780:
769:
756:
753:
740:
727:
714:
701:
688:
675:
664:
659:
654:
651:
648:
643:
457:circle of least confusion
386:circle of least confusion
4181:Digital image processing
2692:Photographische Objektiv
2319:
1222:where the magnification
795:56 mm × 84 mm
784:56 mm × 69 mm
773:56 mm × 56 mm
762:56 mm × 42 mm
746:24 mm × 36 mm
340:circle of indistinctness
326:not coming to a perfect
255:summarize the quotations
3854:Photography and the law
2616:Ray, Sidney F. (2002).
2175:, and subject distance
1213:{\displaystyle c=Cm\,,}
716:APS-C Nikon/Pentax/Sony
16:Blurry region in optics
4378:Science of photography
4201:Gelatin silver process
3225:Science of photography
3210:Photographic processes
3188:Perspective distortion
2671:10.1364/JOSA.59.001314
2535:. Cambridge: J. Smith.
2270:
2237:
2228:
2159:
2106:
2084:
2029:
1924:
1839:
1730:
1596:
1488:
1432:
1357:
1273:
1214:
1173:
1065:
1057:
995:is the lens f-number,
983:
635:CoC diameter based on
453:
415:
334:. It is also known as
307:
3659:Schlieren photography
3198:Photographic printing
3121:Exposure compensation
2559:. London: J. Pitcher.
2541:Dallmeyer, John Henry
2309:Point spread function
2265:
2232:
2223:
2160:
2101:
2076:
2054:Henry Coddington 1829
2030:
1925:
1840:
1731:
1597:
1489:
1433:
1358:
1274:
1215:
1174:
1063:
1029:
984:
444:In an imperfect lens
443:
405:
305:
168:"Circle of confusion"
28:Point spread function
3443:Straight photography
3081:Chromatic aberration
2294:Chromatic aberration
2211:John Henry Dallmeyer
2171:, aperture diameter
2131:
2117:calculations is the
2066:) quantifies both a
1938:
1853:
1767:
1623:
1502:
1446:
1371:
1296:
1232:
1191:
1104:
879:
153:improve this article
4310:photographic plates
3995:Digital photography
3173:Hyperfocal distance
3086:Circle of confusion
2663:1969JOSA...59.1314S
2553:Dallmeyer, Thomas R
2202:Dallmeyer and Abney
2189:hyperfocal distance
2043:hyperfocal distance
1013:0.035 / 0.025 = 1.4
640:
469:circle of confusion
316:circle of confusion
4383:Geometrical optics
3814:Autochrome Lumière
3809:Analog photography
3634:Pigeon photography
3423:Social documentary
2902:discontinued films
2155:
2025:
1920:
1835:
1726:
1592:
1484:
1428:
1353:
1269:
1210:
1169:
1066:
1058:
979:
677:Four Thirds System
634:
608:geometrical optics
454:
416:
406:In a perfect lens
308:
4365:
4364:
4166:Collodion process
4102:Chromogenic print
4089:Color photography
3599:Multiple exposure
3574:Lo-fi photography
3101:Color temperature
2527:Coddington, Henry
2421:, pp. 45–46.
2376:978-0-415-39208-2
2167:for focal length
2153:
2019:
1975:
1914:
1882:
1829:
1720:
1679:
1586:
1561:
1478:
1422:
1347:
1327:
1307:
1263:
1163:
973:
960:
862:
861:
533:(for comparison,
336:disk of confusion
298:
297:
290:
280:
279:
229:
228:
221:
203:
127:
126:
119:
71:
4390:
4354:
4353:
4343:
4342:
4221:Print permanence
4171:Cross processing
4129:CMYK color model
4114:Color management
4067:Foveon X3 sensor
4062:Three-CCD camera
3706:Miniature faking
3664:Sabattier effect
3276:Astrophotography
3131:Zebra patterning
2757:
2750:
2743:
2734:
2733:
2704:
2695:
2688:von Rohr, Moritz
2683:
2674:
2645:
2633:
2612:
2593:
2581:
2569:
2560:
2548:
2536:
2522:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2486:, while Nikon’s
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2141:
2060:Coddington (1829
2040:
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2026:
2020:
2018:
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2007:
1991:
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641:
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598:
586:
582:
571:
523:image resolution
487:encircled energy
451:
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63:
41:
40:
33:
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4331:
4288:
4235:
4226:Push processing
4147:
4140:
4134:RGB color model
4083:
3989:
3873:
3785:
3751:Diagonal method
3737:
3477:
3381:Photojournalism
3244:
3076:Black-and-white
3044:
3023:Slide projector
3018:Movie projector
2897:available films
2766:
2761:
2729:– ƒ/Calc manual
2711:
2630:
2609:
2590:
2579:
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2440:
2432:
2425:
2419:Merklinger 1992
2417:
2413:
2409:, p. 1317.
2405:
2401:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2359:
2355:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2275:
2253:
2207:Dallmeyer (1892
2204:
2196:on this account
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2142:
2140:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2123:von Rohr (1899)
2111:
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2003:
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584:
580:
569:
562:
556:
549:
539:US Letter paper
495:
482:
449:
445:
411:
407:
394:
330:when imaging a
294:
283:
282:
281:
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270:
267:
261:or excerpts to
252:
240:
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208:
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123:
112:
106:
103:
95:help improve it
92:
83:
79:
42:
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4396:
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4380:
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4329:
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4022:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4003:Digital camera
3999:
3997:
3991:
3990:
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3836:
3831:
3829:Camera obscura
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3795:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3771:Rule of thirds
3768:
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3551:
3546:
3541:
3539:Harris shutter
3536:
3534:Hand-colouring
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
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3491:
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3258:
3252:
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3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3220:Red-eye effect
3217:
3212:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3195:
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3185:
3180:
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3165:
3160:
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3153:
3148:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3126:Exposure value
3123:
3118:
3113:
3111:Depth of focus
3108:
3106:Depth of field
3103:
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3093:
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2709:External links
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2215:Dallmeyer 1874
2203:
2200:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2115:depth of field
2110:
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1748:depth of field
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866:
863:
860:
859:
856:
853:
849:
848:
845:
842:
838:
837:
834:
831:
826:
822:
821:
818:
815:
811:
810:
809:0.083 mm
807:
804:
800:
799:
798:0.067 mm
796:
793:
789:
788:
787:0.059 mm
785:
782:
778:
777:
776:0.053 mm
774:
771:
767:
766:
765:0.047 mm
763:
760:
755:
751:
750:
749:0.029 mm
747:
744:
738:
737:
736:0.023 mm
734:
731:
725:
724:
723:0.019 mm
721:
718:
712:
711:
710:0.018 mm
708:
705:
699:
698:
697:0.018 mm
695:
692:
686:
685:
684:0.015 mm
682:
679:
673:
672:
671:0.011 mm
669:
666:
663:
657:
656:
653:
650:
647:
631:
624:
620:Depth of field
590:
560:
554:
548:
547:
543:
526:
514:
494:
491:
481:
480:
437:
431:depth of field
398:
393:
390:
355:depth of field
296:
295:
278:
277:
243:
241:
234:
227:
226:
141:
139:
132:
125:
124:
86:
84:
77:
72:
46:
45:
43:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4395:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4358:
4349:
4347:
4338:
4337:
4334:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4291:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4262:Photographers
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4156:Bleach bypass
4154:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4143:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4124:primary color
4122:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4109:Reversal film
4107:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4074:Image sharing
4072:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3975:United States
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3834:Daguerreotype
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3740:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3679:Stopping down
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3644:Rephotography
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3579:Long-exposure
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3271:Architectural
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3230:Shutter speed
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3183:Metering mode
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3096:Color balance
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3061:Angle of view
3059:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3008:Manufacturers
3006:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2753:
2751:
2746:
2744:
2739:
2738:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2629:0-240-51540-4
2625:
2621:
2620:
2614:
2610:
2608:0-240-51574-9
2604:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2589:0-9695025-0-8
2585:
2578:
2577:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2509:
2490:is nominally
2489:
2477:
2471:
2454:
2447:
2442:
2436:, p. 52.
2435:
2430:
2428:
2420:
2415:
2408:
2407:Stokseth 1969
2403:
2395:
2394:
2386:
2378:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2335:, p. 50.
2334:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2314:Zeiss formula
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2165:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2083:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2046:
2044:
2035:
2022:
2012:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1933:
1930:
1917:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1848:
1845:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1762:
1760:
1751:
1749:
1741:
1736:
1723:
1713:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1670:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1629:
1626:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1589:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1556:
1552:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1497:
1494:
1481:
1474:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1441:
1438:
1425:
1418:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1366:
1365:which yields
1363:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1266:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1227:
1220:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1186:
1179:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1099:
1089:
1080:
1070:
1062:
1047:
1038:
1028:
1019:
1016:
989:
976:
967:
962:
957:
953:
950:
944:
939:
934:
930:
923:
919:
916:
913:
909:
905:
902:
899:
893:
874:
873:article that
872:
858:0.22 mm
857:
854:
850:
847:0.15 mm
846:
843:
839:
836:0.11 mm
835:
832:
830:
823:
820:0.12 mm
819:
816:
812:
808:
805:
801:
797:
794:
790:
786:
783:
779:
775:
772:
768:
764:
761:
759:
758:Medium Format
752:
748:
745:
743:
739:
735:
732:
730:
726:
722:
719:
717:
713:
709:
706:
704:
700:
696:
693:
691:
687:
683:
680:
678:
674:
670:
667:
665:Small format
662:
658:
649:Format class
646:
642:
629:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
604:
600:
589:
583:/1720, where
578:
573:
566:
559:
553:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
524:
520:
516:
515:
513:
510:
508:
507:CoC criterion
504:
500:
490:
488:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
461:focal lengths
458:
442:
438:
436:
435:
432:
427:
423:
422:
404:
400:
399:
397:
389:
387:
383:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:visual acuity
360:
356:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
304:
300:
292:
289:
274:
264:
260:
256:
250:
249:
244:This article
242:
233:
232:
223:
220:
212:
201:
198:
194:
191:
187:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170: –
169:
165:
164:Find sources:
158:
154:
148:
147:
142:This article
140:
136:
131:
130:
121:
118:
110:
100:
96:
90:
87:This article
85:
76:
75:
70:
68:
61:
60:
55:
54:
49:
44:
35:
34:
29:
22:
4322:Polaroid art
4216:K-14 process
4211:Instant film
4206:Gum printing
4161:C-41 process
4146:Photographic
4047:Image sensor
4042:Film scanner
3696:Sun printing
3629:Print toning
3416:space selfie
3386:Pictorialism
3316:Ethnographic
3296:Conservation
3168:Guide number
3163:Focal length
3085:
2700:
2691:
2679:
2657:(10): 1314.
2654:
2650:
2641:
2618:
2598:
2575:
2565:
2556:
2544:
2531:
2517:
2484:22.5 mm
2480:15.0 mm
2470:
2453:
2448:, p. 5.
2441:
2414:
2402:
2392:
2385:
2366:
2356:
2340:
2328:
2304:Orb (optics)
2266:
2254:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2205:
2195:
2193:
2166:
2127:
2112:
2102:
2090:
2079:
2077:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2036:
1934:
1931:
1849:
1846:
1763:
1752:
1737:
1619:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1498:
1495:
1442:
1439:
1367:
1364:
1292:
1283:
1280:
1228:
1221:
1187:
1180:
1100:
1087:
1078:
1071:
1067:
1045:
1036:
1017:
999:is the CoC,
990:
875:
868:
829:Large Format
754:645 (6×4.5)
645:Image Format
627:
605:
601:
593:
574:
567:
563:
557:
550:
518:
511:
506:
502:
496:
483:
468:
456:
434:
425:
419:
417:
395:
385:
382:do not focus
380:Real lenses
379:
374:
370:
366:
359:image format
352:
347:
343:
339:
335:
332:point source
315:
309:
299:
284:
268:
253:Please help
245:
215:
209:January 2020
206:
196:
189:
182:
175:
163:
151:Please help
146:verification
143:
113:
107:January 2020
104:
88:
64:
57:
51:
50:Please help
47:
4327:Stereoscopy
4191:E-6 process
4186:Dye coupler
4119:color space
4032:Digiscoping
4025:camera back
3940:Philippines
3869:Visual arts
3859:Glass plate
3844:Heliography
3743:Composition
3718:Ultraviolet
3674:Stereoscopy
3669:Slow motion
3654:Scanography
3569:Kite aerial
3509:Contre-jour
3401:Post-mortem
3391:Pornography
3371:Neues Sehen
3306:Documentary
3240:Zone System
3215:Reciprocity
3141:Film format
3071:Backscatter
3049:Terminology
2919:beauty dish
2818:rangefinder
2783:light-field
2764:Photography
2717:– DOFMaster
2299:Focal cloud
2284:Astigmatism
2243:, pp.
2241:Abney (1881
2217:) pamphlet
729:APS-H Canon
703:APS-C Canon
652:Frame size
612:diffraction
499:photography
473:Diffraction
467:. The term
465:aberrations
344:blur circle
21:Blur Circle
4372:Categories
4317:Lomography
4148:processing
4097:Print film
4013:comparison
3980:Uzbekistan
3930:Luxembourg
3890:Bangladesh
3839:Dufaycolor
3819:Box camera
3776:Simplicity
3733:Zoom burst
3728:Xerography
3723:Vignetting
3713:Time-lapse
3701:Tilt–shift
3594:Mordançage
3584:Luminogram
3549:Holography
3544:High-speed
3524:Fill flash
3504:Burst mode
3482:Techniques
3463:Vernacular
3458:Underwater
3453:Toy camera
3433:Still life
3361:Monochrome
3351:High-speed
3301:Cloudscape
3291:Conceptual
3193:Photograph
3178:Lens flare
3158:Film speed
3040:Zone plate
2986:wide-angle
2971:long-focus
2506:References
2496:24 mm
2492:16 mm
2463:69 mm
2459:56 mm
2446:Kodak 1972
2347:, p.
2259:, p.
2257:Wall (1889
2095:, p.
2062:, p.
426:blur spots
373:, and the
263:Wikisource
179:newspapers
53:improve it
4267:Norwegian
4231:Stop bath
4176:Developer
3804:Ambrotype
3766:Lead room
3689:Slit-scan
3624:Photogram
3619:Panoramic
3529:Fireworks
3514:Cyanotype
3356:Landscape
3001:telephoto
2949:reflector
2944:monolight
2939:lens hood
2924:cucoloris
2860:safelight
2771:Equipment
2488:DX format
2279:Airy disk
2251:Wall 1889
2213:'s 1874 (
2109:T.H. 1866
2010:−
1969:−
1801:−
1711:−
1651:−
1580:−
1533:−
1472:−
1416:−
1135:−
940:−
503:CoC limit
421:defocused
348:blur spot
259:Wikiquote
246:contains
59:talk page
4346:Category
4052:CMOS APS
3950:Slovenia
3878:Regional
3824:Calotype
3761:Headroom
3639:Redscale
3554:Infrared
3499:Brenizer
3473:Wildlife
3396:Portrait
3341:Forensic
3331:Fine-art
3266:Aircraft
3256:Abstract
3136:F-number
3116:Exposure
3091:Clipping
3066:Aperture
2934:hot shoe
2855:enlarger
2850:Darkroom
2690:(1899).
2640:(1832).
2555:(1892).
2543:(1874).
2529:(1829).
2515:(1881).
2494: ×
2482: ×
2461: ×
2434:Ray 2000
2345:Ray 2002
2333:Ray 2000
2273:See also
2263:) says:
2119:TH (1866
1740:paraxial
1606:f-number
616:f-number
535:A4 paper
477:aperture
392:Two uses
271:May 2021
4357:Outline
4293:Related
3985:Vietnam
3970:Ukraine
3905:Denmark
3885:Albania
3864:Tintype
3791:History
3756:Framing
3649:Rollout
3614:Panning
3564:Kirlian
3468:Wedding
3346:Glamour
3326:Fashion
3311:Eclipse
3281:Banquet
3203:Albumen
3013:Monopod
2991:fisheye
2959:softbox
2808:pinhole
2798:instant
2788:digital
2659:Bibcode
2049:History
2037:If the
1757:is the
577:Snellen
322:from a
193:scholar
93:Please
4355:
4344:
4277:street
4272:Polish
3965:Turkey
3960:Taiwan
3945:Serbia
3935:Norway
3910:Greece
3895:Canada
3489:Afocal
3448:Street
3428:Sports
3411:Selfie
3366:Nature
3321:Erotic
3286:Candid
3261:Aerial
3249:Genres
3151:medium
3028:Tripod
2996:swivel
2909:Filter
2887:holder
2882:format
2778:Camera
2626:
2605:
2586:
2373:
2245:207–08
2070:and a
991:where
312:optics
195:
188:
181:
174:
166:
4282:women
4240:Lists
4196:Fixer
4079:Pixel
4008:D-SLR
3955:Sudan
3925:Korea
3920:Japan
3915:India
3900:China
3684:Strip
3609:Night
3589:Macro
3494:Bokeh
3438:Stock
3406:Ruins
3146:large
2976:prime
2954:snoot
2914:Flash
2892:stock
2867:Drone
2828:still
2813:press
2803:phone
2793:field
2682:(13).
2580:(PDF)
2476:APS-C
2320:Notes
2289:Bokeh
852:8×10
814:6×17
803:6×12
742:35 mm
690:APS-C
630:/1500
346:, or
328:focus
200:JSTOR
186:books
4305:film
4020:MILC
3519:ETTR
3376:Nude
3336:Fire
3235:Sync
3033:head
2981:zoom
2966:Lens
2929:gobo
2877:base
2872:Film
2843:view
2624:ISBN
2603:ISBN
2584:ISBN
2371:ISBN
2091:The
1617:as:
841:5×7
825:4×5
792:6×9
781:6×7
770:6×6
655:CoC
324:lens
320:rays
314:, a
172:news
4057:CCD
2838:toy
2833:TLR
2823:SLR
2667:doi
1614:f/A
505:or
497:In
369:,
310:In
155:by
97:to
4374::
2665:.
2655:59
2653:.
2426:^
2349:89
2261:92
2097:11
2064:54
1750:.
1612:=
1290::
1185::
1009:Nc
388:.
377:.
350:.
342:,
338:,
62:.
2756:e
2749:t
2742:v
2673:.
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2632:.
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2592:.
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2379:.
2351:.
2185:c
2181:S
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2173:A
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2144:f
2138:=
2135:c
2082:.
2039:c
2023:.
2016:)
2013:f
2005:1
2001:S
1997:(
1994:N
1988:2
1984:f
1978:=
1972:f
1964:1
1960:S
1954:A
1951:f
1945:=
1942:c
1918:.
1909:2
1905:S
1901:N
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1891:f
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1869:A
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1860:=
1857:c
1833:.
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1780:m
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1771:c
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1630:=
1627:c
1610:N
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1519:|
1512:A
1509:=
1506:c
1482:,
1475:f
1467:1
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1458:f
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1450:m
1426:,
1419:f
1411:1
1407:S
1399:1
1395:S
1391:f
1385:=
1380:1
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1351:,
1343:1
1339:S
1335:1
1330:+
1323:1
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1310:=
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1195:c
1183:m
1167:.
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1143:1
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1111:=
1108:C
1096:A
1091:2
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1074:C
1054:C
1049:1
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1040:2
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1032:c
1005:f
1001:m
997:c
993:N
977:,
968:2
963:)
958:f
954:c
951:N
945:(
935:2
931:m
924:)
920:1
917:+
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910:(
906:c
903:N
900:2
894:=
890:F
887:o
884:D
637:d
628:d
597:d
585:f
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570:d
450:C
446:L
412:F
408:L
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269:(
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251:.
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216:(
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197:·
190:·
183:·
176:·
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