Migration in China

281:(36% of the total workforce of 770 million) existed in China. Out of these, migrant workers who left their hometown and worked in other provinces accounted for 158.63 million (an increase of 3.4% compared to 2010) and migrant workers who worked within their home provinces reached 94.15 million (an increase of 5.9% compared to 2010). The balance of gender for migrant workers was two-thirds male to one-third female in 2015. Estimations are that Chinese cities will face an influx of another 243 million migrants by 2025, taking the urban population up to nearly 1 billion people. This population of migrants would represent "almost 40 percent of the total urban population," a number which is almost three times the current level. While it is often difficult to collect accurate statistical data on migrant floating populations, the number of migrants is undoubtedly quite large. "In China's largest cities, for instance, it is often quoted that at least one out of every five persons is a migrant." 976:

workers published in the journal "Public Health Reports" indicated that "forty-seven percent of the migrants were unwilling to make contributions to health insurance," and "poor living conditions and inattention to health may make migrants vulnerable to poor long-term health." Despite these health issues presented by the floating population, certain factors mitigate the health impact of internal migration in China. In a questionnaire administered to a variety of rural, urban, and migrant workers in Zhejing Province, Eastern China, 2004, indicated that "Migrants had the best self-rated health and reported the least acute illness, chronic disease, and disability, after controlling for age and education." In light of this data, the researchers concluded that the migrants had zero HIV infections, and the migrant workers examined demonstrated the "healthy migrant effect". Despite this, migration still creates a negative effect on public health due to the lack of affordable health care.

998:). After the migration process, females "are at a disadvantage in the labour market not only because of their gender, but also because of their rural identities and outsider status." One way in which this may be seen is in the fact that women migrants "can only attain jobs with lower prestige than their male counterparts, such as agricultural work and a few gender-stereotyped, family-related urban jobs." Despite the disadvantages faced by female migrants in China, some research such as that conducted with data from Hubei Province demonstrates that "migration has enabled women to benefit from economic opportunities and provided them with a degree of freedom that was not possible at their places of origin." Currently, there is some scholarly agreement on the net effect of migration in China on women in particular, "female migrant workers are doubly disadvantaged in China's urban labor market because of their doubly marginalized identities as both women and rural residents." 1161:, this team voiced three primary concerns regarding the health of migrants in China. These concerns consisted of the spread of communicable and infectious disease, migrant maternal health, and occupational disease and injuries such as silicosis, chemical poisoning, and industrial machinery accidents. Beyond these three primary concerns, the researchers advise policy makers and public health officials to pay more attention to two additional issues. The first of these is mental and behavioural health, which is a "domain that is understudied in China". The second issue they discuss is that of risk perception. Little is known about how migrants perceive the "various possibilities for health care: self-medication, informal healers, traditional medicine, private clinics with varied levels of care, and more formal hospital treatment." Research into risk perception will "be crucial to prevention, intervention, and other health-related measures for the migrant population in China. 848:

industry, males found themselves in the low-skill, low-wage industrial jobs which includes construction-like jobs. Though the jobs held grueling hours, being paid and establishing an identity separate from their household was a huge benefit for many transient workers. Generally speaking, the difference in living standards between rural and urban workers was apparent where urban workers tended to live a more lavish lifestyle. This lavish lifestyle included better living quarters, nutrition, guanxi (social connections), and access to education. Education especially was a huge factor for the migration of families. Rural women were seeking to better educate their offspring in the hopes of better economic success for their children. As China shifts from export-driven growth to stimulating domestic demand, the consumption and investment potential brought by migrant workers will significantly boost long-term economic growth in Chinese cities.

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Landesa Rural Development Institute in Seattle stated that "Migrants who move with their children face a host of other challenges, including enrolling their children in school. Many schools regard prior education background as an important criterion and will not admit children educated in rural schools – often considered inferior." This quote suggests that many migrants and their children were seen as inferior in schools, as well as in many other public areas in China. Because many rural Chinese workers were making about $ 2 a day, they were forced to move to the city, causing an influx of migrant workers who were seeking better opportunities. In response, In the mid-1980s in China, in order to control migration rates, transient workers were required to carry personal identity cards, employment registration card, and a certificate of good health which often had high fees due to corruption and were many times denied by the

529:(Tungans), and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city. While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration, and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti-Uyghur plot to replace them in their land, Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land, since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non-Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Ürümqi, so that the state farms which were settled with 155,000 Han from 1760 to 1830 were all in Dzungaria and Ürümqi, where there was only an insignificant number of Uyghurs, instead of the Tarim Basin oases. 768:. "Mobility and modernity have become inextricably linked in the contemporary era of globalization". Secondly, migration to distant cities for work was not an option for most rural workers of previous generations. Migration created many opportunities for both women and men to extricate themselves from their current rural status and create a new name for themselves and their family. Thirdly, migration enabled the rural youth to become wage earners, consumers and city-dwellers which allowed them to become more globalized and mobile than they would have within their own respective villages. While the urbanization of Chinese workers provides them with more opportunity, it also can constrain them, as migrant workers, specifically females, typically make lower wages and are viewed as replaceable labor. 342:

search of economic opportunities, safety, or to escape unfavorable conditions. Nomadic threats from groups like the Di and Qiang during the Western Zhou period also led to internal movements as communities sought refuge from these incursions. Additionally, the establishment of trade routes, including the Silk Road, facilitated both internal and external migration, fostering cultural exchange and diversity. As the dynasty expanded territorially, conquests and military campaigns likely prompted the movement of people to newly acquired lands. The migration patterns during the Zhou dynasty contributed to the cultural diversity within China and influenced regional customs and traditions that persisted throughout its long history.

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were identified, including "wage arrears, unfair compensation for land expropriated, urban poverty," issues of "public safety and social stability", and the potential creation of a "permanent urban underclass" of 200 million or more workers. Class inequality is commonly reflected in income differentials; "in urban China, urban resident annual earnings are 1.3 times larger than long-term rural migrant earnings as observed in a nationally represented sample in 2002." Additionally, migrant workers in China are generally excluded from the social services their local neighbors enjoy; "migrant workers' basic needs for housing, social security, and education for their children are not protected by the local government."

1137: 942:, many employers either ignore the regulation or consider it to be the maximum wage. According to an article in China Daily in 2006, nearly 30% of migrant workers earned RMB 300 and 500 on average per month, nearly 40% between RMB 500 and 800 and about 28% more than RMB 800. Moreover, it is common for migrant workers not to receive their wage on time, due to the lack of protection of labor rights. The government has realized the seriousness of wage arrears and taken many measures to deal with this issue. The situation has been improved a lot, but overall the problem of wage arrears still exists. In 2006, around 10% of rural-urban migrant workers received their wages on average seven months late. 1040:

down the schools. Although local governments did not need to be responsible for migrants' welfare, they should still be responsible for any accident such as the collapse of buildings or food poisoning that happened in the schools. These schools are usually less expensive with average tuition fees around 300 RMB per semester. According to Lu and Zhang's research conducted in Beijing in 2001, migrant-sponsored schools usually did not have licenses, high education quality, and adequate facilities. They, however, conclude that despite such disadvantages, these schools at least provided migrant children with basic education.

610:. That is why most people in Sichuan who speak a Han dialect speak Mandarin, while regions at the same latitude such as Guangdong, have their own dialects. Many people from areas such as Hunan moved there in search of space. They consisted of various ethnicities ranging from Han, Hui and Mongol to Yao and Miao. Many cultures already existed in Sichuan, such as the Yi, and some of the emigrants integrated into these ethnic backgrounds, even to the point of forgetting the Han language. During the Qing dynasty, people started defining themselves as locals or immigrants and there was static between the two groups. 824:

which migration involves large informational or psychic costs, such as when moving to a completely different culture or environment or if the destination labor market is hostile to immigrants". China's migrants are heavily dependent on their migrant networks to assist them in finding jobs and houses, while also making sure they are financially stable. Migrant networks can reduce the cost of labor migration by providing job information and supportive relationships to the immigrants, as well as job search assistance. These networks can be described by the Chinese term

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country, China's coastal regions, and especially the province of Guangdong, experienced the largest increase in the size of the floating population. With less than 7 percent of China's population, Guangdong has 27 percent of China's floating population. The size of the floating population in Guangdong nearly tripled between the 1990 and the 2000 censuses." Such uneven migration can hamper the government's policy to encourage the development of non-coastal regions, which exacerbates the geographic inequality in the country.

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access to health care of migrant workers in cities is now clearly on the agenda of national and local governments. Nonetheless, migrants' mobility and their concentration in hazardous industries continue to make it difficult to reduce their exposure to environmental and occupational health risks and to ensure their access to affordable care." In order to further improve the "living conditions and access to health care of migrant workers in cities," a number of scholars have recently provided policy recommendations.

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reallocation. The current system therefore works to reduce the overall productivity of labor and causes a tremendous loss of social resources." In other words, research done by Yaohui Zhao at Beijing University indicates that while economic theory demonstrates labor migration to increase efficiency due to the reallocation of labor, the economic cost of migration actually mitigates gains in efficiency enough that internal migration under the Hukou system results in financial and social losses instead of gains.

149: 1036:, which is distinct from usual admission procedure, is to pay "sponsorship" fees (zanzhu fei). The amount of such fees can be prohibitive for poor migrant parents, which impedes many migrant children to get enrolled in public schools. Up to now, there are some improvements in terms of access to urban public schools and some cities have banned "sponsorship" fees, but specific policy varies from city to city. A large portion of migrant children are still excluded from the urban public education system. 1124:

could help filling the endowment gap between rural migrants and urban residents in the labor market." Additionally, scholars have recommended that "new policy initiatives concerning the issue of education and migrant children are sorely needed." Public health scholars recommend that "because health insurance schemes will remain limited for the foreseeable future, attention should focus on providing affordable health care to both uninsured migrants and the urban poor." In light of the migrant worker

772: 1128:, labor scholars have recommended that "the government should redistribute income and guarantee benefits to rural residents and migrant workers to improve living standards." Those studying labor mobility believe that "the artificial restrictions under which rural-urban migrants work in the cities, i.e. the prohibition on or impediments to urban settlement, restricted access to skilled jobs, and the system of short-term contracts, may have generated an excessively high migrant mobility rate." 815:

decisions. Studies of Dr. Cai, Director of Institute of Population and Labor Economics, demonstrate that an increase of the ratio of local rural income to the average national rural income will reduce migration. Besides the huge rural-urban income gap, the regional income gap also drives internal migration in China. As noted by Zhao whose research interest mainly lies in labor economics, many migrants flow from the western region with low incomes to the eastern region with higher incomes.

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borders as "economic migrants". Because of the Government of China does not provide assistance to migrants, the UNHCR established an office in Beijing in 1995 to provide direct assistance including food, shelter, health, education, and social services. Later, China banned the UNHCR direct access to North Koreans, claiming that the issue was an internal matter and should be treated as such. Today, advocates for North Korean defectors lobby to government officials to reverse legal jargon.

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International Health and Development has however revealed that "rural-urban migrant workers in this part of China are not especially vulnerable to poor mental health." They believe that this "may result from a sense of well being associated with upward economic mobility and improved opportunities, and the relatively high social capital in migrant communities." Thus, the "healthy migrant effect" also exhibits itself in the mental health of rural-urban migrants in China.

8336: 7690: 7303: 7070: 1287: 8346: 1299: 50: 537:, while it dramatically shifted to 6% Han and 75% Uyghur in the 1953 census, however a situation similar to the Qing era-demographics with a large number of Han has been restored as of 2000 with 40.57% Han and 45.21% Uyghur. Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, 91: 4913: 1157:

conducted in order to assess the status of internal migration and health in China, as well as to provide more specific policy recommendations in order to address any issues. Research conducted by a team from Beijing Normal University and the Institute of Development Studies has provided a number of specific recommendations for policy makers. In a journal article published in

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agencies with examining the refugees' background and labor skills to facilitate job placement. Following the end of the Orderly Departure Program in 1997, China continued to receive refugees although in much fewer numbers. Prior to the end of the Program and after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Vietnamese refugees to China had already been decreasing in number.

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migration are "channeled into gender-segregated jobs and that gender division of labor is increasingly becoming a dominant mode of household production in the countryside." According to research conducted by Youqin Huang and published in the journal Environment and Planning A, "the constraints of human capital, the patriarchal culture and the Household Registration (

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Social Sciences, stated that migrant workers do not have the same benefits as the urban residents. As a result of unequal benefits the migrant workers have limited participation in the labor market. Mr Cai estimates that more than 200 million migrant workers can't participate fully in the labor market due to the limitations from the Chinese hukou system.

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children can study in urban public schools, but access is usually limited. The main reason is that the education budget for compulsory education is allocated through local governments and strictly based on local hukou population. Many of the urban public schools with a limited education budget are consequently reluctant to accept migrant children.

1047:. The entire school enrollment system in China is place-based and they can only pass certain examinations in their places of hukou origin. This leads to discrepancies between what migrant students have studied in urban areas and what they will be examined as textbooks in different cities and provinces can be quite different. Since 2016, 1068:

partly because of high living expenses in cities. According to Ministry of Education, in 2012 there were more than 12.6 million migrant children and 58 million left-behind children from 7 years old to 16 years old. Left-behind children will have more health, emotional and behavior issues than those who grow up with their parents.

954:. Another survey reports that migrant workers' participation in pension schemes was as high as 33.7%; medical care, 21.6%; unemployment insurance, 10.3%; employment injury insurance, 31.8%. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences estimates that less than 5% got pension insurance and less than 3% of rural migrant laborers enjoyed 395:

populated by Manchu and Mongol peoples, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The Han people farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. The

626:) distinguishes Chinese internal migration from migration in other developing countries. In 1958, China established the universal hukou system that restricted the mobility of the population. It aimed to tie farmers to land, secure agricultural supply as well as to support industrial sector in cities after the 274:. In general, rural-urban migrants are most excluded from local educational resources, citywide social welfare programs and many jobs because of their lack of hukou status. Migrant workers are not necessarily rural workers; they can simply be people living in urban areas with rural household registration. 843:

life outside of the fields and the kitchen. This awareness will surely help improve the quality of life for women in the rural areas." This quote suggests that rural women in particular who were exposed to modern globalization of gender and cultural roles lived improved lives. Labor in China was greatly

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migration became much more popular and had attracted much attention from the government. The fourth period is from 1992 to 2000, during which the government in some degree encouraged migration, while urban local governments controlled migration more strictly because of high unemployment rates in cities.

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It is of interest to the Chinese government to control the flow of internal migration in China. However, the flow of migration is large and widespread enough to be difficult for the government to manage. "Despite the Chinese government's policy of encouraging the development of western regions of the

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In response to the lack of access to public educational resources, migrants in some big cities began to set their own schools since the 1990s. These schools are known as migrant-sponsored schools (nongmingong zidi xuexiao). At the beginning, urban authorities refused to grant licenses and even closed

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The floating population of Chinese migrant workers "presents major public health challenges, especially in the provision of reproductive health care for migrant women and the need to address the increased risk to both sexes of infection with sexually transmitted diseases and HIV." A survey of migrant

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As China experiences economic growth, the disparities between the affluent and the disadvantaged, as well as between urban and rural areas, continue to widen. At a group expert meeting of the United Nations in January 2008, a number of class-based implications of Chinese urban growth due to migration

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is another concern regarding the working condition. The prevalence of migrant workers in dangerous jobs results in a high number of work-related illnesses, injuries and deaths. Migrant workers make up 80% of the deaths in mining, construction, and chemical factories. And about 90% of those suffering

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The working condition is one manifest aspect of labor standards violations.The majority of migrants work more hours per day and more days per week than what is limited by labor law. The Chinese Household Income Project Survey of 2002 show that over 80% of migrants worked seven days per week, and only

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in many other aspects. According to a survey conducted by the Ministry of Urban and Rural Development, Ministry of Labor and Social Security and the All-China Federation of Trade Unions in 2004, only between 10% and 37.5% of the migrants working in the construction industry signed labor contracts. A

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At the time, migrants were seen as a nuisance to society and needed to be kept in check. However, in the mid-2000s attitudes towards migration drastically changed. In the novel Out to work, Migration, Gender, and the Changing Lives of Rural Women in Contemporary China, Gaetano explained how "Migrants

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China's hukou system is a social management system. This system links every Chinese resident with their birthplace. One can only access their health care, pension and education for their children in their birth city. Cai Fang, director of the Institute of Population Studies at the Chinese Academy of

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to admit more migrant children, forbade extra fees and sponsored migrant-sponsored schools. The announcement noted equal access to education, elimination of sponsorship fees and the government funding for migrant-sponsored schools. In September 2003, a joint directive declared that urban governments

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against migrant workers and legitimization of them. In addition, the 2002 Work Safety Law and the Law on the Prevention and Cure of Occupational Diseases demanded that all employers must guarantee a safe working environment for all employees. In 2004, employers in high-risk industries such as mining

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Left-behind children are also prone to undergo emotional and psychological problems. Liang's study of 250 left-behind junior high school students suggests that 16.6% of them felt abandoned, 12.3% had problems expressing difficulties, and 6.5% felt "anguished" when being left behind. In addition, the

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Having both paternal grandparents able to provide child care support full-time is a critical resource for rural people; otherwise, childcare issues may constrain their labor migration prospects. Before the 2000s, few mothers questioned the caregiving practice of leaving children in the care of older

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How do transient individuals experience migration in China, and what are the cultural, social, and even political ramifications of their migration experience? Through these experiences, many migrants come to expect certain benefits. Gaetano explains that China "understands that a woman should have a

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At multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, Green Standard troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war. Green Standard Army troops and Manchu bannermen were both part of the Qing military force who fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars. It was said

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At the start of the 19th century, 40 years after the Qing reconquest, there were around 155,000 Han and Hui peoples in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang. A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of

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Despite officially prohibiting Han settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Han people farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of

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noted that the payment of migrant workers should not be delayed. In March 2006, the State Council called for the establishment of a system that monitored wage delivery to migrant workers. In June 2006, the State Council passed a series of measures to protect migrant workers' labor rights, following

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of floating populations in China offers greater labor resources to coastal areas of high economic activity, but "although labor productivity in migrant activities is higher than it is in local nonfarm sectors, the current economic cost of migration in China is so high as to significantly limit such

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With the benefits of migration comes the cost of migration for many transient workers. Even though traveling to a larger city with more opportunities appeared beneficial, in many instances migrants were treated harshly and viewed as second class citizens. Gao Yu, the China country director for the

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Migrant networks have a significant role in labor migration. Migrant networks are "sets of interpersonal ties that connect migrants, former migrants, and non-immigrants" through the ties of family members, friendships, and the overall community. The role is "particularly prominent in situations in

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According to the International Labour Organization, internal migration in China is defined by two essential features. The first of these is that migrants generally move from farmlands and agricultural areas into more urban areas and developed cities. The second defining feature of Chinese internal

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Moreover, various studies indicate that left-behind children are more likely to have behavioral problems. Qualitative observations indicate that left-behind children often behavior extremely, either withdrawn or excessively aggressive. It has also been reported that left-behind children tend to be

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refer to the children who live with one parent (usually mother) or extended family (usually grandparents) when their parent(s) is (are) absent from home as migrant workers in urban areas. They are left behind partly because of little access to basic welfare in cities without local hukou status and

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According to a research conducted by Zai Liang and Yiu Por Chen and published in the journal "Social Science Research", "migration usually has negative consequences for children's schooling because of the loss of social capital in schools, neighborhood, and community of origin." In theory, migrant

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by gender. Where typically young, beautiful women found jobs in the beauty industry and often found better wages and living quarters. Gaetano further explains that "women have had a virtual monopoly in urban domestic service and hotel and restaurant hospitality". While females took the hospitality

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Han farmers were resettled from northern China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Wasteland was reclaimed by Han squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords. Despite officially prohibiting Han settlement on regions

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in ancient China, migration shaped the demographic and cultural landscape. Internal migration occurred as a result of the feudal system implemented by the Zhou rulers, which divided the territory into various states, each governed by its own noble or lord. People often migrated within the realm in

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permanent residence registration system, land-sale policies, infrastructure investment and the incentives offered to local government officials. The other factors influencing migration of people from rural provincial areas to large cities are more employment, education, and business opportunities,

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has declared all North Koreans in China to be 'persons of concern', although China does not recognize North Koreans' claims to asylum as valid. China refuses to accept people who the country views as defectors from other Communist countries. As a result, China identifies North Koreans within its

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Although there are various policies related to migrant children's education, in Hu's doctoral thesis, he addresses that the policy is partially implemented and the situation varies from province to province. Policy regarding funding is not being effectively implemented. Public schools do not have

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In general, public health scholars recommend that "because health insurance schemes will remain limited for the foreseeable future, attention should focus on providing affordable health care to both uninsured migrants and the urban poor." In light of this recommendation, further research has been

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which caused at least 30 million deaths. The government allocated housing, jobs, rationed food, security service (health care, pension and insurance etc.) and other necessities based on the hukou system, which made it almost impossible for people without local hukou status to live in urban areas.

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Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into the 18 provinces of the Han people and were given serious punishments if they did in order to

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The objective of the reform is to merge urban and rural hukou systems into one in which migrant workers can have equal access to public resources as urban residents do. At the beginning of the New Millennium, Fujian, Liaoning and Shandong Provinces abolished the dual-type hukou system and issued

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The issue of internal migration and health in China is intricately linked with the health policies national and local level governments enforce. "Policy toward rural-urban migration in China has undergone a significant shift in the last decade, and improving the working and living conditions and

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Scholars from a wide variety of fields have recommended policy changes in order to deal with the social issues created by floating populations of migrant workers in China. Some scholars believe that "public policies reducing the cost (including the opportunity cost) of education for rural people

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Comparative studies show that left-behind children's situation is not much worse than that of those living with parents in the same area. On the one hand, the institutions (e.g. the hukou system) that maintain the urban-rural inequality should be modified so that more migrants can settle down in

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which "describes the basic dynamic in personalized networks of influence." Migrant workers can potentially find jobs at a restaurant or within the garment industry run by migrants from the same origins. In a study conducted by Liang and Morroka, whose research focuses on migration in China, they

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recognized that the persistent wage differential between urban and rural sectors is a main "pull" factor of migration in developing countries. In Zhu's study conducted in 2002, he presents a model of migration in his study and confirms the significance of the urban-rural income gap for migration

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for China was 0.24, compared with world average of 1.84 from 1950 to 1990. Since the mid-1980s, rural to urban migration became a constant social phenomenon. Zhao and Sicular report that the number of rural-urban migration doubled between the late 1980s and the mid-1990s. In 1989, there were 8.9

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In the mid 19th century, arriving with an Amban, a community of Han troops from Sichuan who married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture. Hebalin was the location of where Chinese Muslim

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although this participation is less well known than that of other countries. The Chinese government accorded the Vietnamese protection by providing them refugee status. Most refugees settled in southern China. During the time of the refugees' integration, the Chinese government charged various

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Migration in China has produced a number of important impacts with regard to gender and gender equality in modern China. This process, usually known as a 'transition', "has gendered consequences and differential implications for men and women." The men and women who partake in rural-urban labor

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A significant number of internal migrant workers, along with excess labor from the shrinking manufacturing work force, have transitioned to working in China's platform economy. China's platform economy has grown substantially since the early 2010s, with its transactional volume reaching RMB 3.7

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in rural areas. On the other hand, in urban areas the development of the special economic zones and industries created demand for labor force. Some scholars state that, while the surplus rural labor is viewed as the main "push factor", demand for labor can be regarded as the main "pull factor".

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in their land of Dzungaria. Then the Qing implemented a large scale settlement in Dzungaria to colonize the newly empty grasslands. Han people were encouraged by the Qing to permanently settle and colonize Dzungaria while permanent Han settlers were banned from the Tarim with only Han merchants

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into four periods. The first period is from 1979 to 1983, during which the government still prohibited migration. The second period is from 1984 to 1988 when farmers were allowed to enter urban areas on the condition that they provided their own food. The third period is from 1989 to 1991 when

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allowed Han peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776. Han tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in

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Historically, "migration has been associated with increased vulnerability to mental health problems," and this has prompted some research into the mental health status of China's hundreds of millions of rural-urban migrants. Research by scholars from Zhejiang University and the UCL Centre for

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The causes of migration can originate from various factors within Chinese societies. Migration in some contexts can refer to the search for self-identity and self-transformation which pushed many young workers to migrate to more urbanized areas of China. This search for self-identity and self

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and it was estimated that between two-thirds and three-quarters of all new employment is in the informal economy. In the informal economy, many rural migrants are engaged in low-paying and temporary jobs such as sanitation workers and porters. Zhu addresses that they are not "employed" in the

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since they have less schooling, shorter job tenure and less training compared with the local residents. Moreover, because of the high rate of job mobility among rural migrant workers, employers have little incentive to train them and thereby prevent them from increasing their social capital.

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migration is that "labour flows are basically directed from the interior to coastal areas, and/or from central and western regions to eastern areas." These are not independent characteristics; "These two features overlap, and are closely interrelated with the macro socio-economic structure.

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habit, compared to children with no migrant parents. Primary causes include insufficient public awareness and lack of health education programs. Weak implementation of related regulations in rural areas such as prohibition to sell cigarettes to children under 18 may also contribute to this

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However Qing rule saw a massively increasing number of Han people both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land as Manchu landlords desired Han peasants to rent on their land and grow grain. Most Han migrants were not evicted as they went over the

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between migrants and the local population. A study that compared employment situations of urban residents and migrant labors in 2005 reports that around 52% of migrants were self-employed, while 12% of the local residents were self-employed; 12% of migrant workers were employed in the

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The limited access of migrant workers to social insurance highlights their vulnerability. A survey conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture in 2005 reports that only 13% of rural-urban migrant workers had insurance coverage for occupational injuries and diseases, only 10% for

590:. According to Evelyn S. Rawski both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet. According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000 strong Tibetan army. 674:

million migrants and in 1994 the number increased to 23.0 million. In 2006 it was estimated that China was experiencing a –0.39 per 1,000 population net migration rate. According to National Bureau of Statistics, there were 252.78 million migrant workers in China in 2011.

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in urban areas, though with a hukou reform. For example, some cities such as Zhengzhou once opened public schools to rural migrant children in 2002, but these cities soon realized that there were not enough schools for the large number of migrant children. According to

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was settled by Han people during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han became the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the Sungari to Han people at the beginning of the

391:. During the 18th century Han people farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courtier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands, in garrisons and towns. Ethnic Han made up 80% of the population. 922:

recent research by the Jinan Daily demonstrates that eight out of ten migrant workers did not know what the labor contract was. Many employers thus take advantage of migrant workers' unawareness and do not fulfill their obligations to sign labor contracts.

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enough funding and subsequently school access is still limited. In addition, migrant parents need to present a series of certificates showing that they have stable jobs and accommodation in cities in order to get their children admitted in public schools.

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identical hukou status to both urban and rural residents. Up to 2008, twelve provinces had abolished the dual urban-rural hukou system. Due to the complication of this issue, however, it is still very difficult for migrant workers to gain access to

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has relaxed its policies. A child of migrants can take Entrance Exam in Guangdong if he or she has attended 3 years of highschool in the province, and if the parent(s) have legal jobs and have paid for 3 years of social insurance in the province.

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Rural-urban migrant workers have a significant presence in China's labor force. By 2006, migrant workers comprised 40% of the total urban labor force. According to data from National Bureau of Statistics, in 2009 nearly 39.1% of them worked in

453:(neidi) populated by the Han people without permission and were given punishments if they did. Mongols were also forbidden from crossing into another Mongol leagues. Han settlers violated the rule and crossed into and settled in Inner Mongolia. 1330:). These would include e.g. migrant workers, students on campuses away from home, but not the military (who, generally, are counted separately from the provinces' and municipalities' populations). The largest migrant population was found in 864:

were finally recognized to be critical in narrowing the rural-urban income gap, as they redistribute wealth through remittances and apply new knowledge and skills to develop rural areas". Even though China recognized the importance of

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Labor surplus in rural areas is often regarded as one of the factors of internal migration in China. Central to this theory is that surplus rural labor provides a needed work force for industrial growth in urban areas On one hand, the

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by editing this article to remove any non-free copyrighted content and attributing free content correctly, or flagging the content for deletion. Please be sure that the supposed source of the copyright violation is not itself a

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municipalities (which both are surrounded by Hebei's territory). On the other hand, among the Hubei migrants about one half went to Guangdong, and the rest mostly to various other coastal destinations, from Beijing to Fujian.

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In 2000, the Chinese government began encouraging westward migration as part of an effort to increase development in China's western and minority regions with a reallocation of technological, human, and financial resources.

1079:, left-behind children face more nutrition problems such as low intake of some nutrients and poor physical development related to nutrition. Further, many studies find that left-behind children are more likely to have a 582:

that the Sichuan commander Yue Zhongqi entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa. According to Mark C. Elliott, after 1728 the Qing used

868:, their "low levels of education, skills, and work experience, and their dearth of urban social connections, combined with the hukou-based job distribution" still created many disadvantages for rural migrants. 1194:

coverage. With the government's continuous efforts, the situation of migrant workers have been improved, though still varying from province to province. In 2005, 80% of migrant workers had been fully paid. In

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7% workers' working time was in accordance with what law regulated. It also showed that around 33.3% of migrant workers worked 9 to 10 hours per day, about 25% 11 to 12 hours and 12% 13 or more hours per day.

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prompted migration to the SEZs from across southern and southwest China and workers, particularly younger women, could earn significantly more for factory work in SEZs than they could earn in their hometowns.

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Much of the interprovincial migration was toward the neighboring wealthier provinces or municipalities if there was one. E.g., over 90% of the Guangxi migrants went to the nearby Guangdong, while over 60% of

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Early in 2003, China has issued an announcement on migration management and pays much attention on migrant children's education. The government mainly focused on possible financial reform, encouraged

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reported that female migrants are more likely to rely on the developed migration networks, while younger migrants and those with higher level of education are less likely to depend on the networks.

4768: 1323: 6046: 1257:, Huang Ming, vice-minister of public security, addressed that the national hukou reform would be done by 2020. He said in the interview that the new hukou system would gradually extend 552:Ürümqi was settled with troops while Green Standard troops and Altishari Turkic peoples settled in Ili after being ordered to by Qianlong in 1757. Ürümqi was used as a place for exiles. 6683: 464:

During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of Han settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the

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came from. Ethnic Han people were banned from settling in this region but the rule was openly violated and Han became a majority population in urban areas by the early 19th century.

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in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.

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The problems noted above are mainly due to the fact that the grandparents either spoil the children or fail to give them enough emotional support. Physical weakness and low

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A population density map. The eastern, coastal provinces are much more densely populated than the western interior partly because of the opportunities available to migrants.

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Zhou, Chengchao; Sylvia, Sean; Zhang, Linxiu; Luo, Renfu; Yi, Hongmei; Liu, Chengfang; Shi, Yaojiang; Loyalka, Prashant; Chu, James; Medina, Alexis; Rozelle, Scott (2015).

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up Circular No. 36. The measures include the restriction of minimum wages, solutions to wage defaults, enforcement of labor contracts and enlargement of migrant workers'

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In addition to inadequate social protection, the primary reason of the occupational segregation is the migrant workers' lack of skills and education, which keeps them in

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Jonathan Woetzel; Lenny Mendonca; Janamitra Devan; Stefano Negri; Yangmel Hu; Luke Jordan; Xiujun Li; Alexander Maasry; Geoff Tsen; Flora Yu; et al. (March 2009),

8108: 7896: 5018:- Of all the threats to its economic boom, Beijing officially encourages one, mass internal migration. It's a very smart choice., December 12, 2005, Stephen Glain, 7901: 7651: 101: 8284: 5939: 3685:

Li, Lu; Hong-mei Wang; Xue-jun Ye; Min-min Jiang; Qin-yuan Lou; Therese Hesketh (2007-09-01). "The mental health status of Chinese rural–urban migrant workers".

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The degree of segregation varies from province to province. A series of field studies by China Center for Economic Research demonstrate that the labor market in

914:. The problems in terms of labor standards violations are rooted in institutional discrimination against migrant workers as well as inadequate law enforcement. 7881: 7570: 7453: 6283: 5978: 8210: 7911: 6972: 4784:

Han, Xiaorong (18 January 2013). "Exiled to the Ancestral Land: The Resettlement, Stratification and Assimilation of the Refugees from Vietnam in China".

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were issued in 2002 and 2003, named Document Number 2 of 2002 and Document Number 1 of 2003.These two documents initialized the process of elimination of

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Wang, Yixuan (2015). "The Mystery Revealed—Intersectionality in the Black Box: An Analysis of Female Migrants' Employment Opportunities in Urban China".

2919:

Zhang, Kevin Honglin; Shunfeng Song (Sep 2003). "Rural–urban Migration and Urbanization in China: Evidence from Time-series and Cross-section Analyses".

8098: 7216: 6011: 5897: 4821:"Systemizing the fate of the stateless North Korean migrant: a legal guide to preventing the automatic repatriation of North Korean migrants in China" 7745: 5902: 513:

Hans were around one third of Xinjiang's population in 1800, during the time of the Qing dynasty. Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at

5961: 4462:

Qian, M. (1 Dec 2004). "Nongcun liushou haizi de jiaoyu wenti buku hushi" [Education of left-behind children not allowed to be neglected].

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Huang, A. (2004). "Liushouhai' xinli jiankang shuiping fenxi (An analysis of the health level of the psychological status of 'left-behind kids')".

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trillion in 2021. As of 2020, 84 million people worked as platform economy service providers and 6 million were employees of platform companies.

7906: 7730: 2779: 2750: 2721: 112: 7256: 3291: 7871: 7630: 7184: 6507: 4440:

Li, L. (2004). "San nvtong chzou yinfa de shehui youlv" [Social concerns raised the accident of three young girls' abandoning home].

3592: 7089: 6165: 5402: 5126: 3740: 8195: 8123: 7140: 5412: 1663: 7936: 7921: 7590: 7050: 5742: 7805: 5121: 4736: 2162:

https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/761498/Gregory_georgetown_0076D_13086.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

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https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/761498/Gregory_georgetown_0076D_13086.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

1044: 195: 8253: 7941: 6081: 6066: 5966: 5823: 5781: 4677: 1071:

Left-behind children are generally less healthy, but the difference is very marginal. A study conducted by several professors from

8161: 4646: 2691:

Wang, Meiyan; Fang Cai (June 2005). "Local vs. Migrant Workers: Employment Opportunities and Wage Differentials in Urban China".

2009: 210: 4956: 4952: 4332:"Urban-rural, age and gender differences in health behaviours in the Chinese population: findings from a survey in Hubei, China" 2605:

China Association for Employment Promotion/Microsoft Seminar on Occupational Training for Migrant Workers Held in Beijing, China

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reports that left-behind children are more likely to have a less healthy diet and lower rates of physical activity. In terms of

566:Ürümqi had very little Uyghurs while it had many Hui and Han in 1787. There were 76,496 Uyghurs and 477,321 Han in 1960 Ürümqi. 7956: 7916: 7886: 7211: 6836: 5987: 5315: 5052: 4241:"The Impact of Parental Migration on Health Status and Health Behaviours among Left-behind Adolescent School Children in China" 2314: 2290: 1043:

In addition to the issue of access to education, migrant children have to return to their places of their hukou origin to take

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city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture, however, Ürümqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and

4393:"Left too early: the effects of age at separation from parents on Chinese rural children's symptoms of anxiety and depression" 2266: 2254: 1870: 1662:

National Bureau of Statistics of China (2012): "Statistical Communiqué on the 2011 National Economic and Social Development",

7231: 6688: 6076: 5138: 5116: 4948: 4119: 3214: 3044: 2888: 2579: 2525: 2239: 2212: 2185: 2099: 2041: 8200: 8133: 8078: 7876: 7620: 7411: 7191: 6323: 6056: 5553: 2422:

Cai, Fang (2001). "Institutional Barriers in Two Processes of Rural Labor Migration in China, Working Paper Series No. 9".

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in 2000 counted 42.4 million people living outside of their home provinces (i.e., outside of the province where they were

917:

Low incidents of labor contracts are a main form of labor standards violations, which allows employers to further violate

7610: 7359: 7161: 6051: 5422: 5171: 3159:"Migrant Workers' Community in China: Relationships among Social Networks, Life Satisfaction and Political Participation" 2735:

CCER, 1998b (1998). "An Analysis for the Migratory Labor Supply Shortage – The Case of Zhongshan at Guangdong Province".

1729:

Wang, Feng; Xuejin Zuo (May 1999). "Inside China's Cities: Institutional Barriers and Opportunities for Urban Migrants".

623: 63: 4047:

Hu, Bo (2012). "Education for migrant children: policy implementation in the changing urban education system in China".

2338: 7787: 7114: 5951: 5786: 5166: 4295:

Lee, Ming-Hsuan (2011). "Migration and Children's Welfare in China: The Schooling and Health of Children Left-behind".

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is complicated since it involves restructuring political and social systems, which will impact every aspect including

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Migration to Sichuan and Guizhou happened during the Qing dynasty as a continuation of migration that started in the

263: 240: 130: 77: 17: 4765:

http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/renkoupucha/2000pucha/html/t0106.htm 第五次人口普查数据(2000年). 表7—2 全国按现住地、户口登记地在外省分的人口

3528:

Chan, Kam Wing (January 2008). "Internal Labor Migration in China: Trends, Geographical Distribution and Policies".

1967:

Reardon-Anderson, James (Oct 2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty".

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CCER, 1998a (1998). "The Segregation and Integration of Urban Workers and Rural Migrants - The Case of Shanghai".

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Fang, Cai (2005). "The Trend of Change of the Labour Market and the Urgency of Training Rural Migrant Workers".

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The genocide victim Dzungars were the natives of northern Xinjiang. Han, Manchu, and Southern Xinjiang's Turkic

8375: 8113: 7750: 7735: 7666: 7318: 7043: 6811: 6451: 4111: 1918: 1587:

Chan, Kam Wing; Li Zhang (1999). "The Hukou System and Rural-Urban Migration in China: Processes and Changes".

1531: 704: 3593:"Suicide as protest for the new generation of Chinese migrant workers: Foxconn, global capital, and the state" 270:, which refers primarily to migrants in China without local household registration status through the Chinese 7740: 7266: 5934: 5924: 5722: 5717: 1478: 1064: 703:

and more than 7.8% in wholesale and retail. In addition, the number of the migrants who were employed in the

258: 4062:

Lu, S.; S. Zhang (2001). "Education of Migrant Children: Report from Survey of Migrant Schools in Beijing".

8306: 8289: 8248: 8175: 7851: 7792: 7767: 7693: 7575: 7381: 7366: 7346: 7342: 7286: 7201: 6934: 6929: 6341: 5654: 5600: 5568: 5395: 4969:"China's Left-Behind Children: Impact Of Parental Migration On Health, Nutrition, And Educational Outcomes" 1225: 4372:

Liang, S. (2004). "Guanzhu nongcun 'liushou zonghe zheng' (Pay attention to the 'left-behind symptoms')".

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Liang, Zai; Yiu Por Chen (March 2007). "The educational consequences of migration for children in China".

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Liang, Zai; Yiu Por Chen (2004). "Migration and Gender in China: An Origin-Destination Linked Approach*".

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Démurger, Sylvie; Hui Xu (2013). "Left-behind children and return decisions of rural migrants in China".

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Research Office Project Team, State Council (2006). "Research Report on Rural Migrant Workers in China".

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had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there.

313: 215: 2764:

CCER, 1998c (1998). "A Integrated Rural-Urban Labor Market – The Case of Mianyang at Sichuan Province".

8238: 8180: 8128: 7984: 7926: 7401: 7391: 7241: 7171: 7104: 6356: 6236: 5992: 5946: 5929: 5912: 5659: 5623: 5470: 5045: 4704:

An Investigative Report on a Case of Collective Labour Dispute: A Social Structure of Lost Entitlements

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Zhang, Junfeng; Moazam Mahmood (2007). "Employment, Decent Work and Poverty Reduction in Urban China".

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Zheng, Zhenzhen; Lian Pengling (2005). "Health Vulnerability among Temporary Migrants in Urban China".

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Zhao, Zhong (2003). "Rural-Urban Migration in China – What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know?".

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http://www.stats.gov.cn/was40/gjtjj_en_detail.jsp?searchword=migrants&channelid=9528&record=3

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Biao, Xiang (2007). "How far are the left-behind left behind? A preliminary study in rural China".

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Liang, Zai; Zhongdong Ma (2004). "China's floating population: new evidence from the 2000 census".

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the labor market is quite segregated with "rural migratory-worker urban-resident-worker dualism".

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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

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Conference on Migration, Development and Pro-Poor Policy Choices in Asia, Dhaka, June 22–24, 2003

1845: 1145: 790: 662: 651: 69: 5372: 8272: 7810: 7713: 7526: 7499: 7476: 7466: 7396: 7323: 6922: 6729: 6563: 6519: 6497: 6194: 5644: 5548: 5355: 5098: 5010: 4960: 4523: 4027:

Lai, Z.; Y. P. Chen (2010). "The educational consequences of migration for children in China".

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Zhao, Yaohui (July 1999). "Labor Migration and Earnings Differences: The Case of Rural China".

2352: 955: 2229: 2202: 2175: 2137: 2078: 2066: 2054: 1107:

levels of grandparents who take care of left-behind children also contribute to the problems.

8267: 8170: 7999: 7438: 6912: 6907: 6862: 6798: 6709: 6412: 6361: 6299: 6021: 5858: 5846: 5836: 5605: 5238: 5038: 4331: 3398:"Weile nongmin'gong de hefa quanyi" [For the sake of migrant workers' legal rights]. 2773: 2744: 2715: 2571: 2489: 2326: 2302: 2278: 1488: 1483: 1453: 514: 481: 1334:(15.0 mln). The rest of China's southeastern seaboard attracted plenty of migrants as well ( 108: 8354: 8228: 8060: 7994: 7844: 7661: 7541: 7461: 7371: 7311: 7196: 6638: 6586: 6446: 6241: 6216: 6143: 6138: 5973: 5865: 5841: 5699: 5181: 4771:(2000). Table 7-2: Population residing outside of the province of household registration.) 3849: 3793: 3207:

Out to work: Migration, Gender, and the Changing Lives of Rural women in Contemporary China

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Out to work: Migration, Gender, and the Changing Lives of Rural women in Contemporary China

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and public schools should be responsible for migrant children's equal access to education.

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in rural communities should be improved and regional inequality should be further reduced.

631: 203: 31: 3838:"Gender, hukou, and the occupational attainment of female migrants in China (1985 - 1990)" 3782:"Gender, hukou, and the occupational attainment of female migrants in China (1985 - 1990)" 2620:

Institute of International Labour Studies, MoLSS and the International Labour Organization

2407:

Zhao, Yaohui (2000). "Rural-to-Urban Labor Migration in China: The Past and the Present".

1711: 771: 429:'s reign, and Han filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s according to Abbe Huc. 8: 8233: 7979: 7822: 7536: 7421: 7416: 7296: 7124: 6939: 6784: 6678: 6673: 6643: 6601: 6524: 6487: 6407: 6392: 6221: 6182: 5889: 5503: 5407: 5158: 4953:

The Consequences of Parental Labor Migration in China for Children's Emotional Well-being

4632: 3334: 3232:"Where are the migrants from? Inter- vs. intra-provincial rural-urban migration in China" 811: 643: 639: 583: 575: 560: 267: 4681: 4192: 3853: 3797: 3763: 162:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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Tuñón, Max (April 2006). "Internal Labour Migration in China: Features and Responses".

1992: 1984: 1827: 1796: 1746: 1612: 1463: 1208: 1033: 903: 882: 670: 647: 627: 254: 38: 4654: 4575: 4144:"The Status of Care and Nutrition of 774 Left-Behind Children in Rural Areas in China" 3036: 2455: 8040: 8030: 7646: 7337: 7291: 7281: 7179: 6885: 6877: 6591: 6458: 6429: 6387: 6316: 6273: 6231: 6098: 6038: 5810: 5747: 5609: 5390: 5360: 5186: 4992: 4944: 4896: 4882: 4805: 4589: 4501: 4422: 4354: 4316: 4272: 4173: 4115: 3987: 3983: 3953: 3710: 3702: 3664: 3570: 3338: 3261: 3210: 3040: 2986: 2966: 2884: 2865: 2585: 2575: 2546: 2521: 2235: 2208: 2181: 2095: 1996: 1688: 1604: 1573: 1089: 947: 3869: 3813: 3722: 3273: 2829:"China's "Great Migration": The impact of the reduction in trade policy uncertainty" 1616: 8349: 8045: 7974: 7698: 7600: 7595: 7428: 7059: 7003: 6996: 6895: 6890: 6816: 6744: 6663: 6578: 6568: 6539: 6475: 6470: 6304: 6278: 6263: 6148: 6126: 6110: 6016: 5465: 5455: 5295: 5088: 5073: 5065: 4982: 4870: 4793: 4579: 4571: 4493: 4412: 4404: 4346: 4304: 4262: 4252: 4163: 4155: 3979: 3941: 3918: 3898: 3857: 3801: 3755: 3694: 3654: 3646: 3562: 3380: 3330: 3251: 3243: 3170: 3137: 3032: 3009: 2958: 2928: 2851: 2843: 2809: 2451: 2364: 1976: 1738: 1596: 1569: 1473: 1458: 1290:

Map showing the various administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China.

1141: 1125: 1112: 911: 646:, the earnings of farmers were closely related to their daily participation in the 546: 426: 396: 2847: 1199:, more than two million migrant workers are in a special social security program. 559:

Muslims were all colonizers in Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria). Han soldiers of the

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This article is about internal migration in China. For immigration to China, see

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Zhu, Nong (2002). "The Impacts of Income Gaps on Migration Decisions in China".

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was increasing, which indicated a new trend of employment choice. A report from

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community, while Lubu was the place where Han troops and their offspring lived.

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in Tibet. A community descended from Han soldiers and officials grew in Lhasa.

534: 507: 502: 446: 438: 356: 278: 4987: 4797: 4497: 3910: 3698: 3566: 2978: 2813: 1600: 861: 8369: 8295: 8050: 7504: 7443: 7221: 6977: 6724: 6558: 6397: 6199: 5520: 5508: 5350: 5211: 4968: 4917: 4874: 4505: 4408: 3991: 3706: 3574: 3265: 2970: 2827:

Facchini, Giovanni; Liu, Maggie Y.; Mayda, Anna Maria; Zhou, Minghai (2019).

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Sicular, Terry; Yaohui Zhao (2002). "Employment and Earnings in Rural China".

1954: 1942: 1930: 1906: 1894: 1882: 1765: 1692: 1493: 794: 765: 751: 725: 696: 587: 542: 522: 376: 360: 4861:

Choi, Won Geun (26 April 2017). "China and its Janus-faced refugee policy".

4257: 3759: 3000:

Meng, Xin; Junsen Zhang (2001). "The Two-Tier Labor Market in Urban China".

2589: 1816:"Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors" 184: 7017: 6902: 6774: 6739: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5325: 5320: 5310: 5228: 5223: 4996: 4593: 4426: 4358: 4276: 4177: 3714: 3668: 3548:"Migrants as second-class workers in urban China? A decomposition analysis" 3482: 3414: 3106:

Cai, Fang (1996). "An Economic Analysis for Labor Migration and Mobility".

3013: 1608: 1327: 1174: 1012: 995: 939: 918: 858: 799: 747: 700: 619: 607: 450: 338: 285: 271: 4933: 3741:"Rural-Urban Migration and Gender Division of Labor in Transitional China" 3175: 3158: 2368: 7772: 6596: 5513: 5498: 5305: 5263: 5258: 5206: 3142: 3125: 1742: 1266: 1254: 538: 491: 3256: 2856: 1800: 1788: 574:

The Qing stationed both Manchu bannermen and ethnic Han soldiers of the

301: 6769: 5677: 5488: 5216: 4308: 4215:

Zhongguo Xinli Weisheng Zazhi (Chinese Journal of Psychological Health)

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CESifo Economic Studies Conference on Understanding the Chinese Economy

1988: 1831: 1815: 1286: 1233: 1186: 1158: 526: 384: 3684: 3437:

Rural migrant workers in China: Scenario, challenges and public policy

1750: 716:

informal sector, but they "have access only" to the informal sector.

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in 2006 states that there were also 80 million workers working in the

517:, James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that 284:

China's government influences the pattern of urbanization through the

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Lamb Buddha's Migrant Workers: Self-assertion on China's Urban Fringe

4108:

Chinese Village Life Today: Building Families in an Age of Transition

3635:"Health status and access to health care of migrant workers in China" 2469:

Huang, Ping; Frank N. Pieke (2003). "China Migration Country Study".

1814:

Chang-Qun, Duan; Xue-Chun, Gan; Wang, Jeanny; Chien, Paul K. (1998).

1331: 1262: 1182: 1104: 1076: 1048: 736: 495: 487: 417: 413: 368: 364: 3546:

Démurger, Sylvie; Marc Gurgand; Shi Li; Ximing Yue (December 2009).

3545: 3384: 3126:"The Role of Migrant Networks in Labor Migration: The Case of China" 1980: 1789:"Migrations in Chinese History and their Legacy on Chinese Dialects" 1088:

earlier those children are separated from parents, more symptoms of

510:

and the Han people were allowed to permanently settle in the Tarim.

498:, Southern Xinjiang). The Manchus had wiped out the native Buddhist 7782: 7028: 6854: 6847: 6160: 5015: 3902: 3861: 3805: 3632: 2962: 2424:

Institute of Population Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

1363: 1355: 1351: 1339: 1335: 1298: 1196: 932: 740: 556: 442: 421: 405: 37:"Chinese migration" redirects here. For emigration from China, see 5025: 4769:

Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China

1324:

Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China

8301: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5030: 4916:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

4717:

An, Baijie (18 Dec 2013). "Hukou Reforms Target 2020: Official".

1406: 1394: 1390: 1374: 1347: 1258: 1185:

for migrant workers. In the 2005 Government Work Report, Premier

1093: 1080: 1021: 732: 461:

keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.

409: 401: 4442:

Zhongguo Minzu Jiaoyu (Education for Ethnic Minorities in China)

3082:"Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis" 2618:"Decent Work, Employment and Poverty Reduction in Urban China". 6949: 4842:

Robinson, Courtland (2013). "The curious case of North Korea".

3323:

High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy

1503: 1359: 1343: 1303: 1229: 1144:

publicity event for migrant population (流动人口计划生育宣传服务活动) at the

927: 825: 518: 506:

allowed. The ban was lifted in the 1820s after the invasion of

499: 266:. This is because migrants in China are commonly members of a 8104:

Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement

4647:"Children of migrants to have same inoculation as urban peers" 4607: 2025:. Vol. 10. Cambridge University Press. 1978. p. 356. 5061: 4557: 4029:

Investing in Human Capital for Economic Development in Halshs

1468: 1440: 1402: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1370: 1311: 1307: 642:

system was another tool to control labor mobility. Under the

469: 7932:

State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission

4090:"Nearly 10,000 migrant students sit for gaokao in Guangdong" 1369:

Migrants originated mostly in the inland provinces, such as

661:

Huang and Pieke divide the migration policy evolution after

7761:

National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation

4608:

02/14/content_188183.htm "Migrant workers see higher wages"

3633:

Hesketh, Therese; Ye Xue Jun; Li Lu; Wang Hong Mei (2008).

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of migrant workers on the grounds of hukou system. But the

907: 262:

is one of the most extensive in the world according to the

102:

personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay

8109:

Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement

4963:

Institute for Social Research. Report 13-799. August 2013.

4464:

Renmin Zhengxie Bao (People's Political Consultation News)

3285: 3283: 1813: 4083:"Chinese cities to relax school entry for rural migrants" 3452:

International Population Conference Held in Tours, France

2353:"The legacy of immigration in Southwest China, 1250-1850" 938:

In terms of wage payment, although labor law regulates a

563:

were settled in the 1770s in Ili and Ürümqi by the Qing.

4524:"Migration and health in China challenges and responses" 4521: 3230:

Su, Yaqin; Tesfazion, Petros; Zhao, Zhong (2018-02-01).

2177:

China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia

658:, which loosened the restriction of people's mobility. 4479:"Job mobility of residents and migrants in urban China" 3280: 3079: 2795:"Job Mobility of Residents and Migrants in Urban China" 2543:

China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future

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services to qualified residents, both urban and rural.

1100:"indifferent, introverted, inferior" and "selfish". 7882:

China Council for the Promotion of International Trade

4737:"Is Hukou Reform the Key to Reviving China's Economy?" 457:

thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.

4558:

Hu, Xiaojiang; Sarah Cook; Miguel A. Salazar (2008).

2114:"Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949" 1766:"The Great Migration: Inception of the Zhou identity" 1032:

One usual way for migrant children to study in urban

4678:"Policy and Reality of Migrant Children's Education" 3748:

International Journal of Urban and Regional Research

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China Center for Economic Research Peking University

1555: 1553: 1551: 1224:

The Chinese government has committed to eliminating

3541: 3539: 3497: 2468: 594:troops and their offspring lived, resulting in the 359:, the Qing government decreed a prohibition of non- 4966: 4760: 4758: 4756: 3500:Regional and Country Policy Coherence Report No. 4 3449: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 2918: 2483: 1526: 1524: 1314:with an overnight bus have to brave the rigors of 1061:relatives while they migrated for work prospects. 437:Ethnic Han were officially forbidden to settle in 7746:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund 3969: 3888: 3586: 3584: 3421: 3114: 2635:"Employment Conditions of Chinese Migrant labors" 2227: 2200: 1559: 1548: 8367: 4476: 3734: 3732: 3536: 3400:Zhongguo Jianshe Bao (Chinese Construction News) 2999: 2221: 2194: 1966: 893: 586:troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than 486:The Qing implemented two different policies for 449:. 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Columbia University Press. pp. 260–. 2207:. Columbia University Press. pp. 306–. 1658: 1656: 1586: 735:province is relatively integrated, while in 728:, compared with 68% of the local workforce. 8124:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 7141:Grasping the large, letting go of the small 4819:Cho, Jeanyoung Jeannie (November 1, 2013). 4141: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 3960: 3080:Harris, John R.; Michael P. Todaro (1970). 2778:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2763: 2749:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2734: 2720:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2705: 2402: 2400: 2180:. Harvard University Press. pp. 345–. 1666:. (accessed 06.08.2012). 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Wang (2011). 4512: 4416: 4266: 4256: 4193:"How Many Left-behind Children are there" 4167: 4081:Hornby, Lucy; Mao, Sabrina (2012-12-30). 4080: 4003: 4001: 3675: 3658: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3255: 3174: 3141: 2855: 2686: 2684: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2035: 1681:"China braced for wave of urban migrants" 1653: 1111:cities with families. On the other hand, 1045:The National College Entrance Examination 764:transformation was consequence of recent 241:Learn how and when to remove this message 131:Learn how and when to remove this message 7942:State Administration of Foreign Exchange 4841: 4560:"Internal migration and health in China" 4457: 4455: 4329: 4128: 4101: 4099: 3891:Economic Development and Cultural Change 2951:Economic Development and Cultural Change 2944: 2942: 2397: 1786: 1678: 1297: 1285: 1169:Two landmark policy documents regarding 1135: 1011: 770: 4283: 4225: 3617: 3513:"China Human Development Report 2005". 3309: 3204: 2903: 2878: 2568:The transformation of Chinese socialism 2540: 2415: 1055: 961: 689: 14: 8368: 7917:National Bureau of Statistics of China 7887:China Securities Regulatory Commission 5988:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 4786:International Journal of Asian Studies 4725: 4105: 4042: 4040: 4038: 3998: 3351: 2681: 2649: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2375: 1679:Shanghai, Geoff Dyer in (2008-03-23). 601: 547:exterminated the Zunghar Oirat Mongols 292: 7032: 5034: 4949:University of California, Los Angeles 4734: 4452: 4371: 4212: 4096: 4049:PhD Diss., London School of Economics 3835: 3779: 3478: 3476: 3412: 3320: 2939: 2672: 2516:Singh, Colonel Harjeet (2008-01-01). 2515: 2111: 1674: 1672: 1281: 832: 719:Scholars agree that there is a sharp 400:southern Manchuria, the path linking 8134:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone 8079:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 7877:All-China Federation of Trade Unions 7058: 4860: 4461: 3931: 3527: 3370: 3123: 2948: 2602: 2534: 2406: 2388: 1636:"Migrant workers and their children" 1630: 1628: 1626: 1418:Migration from neighboring countries 296: 178: 142: 84: 43: 7611:Hong Kong Trade Development Council 6684:Major Historical and Cultural Sites 4863:Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 4818: 4783: 4701: 4391:Liu, Zhengkui; et al. (2009). 4390: 4374:Nongcun Shidian (Rural Perspective) 4294: 4238: 4087: 4035: 3738: 3434: 3105: 2632: 2565: 2441: 2430: 2421: 2350: 2105: 1715:Preparing for China's urban billion 1202: 818: 24: 7115:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns 5822: 5060: 4937: 4903:. Library of Congress. March 2016. 4716: 4439: 4046: 3473: 3335:10.1093/oso/9780197682258.001.0001 3156: 2836:Journal of International Economics 1763: 1669: 1366:had over a million migrants each. 1118: 881:In general, the current system of 654:, this system was replaced by the 533:the population as 30% Han and 60% 25: 8392: 8139:Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone 7892:General Administration of Customs 7756:China Reform Holdings Corporation 7147:Scientific Outlook on Development 5979:Political Consultative Conference 5026:China Statistical Information Net 5004: 4825:Fordham International Law Journal 4397:American Journal of Public Health 4142:Luo, Jiayou; et al. (2008). 3031:. Vol. 1. pp. 425–465. 2357:Annales de Démographie Historique 1846:"The Manchu and the Qing Dynasty" 1623: 1562:Population and Development Review 1536:International Labour Organization 1405:migrants went to the Beijing and 871: 709:International Labour Organization 638:In addition to Hukou system, the 277:In 2015 a total of 277.5 million 264:International Labour Organization 59:This article has multiple issues. 8344: 8335: 8334: 8186:2008–2009 economic stimulus plan 7947:State Administration of Taxation 7835:Stock Exchange Executive Council 7689: 7688: 7302: 7301: 7069: 7068: 6765:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty 6760:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4911: 4889: 4854: 4835: 4812: 4777: 4710: 4695: 4669: 4653:. April 11, 2006. 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(1988). 3020: 2993: 2912: 2897: 2872: 2820: 2786: 2757: 2728: 2699: 2626: 2611: 2596: 2559: 2509: 2477: 2462: 2344: 2332: 2320: 2308: 2296: 2284: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2174:Peter C Perdue (30 June 2009). 2155: 2143: 2131: 2084: 2072: 2060: 2048: 2029: 2015: 2003: 1960: 1948: 1936: 1924: 1912: 1900: 1888: 1876: 1864: 1838: 1807: 1780: 1219: 1164: 1073:Chinese University of Hong Kong 876: 787:Household-responsibility system 656:household-responsibility system 345: 332: 289:and higher standard of living. 67:or discuss these issues on the 8114:Northeast China Revitalization 7751:China Internet Investment Fund 7736:China Government Guidance Fund 4959:). Population Studies Center, 4735:Staff, W. S. J. (2013-08-18). 4675: 4190: 4112:University of Washington Press 3591:Chan, Jenny; Ngai Pun (2010). 3289: 2908:. University of Hawaiʻi Press. 2023:The Cambridge History of China 1764:Wu, Shu-hui (1 January 2011). 1757: 1722: 1705: 1580: 1435: 1338:(3.1 mln), Jiangsu (2.5 mln), 705:tertiary sector of the economy 679:China's special economic zones 13: 1: 8206:China–United States trade war 8071:Regional economic initiatives 8024:National economic initiatives 7741:China-Africa Development Fund 7135:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour 4576:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61360-4 3037:10.1016/S1573-4471(88)01014-9 2883:. Univ of Hawaii. p. 4. 2848:10.1016/j.jinteco.2019.04.002 2456:10.1016/s1043-951x(02)00074-3 1770:Studia Orientalia Electronica 1514: 1479:Metropolitan regions of China 1350:had 2.5 million. The coastal 1065:Left-behind children in China 894:Violations of labor standards 805: 793:was productive and generated 209:Please review the source and 8307:List of Chinese by net worth 8290:China Compulsory Certificate 8201:Protein export contamination 7852:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange 7768:China Investment Corporation 7232:Business process outsourcing 6057:Ministry of National Defense 5396:Chinese Communist Revolution 3739:Fan, C. Cindy (March 2003). 3321:Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024). 3248:10.1016/j.chieco.2017.09.004 3130:Contemporary Economic Policy 2933:10.1016/j.chieco.2003.09.018 2793:Knight, J.; L. Yueh (2004). 2637:. Chinese National Condition 2545:. New York, NY: 1804 Books. 1731:The American Economic Review 1226:institutional discrimination 1001: 750:. Migrant workers have less 490:(Northern Xinjiang) and the 350: 204:Knowledge's copyright policy 7: 7621:Water supply and sanitation 6720:Flowers of the Four Seasons 6705:Four Treasures of the Study 6324:Water supply and sanitation 6052:Central Military Commission 6047:Outline of military history 5797:Province-level subdivisions 3373:Population, Space and Place 2112:Toops, Stanley (May 2004). 2090:Millward, James A. (2007). 1718:, McKinsey Global Institute 1447: 1310:for the provincial capital 837: 475: 433:Mongolia and Inner Mongolia 27:Internal migration in China 10: 8397: 8129:Rise of Central China Plan 7927:National Energy Commission 5993:Primary stage of socialism 5935:National People's Congress 5403:People's Republic of China 4351:10.1016/j.puhe.2007.02.015 4160:10.1177/003335490812300319 3842:Environment and Planning A 3786:Environment and Planning A 3651:10.1177/003335490812300211 3413:Frost, S. (16 June 2023). 3029:Migration and Urbanization 2409:Rural Labor Flows in China 2228:James A. Millward (2007). 2201:James A. Millward (2007). 1509:Gender inequality in China 1422: 1005: 798:Others contend that high 614:People's Republic of China 479: 259:People's Republic of China 36: 29: 8325: 8219: 8162:2005–2011 property bubble 8152: 8094:China Western Development 8069: 8023: 7955: 7862: 7801:Dalian Commodity Exchange 7675: 7639: 7557: 7490: 7452: 7170: 7080: 7066: 6990: 6958: 6876: 6797: 6577: 6383: 6374: 6332: 6292: 6134: 6125: 6037: 5888: 5818: 5809: 5772: 5743:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 5698: 5632: 5541: 5479: 5451: 5442: 5371: 5249: 5197: 5157: 5081: 5072: 4988:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0150 4947:) and Donald J. Treiman ( 4929:Federal Research Division 4798:10.1017/S1479591412000228 4498:10.1016/j.jce.2004.07.004 3699:10.1007/s00127-007-0221-0 3567:10.1016/j.jce.2009.04.008 3292:"Life in a Mobile Nation" 3205:Gaetano, Arianna (2015). 3163:Psychosocial Intervention 2904:Gaetano, Arianne (2015). 2879:Gaetano, Arianna (2015). 2814:10.1016/j.jce.2004.07.004 1601:10.1017/s0305741000001351 1429:Orderly Departure Program 988: 970: 902:involve labor contracts, 789:(HRS) established during 758: 622:of China (emulating from 156:This article needs to be 8036:Belt and Road Initiative 8015:Rural credit cooperative 7788:Foreign exchange reserve 7721:Beijing Financial Street 7130:Socialist market economy 6918:Catholic Church in China 6062:People's Liberation Army 6029:One country, two systems 4875:10.1177/0117196817703759 4409:10.2105/ajph.2008.150474 4106:Santos, Gonçalo (2021). 3600:The Asia-Pacific Journal 3089:American Economic Review 1358:, as well as the inland 1306:in mostly rural western 1277:Sources and destinations 1084:unsatisfying situation. 851: 721:occupational segregation 569: 192:This article or section 8278:Globalization and women 8144:Zhongyuan Economic Zone 8084:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim 7864:Government institutions 7840:Shenzhen Stock Exchange 7830:Shanghai Metal Exchange 7818:Shanghai Stock Exchange 7482:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park 7467:Megalopolises in China 6750:Four Pillars of Destiny 6535:Regional discrimination 5957:Chinese Communist Party 4844:Forced Migration Review 4330:Mao, Z.; B. Wu (2007). 4258:10.1186/1471-2458-10-56 4088:Jin, Dan (2016-06-07). 4064:Strategy and Management 3972:Social Science Research 3760:10.1111/1468-2427.00429 3327:Oxford University Press 1146:Wuchang Railway Station 791:Chinese economic reform 669:From 1949 to 1985, the 663:Chinese economic reform 652:Chinese economic reform 644:people's commune system 371:in northeast China and 198:from another location, 8317:Science and technology 8211:2020–2021 reform spree 7965:International rankings 7811:Beijing Stock Exchange 7477:Suzhou Industrial Park 7472:Special Economic Zones 6503:Science and technology 6176:Special economic zones 5428:persecution of Uyghurs 5356:Century of humiliation 4961:University of Michigan 3836:Huang, Youqin (2001). 3780:Huang, Youqin (2001). 3014:10.1006/jcec.2001.1730 2497:Cite journal requires 1319: 1291: 1149: 1025: 956:unemployment insurance 776: 367:(including modern-day 111:by rewriting it in an 8376:Demographics of China 7667:Intellectual property 7162:1949–1976 wage reform 7105:Industrial Revolution 6710:Four Great Inventions 6094:People's Armed Police 4702:Liu, Kaiming (2005). 4148:Public Health Reports 3639:Public Health Reports 3236:China Economic Review 3176:10.5093/in2011v20n3a5 3124:Zhao, Yaohui (2003). 2921:China Economic Review 2572:Duke University Press 2541:Hammond, Ken (2023). 2444:China Economic Review 2369:10.3406/adh.1982.1543 1969:Environmental History 1955:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1943:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1931:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1907:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1895:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1883:Reardon-Anderson 2000 1640:China Labour Bulletin 1489:China Labour Bulletin 1484:Urbanization in China 1454:Demographics of China 1301: 1289: 1139: 1015: 935:are migrant workers. 774: 545:colonists after they 515:Georgetown University 482:Migration to Xinjiang 8355:Economy of East Asia 8061:Youth Business China 7897:Ministry of Commerce 7845:SZSE Component Index 7462:Dalian Software Park 6689:World Heritage Sites 6217:Foreign aid received 5925:Environmental policy 5723:Environmental policy 5718:Environmental issues 5016:China Is On The Move 4614:. February 14, 2006. 4010:IZA Discussion Paper 1743:10.1257/aer.89.2.276 1056:Left-behind children 962:Class and inequality 690:Occupational profile 632:Great Chinese Famine 32:Immigration to China 7902:Ministry of Finance 7823:SSE Composite Index 7793:Hedge fund industry 7640:Law and regulations 7347:academic publishing 7125:Four Modernizations 6935:History of religion 6930:Freedom of religion 6785:Four Pests campaign 6730:Four Classic Novels 6342:Automotive industry 6222:Foreign aid program 5913:Pro-democratisation 5408:Cultural Revolution 4570:(9651): 1717–1719. 3854:2001EnPlA..33..257H 3798:2001EnPlA..33..257H 3769:on August 24, 2007. 3209:. Univ. of Hawaii. 2675:ILO Office, Beijing 2351:Lee, James (1982). 1589:The China Quarterly 1096:will be reported. 812:Harris-Todaro model 810:Early in 1970, the 602:Sichuan and Guizhou 584:Green Standard Army 576:Green Standard Army 561:Green Standard Army 466:Front Gorlos Banner 375:) where the ruling 293:History and origins 268:floating population 8381:Internal migration 8312:Chinese economists 8285:National Standards 8181:2007 slave scandal 8089:Bohai Economic Rim 8056:Made in China 2025 8005:Internal migration 7990:Standard of living 7778:Financial services 7652:Labor contract law 7606:Illegal drug trade 7576:World Trade Center 7412:Telecommunications 7360:equipment industry 7192:Advanced materials 7157:Population history 7120:Great Leap Forward 7074:Companies of China 6842:Population history 6822:Internal migration 6437:Harmonious Society 6312:Telecommunications 6269:Standard of living 6188:Online advertising 5940:Standing Committee 4309:10.1353/jda.0.0104 3946:10.1111/hypa.12171 3485:China Yanshi Press 3402:. 7 December 2004. 3296:The New York Times 3143:10.1093/cep/byg028 3110:. Spring: 120–135. 2566:Lin, Chun (2006). 2520:. Pentagon Press. 1532:"Labour migration" 1464:Filipinos in China 1320: 1292: 1282:Internal migration 1150: 1026: 1024:(Dongba district). 1018:school for migrant 931:from work-related 904:working conditions 883:circular migration 833:Benefits and costs 777: 671:net migration rate 650:. In 1978, during 648:collective farming 628:Great Leap Forward 312:. You can help by 255:Internal migration 113:encyclopedic style 100:is written like a 39:Chinese emigration 8363: 8362: 8176:2007 stock bubble 8041:Common prosperity 8031:Beijing Consensus 7985:Income inequality 7454:Development Zones 7026: 7025: 6986: 6985: 6793: 6792: 6370: 6369: 6357:Shipping industry 6121: 6120: 6087:Strategic Support 5962:General Secretary 5947:National security 5930:Foreign relations 5884: 5883: 5805: 5804: 5768: 5767: 5471:Natural disasters 5438: 5437: 5391:Chinese Civil War 5386:Republic of China 5361:Taiping Rebellion 5234:Spring and Autumn 5139:Foreign relations 4981:(11): 1964–1971. 4945:Peking University 4657:on April 20, 2006 4403:(11): 2049–2054. 4245:BMC Public Health 4121:978-0-295-74738-5 4085:. Beijing, China. 3469:. April 17, 2006. 3216:978-0-8248-4098-3 3046:978-0-444-70337-8 2890:978-0-8248-4098-3 2581:978-0-8223-3785-0 2527:978-81-8274-320-5 2241:978-0-231-13924-3 2214:978-0-231-13924-3 2187:978-0-674-04202-5 2100:978-0-231-13924-3 1328:legally domiciled 1302:Migrants leaving 948:medical insurance 699:, about 17.3% in 521:was originally a 330: 329: 251: 250: 243: 233: 232: 196:copied and pasted 177: 176: 141: 140: 133: 82: 18:Chinese migration 16:(Redirected from 8388: 8350:Outline of China 8348: 8347: 8338: 8337: 8171:pet food recalls 8046:Dual circulation 7797:Stock Exchanges 7726:Financial system 7692: 7691: 7631:Trading partners 7377:Renewable energy 7305: 7304: 7072: 7071: 7060:Economy of China 7053: 7046: 7039: 7030: 7029: 7006: 6999: 6896:Tibetan Buddhism 6891:Chinese Buddhism 6745:Four Holy Beasts 6695: 6694: 6547:Social relations 6476:Standard Chinese 6471:Chinese language 6381: 6380: 6166:Economic history 6132: 6131: 6111:Maritime Militia 5820: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5787:Border crossings 5782:Baseline islands 5477: 5476: 5449: 5448: 5413:Tiananmen Square 5296:Sixteen Kingdoms 5104:Military history 5079: 5078: 5055: 5048: 5041: 5032: 5031: 5000: 4990: 4932: 4915: 4914: 4905: 4904: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4762: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4732: 4723: 4722: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4690: 4689: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4630: 4625: 4623: 4615: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4555: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4528: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4483: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4459: 4450: 4449: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4420: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4336: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4292: 4281: 4280: 4270: 4260: 4236: 4223: 4222: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4171: 4139: 4126: 4125: 4103: 4094: 4093: 4086: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4044: 4033: 4032: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4005: 3996: 3995: 3967: 3958: 3957: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3876: 3833: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3820: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3762:. Archived from 3745: 3736: 3727: 3726: 3682: 3673: 3672: 3662: 3630: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3611: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3578: 3552: 3543: 3534: 3533: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3480: 3471: 3470: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3435:Shi, Li (2008). 3432: 3419: 3418: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3368: 3349: 3348: 3318: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3287: 3278: 3277: 3259: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3202: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3121: 3112: 3111: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3086: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3058: 3050: 3024: 3018: 3017: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2946: 2937: 2936: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2859: 2833: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2799: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2777: 2769: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2748: 2740: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2719: 2711: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2688: 2679: 2678: 2670: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2513: 2507: 2506: 2500: 2495: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2466: 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networks 677:The founding of 640:people's commune 427:Daoguang Emperor 397:Qianlong Emperor 363:people entering 325: 322: 304: 297: 246: 239: 228: 225: 219: 216:Knowledge mirror 202:in violation of 187: 179: 172: 169: 163: 151: 150: 143: 136: 129: 125: 122: 116: 93: 92: 85: 74: 52: 51: 44: 21: 8396: 8395: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8321: 8215: 8148: 8065: 8019: 7951: 7858: 7671: 7657:Labor relations 7635: 7553: 7486: 7448: 7334:Pharmaceuticals 7166: 7100:Five-year plans 7076: 7062: 7057: 7027: 7022: 7009: 7002: 6995: 6982: 6954: 6872: 6832:Life expectancy 6789: 6693: 6573: 6493:Public holidays 6481:Written Chinese 6466:Intellectualism 6418:Sex trafficking 6366: 6328: 6288: 6117: 6033: 5880: 5871:Nationality law 5854:Law enforcement 5832:Judicial system 5801: 5764: 5738:Nature reserves 5728:Protected areas 5694: 5665:Water resources 5628: 5537: 5475: 5434: 5418:Economic reform 5381:1911 Revolution 5367: 5331:Jin (1115–1234) 5245: 5193: 5153: 5068: 5059: 5007: 4940: 4938:Further reading 4924:Country Studies 4921: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4895: 4894: 4890: 4859: 4855: 4840: 4836: 4817: 4813: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4763: 4754: 4745: 4743: 4733: 4726: 4715: 4711: 4700: 4696: 4687: 4685: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4628: 4626: 4617: 4616: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4556: 4545: 4536: 4534: 4526: 4520: 4513: 4481: 4475: 4471: 4460: 4453: 4438: 4434: 4389: 4385: 4370: 4366: 4334: 4328: 4324: 4293: 4284: 4237: 4226: 4211: 4207: 4197: 4195: 4189: 4185: 4140: 4129: 4122: 4104: 4097: 4079: 4075: 4060: 4056: 4045: 4036: 4025: 4021: 4006: 3999: 3968: 3961: 3930: 3926: 3887: 3883: 3874: 3872: 3834: 3827: 3818: 3816: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3743: 3737: 3730: 3683: 3676: 3631: 3618: 3609: 3607: 3595: 3589: 3582: 3550: 3544: 3537: 3526: 3522: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3496: 3492: 3481: 3474: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3448: 3444: 3433: 3422: 3411: 3407: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3385:10.1002/psp.437 3369: 3352: 3345: 3319: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3288: 3281: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3203: 3184: 3155: 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January 2011. 1142:family planning 1134: 1121: 1119:Policy theories 1058: 1016:Classroom in a 1010: 1004: 991: 982: 973: 964: 900:labor standards 896: 879: 874: 866:migrant workers 854: 840: 835: 821: 808: 782: 761: 713:informal sector 692: 616: 604: 572: 484: 478: 435: 389:Willow Palisade 373:Outer Manchuria 353: 348: 335: 326: 320: 317: 310:needs expansion 295: 279:migrant workers 247: 236: 235: 234: 229: 223: 220: 208: 188: 173: 167: 164: 161: 152: 148: 137: 126: 120: 117: 109:help improve it 106: 94: 90: 53: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8394: 8384: 8383: 8378: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8357: 8352: 8342: 8326: 8323: 8322: 8320: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8281: 8280: 8270: 8265: 8258: 8257: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8236: 8231: 8225: 8223: 8221:Related topics 8217: 8216: 8214: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8164: 8158: 8156: 8150: 8149: 8147: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8075: 8073: 8067: 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Starr 2004 2130: 2104: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2047: 2036:Bovingdon 2010 2028: 2014: 2002: 1975:(4): 503–530. 1959: 1947: 1935: 1923: 1919:Scharping 1998 1911: 1899: 1887: 1875: 1863: 1837: 1826:(7): 572–575. 1806: 1779: 1756: 1737:(2): 276–280. 1721: 1704: 1668: 1652: 1622: 1579: 1568:(3): 467–488. 1547: 1519: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1499:Migrant worker 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1449: 1446: 1437: 1434: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1250:social welfare 1221: 1218: 1209:public schools 1204: 1201: 1178:discrimination 1166: 1163: 1133: 1130: 1120: 1117: 1057: 1054: 1034:public schools 1008:Migrant School 1003: 1000: 990: 987: 981: 978: 972: 969: 963: 960: 952:pension scheme 898:Violations of 895: 892: 878: 875: 873: 872:Social impacts 870: 853: 850: 839: 836: 834: 831: 820: 817: 807: 804: 781: 778: 760: 757: 691: 688: 615: 612: 603: 600: 596:Hebalin Khache 571: 568: 508:Jahangir Khoja 480:Main article: 477: 474: 447:Inner Mongolia 439:Outer Mongolia 434: 431: 357:Kangxi Emperor 352: 349: 347: 344: 334: 331: 328: 327: 307: 305: 294: 291: 249: 248: 231: 230: 194:may have been 191: 189: 182: 175: 174: 155: 153: 146: 139: 138: 97: 95: 88: 83: 57: 56: 54: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8393: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8343: 8341: 8333: 8332: 8328: 8327: 8324: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8297: 8296:Made in China 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8279: 8276: 8275: 8274: 8273:Globalization 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8226: 8224: 8222: 8218: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8151: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8051:Go Out policy 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7962: 7960: 7958: 7954: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7853: 7850: 7846: 7843: 7842: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7824: 7821: 7820: 7819: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7738: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7638: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7571:Trade history 7569: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7500:Energy policy 7498: 7497: 7495: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7457: 7455: 7451: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7423: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7361: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7329:Pearl farming 7327: 7325: 7324:Online gaming 7322: 7320: 7317: 7313: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7227:Biotechnology 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7173: 7169: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7142: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7065: 7061: 7054: 7049: 7047: 7042: 7040: 7035: 7034: 7031: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7005: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6993: 6989: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6961: 6957: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6924: 6923:Protestantism 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6908:Folk religion 6906: 6904: 6901: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6884: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6856: 6852: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6812:Ethnic groups 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6796: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6725:Four Beauties 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6696: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6576: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6564:Urban society 6562: 6560: 6557: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6521: 6520:Social issues 6518: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6498:Rural society 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6453: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6426: 6423: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6398:Chinese Dream 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6373: 6363: 6362:Space program 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6322: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6313: 6310: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6196: 6193: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6184: 6181: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6168: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6155: 6152: 6151: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6124: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6036: 6030: 6027: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6012:State Council 6010: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5994: 5991: 5990: 5989: 5986: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5959: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5898:Civil service 5896: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5887: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5540: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5505: 5504:South Central 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5441: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5370: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5291:Jin (266–420) 5289: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5248: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5196: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5134:Ethnic groups 5132: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5051: 5049: 5044: 5042: 5037: 5036: 5033: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5008: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4925: 4919: 4918:public domain 4902: 4898: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4831:(1): 175–234. 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4770: 4766: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4742: 4738: 4731: 4729: 4720: 4713: 4705: 4698: 4684:on 2014-03-22 4683: 4679: 4672: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4642: 4634: 4621: 4613: 4609: 4603: 4595: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4532: 4525: 4518: 4516: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4473: 4465: 4458: 4456: 4447: 4443: 4436: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4387: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4345:(10): 761–4. 4344: 4340: 4339:Public Health 4333: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4278: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4194: 4187: 4179: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4123: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4100: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4030: 4023: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4002: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3964: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3928: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3885: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3830: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3735: 3733: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3681: 3679: 3670: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3645:(2): 189–97. 3644: 3640: 3636: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3587: 3585: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3549: 3542: 3540: 3531: 3524: 3516: 3509: 3501: 3494: 3486: 3479: 3477: 3468: 3461: 3453: 3446: 3438: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3416: 3409: 3401: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3346: 3344:9780197682258 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3297: 3293: 3286: 3284: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3118: 3109: 3102: 3095:(1): 126–142. 3094: 3090: 3083: 3076: 3068: 3056: 3048: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2996: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2945: 2943: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2915: 2907: 2900: 2892: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2781: 2775: 2767: 2760: 2752: 2746: 2738: 2731: 2723: 2717: 2709: 2702: 2694: 2687: 2685: 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