29:
125:
concentration of the limiting nutrient. In turn, this will reduce the specific growth rate of the cells, which will lead to a decline in the number of cells as they keep being removed from the system with the outflow. This results in a steady state. Due to self-regulation, the steady state is stable. This enables the experimenter to control the specific growth rate of the microorganisms by changing the speed of the pump feeding fresh medium into the vessel.
65:
611:
488:
Chemostats in research are used for investigations in cell biology, as a source for large volumes of uniform cells or protein. The chemostat is often used to gather steady state data about an organism in order to generate a mathematical model relating to its metabolic processes. Chemostats are also
712:
Even though the limiting substrate concentration in the chemostat is usually very low, and is maintained by discrete highly concentrated influx pulses, in practice the temporal variation in the concentration within the chemostat is small (a few percent or less) and can thus be viewed as quasi-steady
68:
Enclosed chemostat vessel with a continuous and adjustable inflow of medium and outflow of effluent, used for controlled growth of microorganisms. The system maintains a constant volume and level of aeration. The growth rate of the microorganism is controlled by manipulation of the inflow of fresh
376:
However, since the concentration of the limiting nutrient in the chemostat cannot exceed the concentration in the feed, the specific growth rate that the cells can reach in the chemostat is usually slightly lower than the maximal specific growth rate because specific growth rate usually increases
119:
and all culture parameters remain constant (culture volume, dissolved oxygen concentration, nutrient and product concentrations, pH, cell density, etc.). In addition, environmental conditions can be controlled by the experimenter. Microorganisms growing in chemostats usually reach a steady state
775:
These other mutations are expected only through successive sweeps of mutants with a fitness advantage. One can only expect multiple mutants to arise if each mutation is independently beneficial, and not in cases where the mutations are individually neutral but together advantageous. Successive
133:
Another important feature of chemostats and other continuous culture systems is that they are well-mixed so that environmental conditions are homogenous or uniform and microorganisms are randomly dispersed and encounter each other randomly. Therefore, competition and other interactions in the
124:
with the inflowing fresh medium. The limiting nutrient is a nutrient essential for growth, present in the medium at a limiting concentration (all other nutrients are usually supplied in surplus). However, the higher the number of cells becomes, the more nutrient is consumed, lowering the
89:
to which fresh medium is continuously added, while culture liquid containing left over nutrients, metabolic end products and microorganisms is continuously removed at the same rate to keep the culture volume constant. By changing the rate with which medium is added to the bioreactor the
848:
When the conditions are right (a large enough population, and multiple targets in the genome for simple advantageous mutations) multiple strains are expected to successively takeover the population, and to do so in a relatively timed and paced manner. The timing depends on the type of
766:
A strain that requires two specific SNPs where only their combination gives a fitness advantage (whereas each one separately is neutral), is likely to appear only if the target size (the number of different SNP locations that give rise to an advantageous mutation) for each SNP is very
878:. In retentostats, culture liquid is also removed from the bioreactor, but a filter retains the biomass. In this case, the biomass concentration increases until the nutrient requirement for biomass maintenance has become equal to the amount of limiting nutrient that can be consumed.
856:
There are cases where successive takeovers occur so rapidly that it is very difficult to differentiate between strains, even when examining allele frequency. Thus, a lineage of multiple takeovers of consecutive strains might appear as the takeover of a single strain with a cohort of
732:
The limiting substrate is usually at such low concentrations that it is undetectable. As a result, the concentration of the limiting substrate can vary greatly over time (percentage-wise) as different strains takeover the population, even if resulting changes in OD are too small to
120:
because of a negative feedback between growth rate and nutrient consumption: if a low number of cells are present in the bioreactor, the cells can grow at growth rates higher than the dilution rate as they consume little nutrient so growth is less limited by the addition of
852:
In a takeover succession, even if the selective improvement of each of the strains stays constant (e.g. each new strain is better than the previous strain by a constant factor) – the takeover rate does not stay constant, but rather diminishes from strain to
716:
The time it takes for the cell density (OD) to converge to a steady-state value (overshoot/undershoot) will often be long (multiple chemostat turnovers), especially when the initial inoculum is large. But, the time can be minimized with proper parameter
806:
For characteristically large chemostats, a hyper-mutating strain does not give enough of an advantage to warrant use. Also, it does not have enough of a selective advantage to be expected to always appear through random mutation and take over the
739:
By abruptly lowering the influx limiting substrate concentration it is possible to temporarily subject the cells to relatively harsher conditions, until the chemostat stabilizes back to the steady state (on the time order of the dilution rate
69:
medium, while the population density is regulated through changing the concentration of the limiting nutrient. This open system allows researchers to maintain the exponential growth phase of cells for use in physiological experiments.
217:
533:. In this case, several chemostats are used in series, each maintained at decreasing sugar concentrations. The chemostat also serves as an experimental model of continuous cell cultures in the biotechnological industry.
788:
occurs to be on the order of the chemostat turnover time. Note, this is usually substantially shorter than the time for an advantageous strain to take over the chemostat population. This is not necessarily so in a small
512:
Competition for single and multiple resources, the evolution of resource acquisition and utilization pathways, cross-feeding/symbiosis, antagonism, predation, and competition among predators have all been studied in
1884:
Van Hulle SW, Van Den Broeck S, Maertens J, Villez K, Schelstraete G, Volcke EI, Vanrolleghem PA (2003). "Practical experiences with start-up and operation of a continuously aerated lab-scale SHARON reactor".
736:
A “pulsed” chemostat (with very large influx pulses) has a substantially lower selective capacity than a standard quasi-continuous chemostat, for a mutant strain with increased fitness in limiting conditions.
729:
A chemostat might appear to be in steady state, but mutant strain takeovers can occur continuously, even though they are not detectable by monitoring macro scale parameters like OD or product concentrations.
708:
The steady state concentration of the limiting substrate in the chemostat is independent of the influx concentration. The influx concentration will affect the cell concentration and thus the steady state
560:
to render them hydrophobic. However, cells will be selected for attachment to the walls since those that do will not be removed from the system. Those bacteria that stick firmly to the walls forming a
781:
The seemingly extreme scenario where we require every possible single SNP to co-exist at least once in the chemostat is actually quite likely. A large chemostat is very likely to reach this state.
573:
Bacteria travel upstream quite easily. They will reach the reservoir of sterile medium quickly unless the liquid path is interrupted by an air break in which the medium falls in drops through air.
1805:
de Crécy E, Metzgar D, Allen C, Pénicaud M, Lyons B, Hansen CJ, de Crécy-Lagard V (2007). "Development of a novel continuous culture device for experimental evolution of bacterial populations".
836:
The time for takeover of a superior mutant will be quite constant across a range of operation parameters. For characteristic operation values the take over time is on the order of days to weeks.
457:
831:
A slow dilution rate creates a selection pressure for a mutant strain which can grow in media with no limiting substrate (presumably by consuming a different substrate present in the media);
287:
1258:"The apparent clock-like evolution of Escherichia coli in glucose-limited chemostats is reproducible at large but not at small population sizes and can be explained with Monod kinetics"
354:
1887:
570:
Dripping the media into the chamber actually results in small pulses of nutrients and thus oscillations in concentrations, again upsetting the "static" property of the chemostat.
493:
in ecology and evolutionary biology. In the one case, mutation/selection is a nuisance, in the other case, it is the desired process under study. Chemostats can also be used to
373:, the cells cannot grow at a rate as fast as the rate with which they are being removed so the culture will not be able to sustain itself in the bioreactor, and will wash out.
1849:
Zhang Z, Boccazzi P, Choi HG, Perozziello G, Sinskey AJ, Jensen KF (2006). "Microchemostat-microbial continuous culture in a polymer-based, instrumented microbioreactor".
509:
for further scientific study. Variations in the dilution rate permit the study of the metabolic strategies pursued by the organisms at different growth rates.
176:
366:(the rate of growth observed if growth is limited by internal constraints rather than external nutrients). If a dilution rate is chosen that is higher than
1123:(1992). "Microbial predation in a periodically operated chemostat: a global study of the interaction between natural and externally imposed frequencies".
759:
that can increase fitness it should appear in the population after only few chemostat doublings, for characteristically large chemostats (e.g. 10^11
1951:
822:
Different dilution rates selectively favor different mutant strains to take over the chemostat population, if such a strain exists. For example:
1993:
577:
Continuous efforts to remedy each defect lead to variations on the basic chemostat quite regularly. Examples in the literature are numerous.
875:
772:
Other types of mutant strains (e.g. two SNPs with a small target size, more SNPs or in smaller chemostats) are highly unlikely to appear.
3222:
3201:
1387:"Stoichiometric flux balance models quantitatively predict growth and metabolic by-product secretion in wild-type Escherichia coli W3110"
490:
3311:
621:
556:
Cells may grow on the walls or adhere to other surfaces, which may be overcome by treating the glass walls of the vessel with a
2837:
907:
941:
902:
1956:
828:
A mid-range dilution rate creates a selection pressure for a mutant strain with a higher affinity to the limiting substrate;
1068:
Becks L, Hilker FM, Malchow H, JĂĽrgens K, Arndt H (2005). "Experimental demonstration of chaos in a microbial food web".
1922:
Wides A, Milo R (2018). "Understanding the
Dynamics and Optimizing the Performance of Chemostat Selection Experiments".
679:
1986:
651:
401:
2898:
803:
Furthermore, the time until mutation appearance is independent of genome size, but dependent on per-BP mutation rate.
2875:
658:
244:
1952:
https://web.archive.org/web/20060504172359/http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/Contin/chemosta.htm
756:
636:
311:
3166:
3055:
2396:
1979:
2870:
1807:
665:
825:
A fast dilution rate creates a selection pressure for a mutant strain with a raised maximal growth rate;
111:
One of the most important features of chemostats is that microorganisms can be grown in a physiological
2946:
2915:
2827:
647:
3070:
2401:
2472:
2905:
2822:
2286:
2075:
892:
28:
1120:
2508:
2256:
2225:
42:
1946:
792:
The above points are expected to be the same across different asexually reproductive species (
2498:
2376:
2088:
1455:"Characterizing steady states of genome-scale metabolic networks in continuous cell cultures"
2002:
3330:
2794:
2454:
2296:
1718:
Dykhuizen DE, Hartl DL (May 1981). "Evolution of
Competitive Ability in Escherichia coli".
1543:
1476:
1398:
1077:
966:
518:
231:
is inversely related to the time it takes the biomass to double, called doubling time
151:
116:
115:
under constant environmental conditions. In this steady state, growth occurs at a constant
91:
8:
2482:
2291:
2206:
2143:
1763:
212:{\displaystyle D={\frac {\text{medium flow rate}}{\text{culture volume}}}={\frac {F}{V}}}
1966:
1587:
Pfeiffer T, Bonhoeffer S (2004). "Evolution of cross-feeding in microbial populations".
1547:
1480:
1402:
1363:
1081:
1013:
970:
359:
Each microorganism growing on a particular substrate has a maximal specific growth rate
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2426:
1923:
1831:
1787:
1735:
1651:
1612:
1507:
1466:
1454:
1332:
1306:
1297:
Jones LE, Ellner SP (2007). "Effects of rapid prey evolution on predator-prey cycles".
1233:
1208:
1184:
1159:
1101:
672:
546:
494:
1695:
1670:
1564:
1531:
1427:
1386:
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2386:
2138:
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1655:
1604:
1569:
1512:
1494:
1432:
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1367:
1324:
1279:
1238:
1189:
1140:
1136:
1093:
1050:
982:
937:
121:
2636:
2631:
1967:
Comprehensive chemostat manual (Dunham lab). Procedures and principles are general.
1835:
1791:
1616:
1336:
2615:
2580:
2562:
2537:
2521:
2431:
2338:
2241:
2133:
1957:
A final thesis including mathematical models of the chemostat and other bioreactors
1858:
1815:
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1727:
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1682:
1643:
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1559:
1551:
1502:
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1316:
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1220:
1179:
1171:
1132:
1105:
1085:
1040:
1009:
974:
887:
632:
56:
2570:
1555:
567:
Mixing may not truly be uniform, upsetting the "static" property of the chemostat.
3292:
3019:
2885:
2667:
2641:
2416:
2311:
1686:
1489:
1160:"Adaptive Molecular Evolution for 13,000 Phage Generations: A Possible Arms Race"
978:
593:
Dripping can be made less drastic with smaller droplets and larger vessel volumes
1761:
Bonomi A, Fredrickson AG (1976). "Protozoan feeding and bacterial wall growth".
1274:
1257:
1224:
1175:
3287:
3237:
3127:
3101:
3045:
3002:
2997:
2936:
2595:
2585:
2246:
2128:
2093:
2055:
2040:
1631:
378:
1819:
1320:
1045:
1028:
3324:
3232:
3111:
2941:
2610:
2547:
2211:
2045:
1498:
1418:
797:
506:
95:
776:
takeovers are the only reliable way for evolution to proceed in a chemostat.
3272:
3060:
3024:
2951:
2847:
2817:
2812:
2740:
2575:
2361:
2316:
2233:
2201:
2184:
2163:
2153:
2083:
2065:
1899:
1870:
1827:
1747:
1608:
1516:
1453:
Fernandez-de-Cossio-Diaz, Jorge; Leon, Kalet; Mulet, Roberto (2017-11-13).
1328:
1283:
1242:
1193:
1097:
1054:
986:
542:
Foaming results in overflow with the volume of liquid not exactly constant.
112:
64:
1783:
1775:
1704:
1436:
1371:
1144:
1029:"The continuous culture of bacteria; a theoretical and experimental study"
590:
Various applications use paddles, bubbling, or other mechanisms for mixing
3186:
3014:
2974:
2910:
2893:
2766:
2735:
2720:
2715:
2677:
2552:
2516:
2366:
2168:
2123:
1573:
867:
1961:
1089:
475:
is the half-saturation constant (this equation assumes Monod kinetics).
3191:
3181:
3132:
3050:
2862:
2707:
2682:
2542:
2421:
2381:
2351:
2306:
2301:
2281:
2251:
2148:
2050:
1971:
1739:
1647:
897:
502:
162:. The dilution rate is defined as the flow of medium per unit of time,
86:
1311:
819:
The takeover time is predictable given the relevant strain parameters.
3282:
3080:
2730:
2343:
2158:
2060:
1883:
1862:
912:
498:
146:
The rate of nutrient exchange is expressed as the dilution rate
1731:
610:
3227:
3106:
3096:
2852:
2761:
2725:
2406:
2356:
1928:
1600:
1471:
871:
785:
550:
135:
52:
33:
A chemostat diagram featuring inflow (feed) and outflow (effluent).
529:
Chemostats are frequently used in the industrial manufacturing of
3247:
3242:
3040:
2697:
2672:
2662:
2590:
2411:
2371:
1452:
793:
760:
561:
530:
514:
222:
466:
is the substrate or nutrient concentration in the chemostat and
377:
with nutrient concentration as described by the kinetics of the
2600:
1634:(July 1986). "Predator-mediated competition in the chemostat".
557:
1629:
866:
Fermentation setups closely related to the chemostats are the
784:
For a large chemostat the expected time until an advantageous
3217:
3196:
1532:"Parathion utilization by bacterial symbionts in a chemostat"
1026:
1848:
1804:
957:
Novick A, Szilard L (1950). "Description of the
Chemostat".
628:
2771:
2070:
1947:
http://www.pererikstrandberg.se/examensarbete/chemostat.pdf
497:
for specific types of bacterial mutants in culture such as
388:) cells can attain is equal to the critical dilution rate (
1067:
1000:
James TW (1961). "Continuous
Culture of Microorganisms".
158:
of the micro-organism is equal to the dilution rate
1350:
Schlegel HG, Jannasch HW (1967). "Enrichment cultures".
1209:"Evolution of specialists in an experimental microcosm"
600:
587:
Many approaches have been taken to reduce wall growth
404:
314:
247:
179:
1157:
596:
Many improvements target the threat of contamination
1586:
1255:
752:Some types of mutant strains will appear rapidly:
564:are difficult to study under chemostat conditions.
451:
348:
281:
211:
1760:
3322:
1349:
1118:
581:Antifoaming agents are used to suppress foaming.
452:{\displaystyle D=\mu _{\max }{S \over K_{S}+S},}
416:
1717:
1668:
223:Maximal growth rate and critical dilution rate
1987:
1529:
1206:
956:
700:
1962:A page about one laboratory chemostat design
1384:
637:introducing citations to additional sources
545:Some very fragile cells are ruptured during
2947:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
1296:
282:{\displaystyle \mu ={\frac {\ln 2}{t_{d}}}}
1994:
1980:
1027:D Herbert; R Elsworth; RC Telling (1956).
1020:
950:
584:Agitation and aeration can be done gently.
1927:
1921:
1877:
1694:
1563:
1523:
1506:
1488:
1470:
1426:
1310:
1273:
1232:
1200:
1183:
1158:Wichman HA, Millstein J, Bull JJ (2005).
1044:
993:
381:. The highest specific growth' rates (
301:becomes a function of dilution rate
3312:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2793:
2001:
1580:
1385:Varma, A.; Palsson, B. O. (1994-10-01).
999:
627:Relevant discussion may be found on the
349:{\displaystyle t_{d}={\frac {\ln 2}{D}}}
98:can be easily controlled within limits.
63:
2828:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1842:
1798:
1754:
1151:
931:
840:
3323:
2876:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
1391:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
1290:
1256:Wick LM, Weilenmann H, Egli T (2002).
1112:
908:E. coli long-term evolution experiment
903:Continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR)
721:
3153:
2972:
2792:
2452:
2013:
1975:
1448:
1446:
1061:
536:
134:chemostat are global, in contrast to
1906:
1669:Dykhuizen DE, Hartl DL (June 1983).
1249:
604:
1364:10.1146/annurev.mi.21.100167.000405
1014:10.1146/annurev.mi.15.100161.000331
13:
2871:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1443:
811:
601:Experimental design considerations
14:
3342:
1940:
2916:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2726:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1411:10.1128/aem.60.10.3724-3731.1994
620:relies largely or entirely on a
609:
141:
27:
2973:
1888:Commun. Agric. Appl. Biol. Sci.
1711:
1662:
1623:
1378:
1343:
934:Brock Biology of Microorganisms
501:or those that are resistant to
478:
106:
1530:Daughton CG, Hsieh DP (1977).
1207:Dykhuizen DE, Dean AM (2004).
925:
1:
2453:
1556:10.1128/aem.34.2.175-184.1977
1002:Annual Review of Microbiology
936:. Pearson. pp. 152–153.
918:
861:
292:Therefore, the doubling time
170:of culture in the bioreactor
128:
1808:Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
1687:10.1128/mr.47.2.150-168.1983
1490:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005835
1137:10.1016/0025-5564(92)90002-E
979:10.1126/science.112.2920.715
101:
7:
2014:
1275:10.1099/00221287-148-9-2889
1225:10.1534/genetics.103.025205
1176:10.1534/genetics.104.034488
881:
744:
524:
483:
10:
3347:
3154:
1459:PLOS Computational Biology
701:Parameter choice and setup
227:Specific growth rate
3309:
3260:
3210:
3177:
3164:
3160:
3149:
3120:
3089:
3071:Time-domain reflectometer
3033:
2985:
2981:
2968:
2924:
2884:
2861:
2838:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
2805:
2801:
2788:
2749:
2706:
2655:
2624:
2561:
2530:
2507:
2491:
2465:
2461:
2448:
2331:
2265:
2177:
2102:
2024:
2020:
2009:
1820:10.1007/s00253-007-1168-5
1671:"Selection in chemostats"
1321:10.1007/s00285-007-0094-6
1046:10.1099/00221287-14-3-601
932:Madigan, Michael (2015).
48:
38:
26:
21:
1536:Appl. Environ. Microbiol
2906:Melting-point apparatus
2287:Cryogenic storage dewar
893:Biochemical engineering
166:, over the volume
150:. At steady state, the
2843:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2833:Gas chromatograph (GC)
453:
350:
283:
213:
70:
43:Biological engineering
3218:Acid-resistant gloves
2899:differential scanning
1776:10.1002/bit.260180209
454:
351:
284:
214:
67:
2795:Analytical chemistry
2297:Laminar flow cabinet
2003:Laboratory equipment
1352:Annu. Rev. Microbiol
841:Successive takeovers
633:improve this article
519:evolutionary biology
402:
312:
245:
177:
152:specific growth rate
117:specific growth rate
92:specific growth rate
81:ical environment is
16:A type of bioreactor
3167:Personal protective
2076:Meker–Fisher burner
1764:Biotechnol. Bioeng.
1548:1977ApEnM..34..175D
1481:2017PLSCB..13E5835F
1403:1994ApEnM..60.3724V
1090:10.1038/nature03627
1082:2005Natur.435.1226B
971:1950Sci...112..715N
722:Steady state growth
3010:Function generator
2993:Bench power supply
2932:Analytical balance
2693:Ostwald viscometer
2688:Graduated cylinder
2427:Inoculation needle
1648:10.1007/BF00275997
1632:G. S. K. Wolkowicz
1268:(Pt 9): 2889–902.
537:Technical concerns
521:using chemostats.
449:
346:
279:
209:
71:
3318:
3317:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3278:Fire extinguisher
3268:Biosafety cabinet
3256:
3255:
3145:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3076:Transistor tester
3066:Spectrum analyzer
2964:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2656:Measuring devices
2478:Soxhlet extractor
2444:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2392:Spectrophotometer
2387:Pipeclay triangle
2139:Mortar and pestle
1894:(2 Pt A): 77–84.
1397:(10): 3724–3731.
1033:J. Gen. Microbiol
943:978-0-321-89739-8
698:
697:
683:
444:
344:
305:in steady state:
277:
207:
194:
193:
190:
122:limiting nutrient
62:
61:
3338:
3175:
3174:
3162:
3161:
3151:
3150:
3056:Network analyzer
2983:
2982:
2970:
2969:
2803:
2802:
2790:
2789:
2463:
2462:
2450:
2449:
2432:Inoculation loop
2302:Microtiter plate
2242:Test tube holder
2134:Magnetic stirrer
2022:
2021:
2011:
2010:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1973:
1972:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1919:
1904:
1903:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1863:10.1039/b518396k
1846:
1840:
1839:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1698:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1567:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1492:
1474:
1465:(11): e1005835.
1450:
1441:
1440:
1430:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1314:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1236:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1187:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1076:(7046): 1226–9.
1065:
1059:
1058:
1048:
1024:
1018:
1017:
997:
991:
990:
954:
948:
947:
929:
888:Bacterial growth
693:
690:
684:
682:
641:
613:
605:
458:
456:
455:
450:
445:
443:
436:
435:
422:
420:
419:
355:
353:
352:
347:
345:
340:
329:
324:
323:
288:
286:
285:
280:
278:
276:
275:
266:
255:
218:
216:
215:
210:
208:
200:
195:
191:
189:medium flow rate
188:
187:
31:
19:
18:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3297:
3293:Solvent cabinet
3252:
3223:Eyewash station
3206:
3171:
3169:equipment (PPE)
3168:
3156:
3137:
3116:
3085:
3029:
3020:Pulse generator
2986:Control devices
2977:
2956:
2920:
2886:Thermochemistry
2880:
2857:
2797:
2776:
2745:
2702:
2668:Conical measure
2651:
2620:
2557:
2526:
2503:
2487:
2457:
2436:
2417:Test tube brush
2327:
2312:Picotiter plate
2275:
2261:
2257:Lab drying rack
2216:Extension clamp
2192:
2173:
2112:
2098:
2034:
2016:
2005:
2000:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1920:
1907:
1882:
1878:
1847:
1843:
1803:
1799:
1759:
1755:
1732:10.2307/2408204
1716:
1712:
1667:
1663:
1628:
1624:
1585:
1581:
1528:
1524:
1451:
1444:
1383:
1379:
1348:
1344:
1295:
1291:
1254:
1250:
1205:
1201:
1156:
1152:
1117:
1113:
1066:
1062:
1025:
1021:
998:
994:
965:(2920): 715–6.
955:
951:
944:
930:
926:
921:
884:
864:
843:
814:
812:Single takeover
747:
724:
703:
694:
688:
685:
642:
640:
626:
614:
603:
539:
527:
486:
481:
474:
431:
427:
426:
421:
415:
411:
403:
400:
399:
393:
387:
372:
365:
330:
328:
319:
315:
313:
310:
309:
300:
271:
267:
256:
254:
246:
243:
242:
237:
225:
199:
186:
178:
175:
174:
144:
131:
109:
104:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3344:
3334:
3333:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3288:Safety cabinet
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3248:Safety goggles
3245:
3243:Safety glasses
3240:
3238:Nitrile gloves
3235:
3233:Medical gloves
3230:
3225:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3178:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3157:
3147:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3128:Alligator clip
3124:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3102:Soldering iron
3099:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3046:Logic analyzer
3043:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3003:Voltage source
3000:
2998:Current source
2989:
2987:
2979:
2978:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2937:Colony counter
2934:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2867:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2799:
2798:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2576:Vacuum (Dewar)
2573:
2567:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2513:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2459:
2458:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2247:Test tube rack
2244:
2239:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2222:Funnel support
2220:
2217:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2129:Liquid whistle
2126:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2094:Vacuum dry box
2091:
2086:
2081:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2056:Heating mantle
2053:
2048:
2043:
2041:Alcohol burner
2037:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2017:
2007:
2006:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1942:
1941:External links
1939:
1936:
1935:
1905:
1876:
1841:
1797:
1753:
1710:
1675:Microbiol. Rev
1661:
1630:G. J. Butler;
1622:
1601:10.1086/383593
1595:(6): E126–35.
1579:
1522:
1442:
1377:
1342:
1289:
1248:
1219:(4): 2015–26.
1199:
1150:
1111:
1060:
1039:(3): 601–622.
1019:
992:
949:
942:
923:
922:
920:
917:
916:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
883:
880:
863:
860:
859:
858:
854:
850:
842:
839:
838:
837:
834:
833:
832:
829:
826:
820:
813:
810:
809:
808:
804:
801:
790:
782:
779:
778:
777:
770:
769:
768:
764:
755:If there is a
746:
743:
742:
741:
737:
734:
730:
723:
720:
719:
718:
714:
710:
702:
699:
696:
695:
631:. Please help
617:
615:
608:
602:
599:
598:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
575:
574:
571:
568:
565:
554:
543:
538:
535:
526:
523:
507:bacteriophages
485:
482:
480:
477:
470:
460:
459:
448:
442:
439:
434:
430:
425:
418:
414:
410:
407:
391:
385:
379:Monod equation
370:
363:
357:
356:
343:
339:
336:
333:
327:
322:
318:
296:
290:
289:
274:
270:
265:
262:
259:
253:
250:
235:
224:
221:
220:
219:
206:
203:
198:
192:culture volume
185:
182:
143:
140:
130:
127:
108:
105:
103:
100:
60:
59:
50:
46:
45:
40:
36:
35:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3343:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3313:
3308:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3202:Safety shower
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3148:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3112:Wire stripper
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2942:Spiral plater
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:Compositional
2804:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2787:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:Balance brush
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2324:Weighing dish
2323:
2321:Weighing boat
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2212:Burette clamp
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2046:Bunsen burner
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1985:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1930:
1925:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1880:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1857:(7): 906–13.
1856:
1852:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1814:(2): 489–96.
1813:
1810:
1809:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1770:(2): 239–52.
1769:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1726:(3): 581–94.
1725:
1721:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1681:(2): 150–68.
1680:
1676:
1672:
1665:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1642:(2): 67–191.
1641:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1542:(2): 175–84.
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1447:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1312:q-bio/0609032
1308:
1305:(4): 541–73.
1304:
1300:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:Kevrekidis IG
1115:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
953:
945:
939:
935:
928:
924:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
885:
879:
877:
873:
869:
855:
851:
847:
846:
845:
835:
830:
827:
824:
823:
821:
818:
817:
816:
805:
802:
799:
798:S. cerevisiae
795:
791:
787:
783:
780:
774:
773:
771:
765:
762:
758:
754:
753:
751:
750:
749:
738:
735:
731:
728:
727:
726:
715:
711:
707:
706:
705:
692:
689:December 2019
681:
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650: –
649:
645:
644:Find sources:
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623:
622:single source
618:This section
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142:Dilution rate
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96:microorganism
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30:
25:
20:
3273:Fire blanket
3211:Eye and hand
3197:Rubber apron
3061:Oscilloscope
3025:Potentiostat
2952:Plate reader
2848:pH indicator
2818:CHN analyzer
2813:AutoAnalyzer
2606:Round-bottom
2499:Boston round
2362:Filter paper
2317:Refrigerator
2234:Retort stand
2202:Clamp holder
2198:Beaker clamp
2164:Vortex mixer
2159:Stirring rod
2154:Static mixer
2118:
2084:Teclu burner
1891:
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1262:Microbiology
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1202:
1170:(1): 19–31.
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113:steady state
110:
107:Steady state
82:
78:
74:
72:
3331:Bioreactors
3261:Other items
3187:Face shield
3034:Measurement
3015:Galvanostat
2975:Electronics
2925:Other items
2911:Thermometer
2894:Calorimeter
2823:Colorimeter
2767:Gas syringe
2750:Other items
2678:Eye dropper
2553:Watch glass
2538:Evaporating
2517:Cold finger
2332:Other items
2238:Screw clamp
2230:Pinch clamp
2219:Flask clamp
2169:Wash bottle
2124:Homogenizer
1636:J Math Biol
1299:J Math Biol
1131:(1): 1–55.
1125:Math Biosci
876:retentostat
868:turbidostat
648:"Chemostat"
503:antibiotics
49:Application
3192:Respirator
3133:Test probe
3051:Multimeter
2863:Microscopy
2683:Eudiometer
2647:Separatory
2616:Volumetric
2581:Erlenmeyer
2509:Condensers
2473:Dean–Stark
2422:Wire brush
2382:Microscope
2377:Centrifuge
2352:Cork borer
2307:Petri dish
2282:Agar plate
2269:Containers
2252:Wire gauze
2089:Water bath
2051:Desiccator
1929:1806.00272
1472:1705.09708
1119:Pavlou S,
919:References
898:Changestat
862:Variations
857:mutations.
849:mutations.
807:chemostat.
789:chemostat.
659:newspapers
499:auxotrophs
491:microcosms
129:Well-mixed
87:bioreactor
3283:Fume hood
3228:Glove box
3081:Voltmeter
2466:Apparatus
2455:Glassware
2344:Autoclave
2339:Aspirator
2292:Incubator
2226:Iron ring
2149:Sonicator
2119:Chemostat
2061:Hot plate
1720:Evolution
1656:120858390
1499:1553-7358
1419:0099-2240
1358:: 49–70.
1008:: 27–46.
913:Fed-batch
629:talk page
547:agitation
413:μ
335:
261:
249:μ
102:Operation
85:ic) is a
75:chemostat
22:Chemostat
3325:Category
3182:Lab coat
3107:Tweezers
3097:Heat gun
2853:pH meter
2762:Bell jar
2642:Dropping
2596:Florence
2586:Fernbach
2548:Syracuse
2407:Scoopula
2357:Crucible
2066:Lab oven
1900:15296140
1871:16804595
1851:Lab Chip
1836:25787277
1828:17896105
1792:41343643
1748:28563589
1617:31110741
1609:15266392
1517:29131817
1337:16927689
1329:17483952
1284:12213934
1243:15342537
1213:Genetics
1194:15687276
1164:Genetics
1098:15988524
1055:13346021
987:14787503
882:See also
874:and the
872:auxostat
800:, etc.).
786:mutation
745:Mutation
551:aeration
525:Industry
489:used as
484:Research
136:biofilms
57:Industry
53:Research
39:Industry
3121:General
3041:Ammeter
2741:Thistle
2698:Pipette
2673:Cuvette
2663:Burette
2632:BĂĽchner
2625:Funnels
2611:Schlenk
2591:Fleaker
2571:BĂĽchner
2492:Bottles
2412:Spatula
2402:Stopper
2372:Forceps
2272:Storage
2189:Holders
2109:Shakers
2080:Striker
2028:Heaters
2015:General
1784:1267931
1740:2408204
1705:6308409
1589:Am. Nat
1544:Bibcode
1508:5703580
1477:Bibcode
1437:7986045
1399:Bibcode
1372:4860267
1234:1470984
1185:1449705
1145:1550993
1106:4380653
1078:Bibcode
967:Bibcode
959:Science
853:strain.
794:E. coli
763:cells).
761:E. coli
733:detect.
717:choice.
673:scholar
562:biofilm
531:ethanol
515:ecology
94:of the
3155:Safety
2757:Beaker
2736:Thiele
2721:Cragie
2716:Drying
2637:Hirsch
2601:Retort
2563:Flasks
2531:Dishes
2522:Liebig
2483:Kipp's
2397:Splint
2207:Tripod
2185:Clamps
2181:Stands
2144:Shaker
2106:Mixers
2031:Dryers
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1070:Nature
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870:, the
767:large.
713:state.
675:
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558:silane
495:enrich
462:where
238:, by:
154:
77:(from
3090:Tools
2708:Tubes
2543:Petri
1924:arXiv
1832:S2CID
1788:S2CID
1736:JSTOR
1652:S2CID
1613:S2CID
1467:arXiv
1333:S2CID
1307:arXiv
1102:S2CID
680:JSTOR
666:books
2772:Vial
2731:Test
2367:File
2071:Kiln
1896:PMID
1867:PMID
1824:PMID
1780:PMID
1744:PMID
1701:PMID
1605:PMID
1570:PMID
1513:PMID
1495:ISSN
1433:PMID
1415:ISSN
1368:PMID
1325:PMID
1280:PMID
1239:PMID
1190:PMID
1141:PMID
1094:PMID
1051:PMID
983:PMID
938:ISBN
652:news
549:and
517:and
83:stat
79:chem
55:and
1859:doi
1816:doi
1772:doi
1728:doi
1691:PMC
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1229:PMC
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1180:PMC
1172:doi
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1133:doi
1129:108
1086:doi
1074:435
1041:doi
1010:doi
975:doi
963:112
757:SNP
740:D).
709:OD.
635:by
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