Chemistry - Knowledge

2919: 1181: 2641: 2819: 2966: 851: 1553: 75: 2031: 2104: 992: 3160: 3799: 3502: 264: 3813: 1888: 7641: 7504: 277: 637: 7651: 7528: 1200: 3393: 2158:, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept. 2734: 1056: 2529: 1338: 1195: 764: 7540: 1186: 1172: 7661: 7516: 1921: 3348: 561: 1167: 5763:"What makes these family likenesses among the elements? In the 1860s everyone was scratching their heads about that, and several scientists moved towards rather similar answers. The man who solved the problem most triumphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in 1859." 1107:) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various 925: 1470: 2226:

A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better

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invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic

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Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields

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considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a

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is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind

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in 1556. His work, describing highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores and metal extraction, were the pinnacle of metallurgy during that time. His approach removed all mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could and would build. The

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An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic

2440:, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results. 1351:

In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with

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The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and

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that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are

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is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

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which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.

1564:), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells). 888:

is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as

1154:. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. 1114:

However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as

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is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like

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At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897,

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balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.

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began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in

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is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of

661:, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a 656:

is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a

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of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.

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is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include

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spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting

2361:, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in 2493:

described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.

1048:. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating 1979:. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. 1955:

of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.

5300:, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the 1043:

or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a

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Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr.; Bursten, Bruce E.; Murphey, Catherine J.; Woodward, Patrick M.; Stoltzfus, Matthew W.; Lufaso, Michael W. (2018). "Introduction: Matter, energy, and measurement".

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creates isotactic polypropylene, which is hard and used in re-usable plastic containers.

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is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or

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electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the

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materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in

2614:(On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. 2918: 2769:

work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of

1944:; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often 949:

is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the

5597:"On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases" 2219:, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as 1729:– that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the 2169:

scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the

1752:, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in 3157:. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. 5087: 2215:

changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as

3319:; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. 2633:(approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." and 4570: 3229: 2444:, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work 1813:

of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H

5742: 4231: 2710:(such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the 2485:

The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist

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In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist

2873:, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of 6082: 3778: 1727: 2891:

The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular,

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system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the

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Improvements of the refining of ores and their extractions to smelt metals was widely used source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them

5672: 5685: 3827: 3386:. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their 1936:

When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A

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discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully

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During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a

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the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into

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Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

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Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a

2371:, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. 2177:), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K 5152: 4020: 5333:

An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina

1884:, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. 1485:, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding). 669:.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as 2934:

first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.

1381:, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. 2501:, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, 3753: 3267:with a free-flowing composition. 950: 5229:

Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque

4895: 2637:(3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be". 2551: 2469:

that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the

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Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a

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gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an

6599: 6171: 4092: 633:. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. 6571: 5505: 5312: 5091: 1642:. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an 4545: 4255: 6700: 6359: 1982:

The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its

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of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or

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and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the

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is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a

2141: 7578: 2417:, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into 3366:. By firing sub-critical uranium into another mass of sub-critical uranium within the bomb, a self-sustaining nuclear reaction (the 1513:. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in 5269: 1844:

emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the

1545:(Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound 973:

has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its

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Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the

1032:, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in 6683: 2038:(KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K cations and Cl anions. The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero. 4589: 4294: 2461:

employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of

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with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the

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introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (

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A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of

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considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their

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While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the

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There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of

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of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor

6739: 6678: 2718:, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as 1986:. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many 2888:; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights. 2719: 2554:

amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory.

1411:(alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the 1356:

is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as

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need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the

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Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are:

2261:. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. 4929: 3908: 3763: 3716: 5304:

and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan.

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specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the

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Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is

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to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.

17: 4651: 4630: 4608: 4278: 2057:. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or 301: 1853:

radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

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as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as

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predicted the existence of 7 new elements, and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.

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A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not

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featured foundational scientists to the field of theoretical chemistry and physics. This conference discussed

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The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the

1180: 5922: 5679:: "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived modern chemists would be using a Periodic Table" and 1680:

Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the

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Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry".

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Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma",

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Dumas, J.B. (1837). 'Affinite' (lecture notes), vii, p 4. "Statique chimique", Paris: Académie des Sciences

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for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental)

2822: 1431: 737:. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the 4892: 2640: 7621: 7143: 6630: 3832: 3783: 2374: 2368: 2358: 2346: 2313: 2302: 1999: 294: 100: 90: 5064:

The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary

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scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (

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institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.

2170: 1965: 970: 242: 39: 32: 2165:, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative 1902:

is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a

1763: 1733:. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, 7644: 7611: 6658: 6167: 5716: 4084: 4015: 3733: 3555: 3171:

is a machine used to measure the effect light has on matter. The model pictured is the Beckman DU-640

2582: 2578: 2470: 1749: 6108: 5501: 1415:, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the 7626: 7564: 7413: 7329: 6968: 5571: 3748: 3587: 3559: 3492: 3223: 3027: 2818: 2626: 2570: 2018: 1961: 1952: 1848:

responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than

579: 237: 6036:(1st ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands Springer e-books Imprint: Springer. pp. 1–4. 5973: 5309: 4541: 4252: 2869:

in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist

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broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

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is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.

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Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications.

3872: 3634: 3484: 3418: 2999: 2834: 2574: 2511: 1881: 1753: 909: 486:. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though 6363: 2892: 7269: 7257: 7148: 7013: 6787: 6653: 5484: 5198: 3547: 2727: 2684: 2328: 2115: 2074: 1987: 1969: 1873: 1802: 1691: 1052:. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. 966: 859: 440: 156: 5147: 4921: 1572:

are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a

1407:. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid 1375:

tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the

7616: 7418: 7315: 7300: 7230: 7153: 6985: 6935: 6844: 6769: 6668: 5772: 5766: 5202: 3686: 3618: 3460: 3430: 3326: 3306: 3031: 2811:, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and 2803: 2777: 2711: 2645: 2446: 2398: 2155: 1869: 1254: 568: 113: 5563: 4913: 2489:

in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist

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S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker

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In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its

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Diagram showing relationships among the phases and the terms used to describe phase changes

1322: 1246: 958: 905: 819: 688: 630: 583: 189: 166: 109: 95: 2965: 893:. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element 8: 7431: 7385: 7310: 7283: 7181: 7163: 7116: 7054: 6950: 6930: 6799: 6794: 6695: 6372: 5564: 5264:, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences", 5120: 5114: 3662: 3602: 3591: 3551: 3405: 3338: 3290: 3281: 3218: 3192: 2947: 2502: 2258: 2128:. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is 2010: 1670: 1666: 1647: 1635: 1609: 1522: 1510: 1385: 1318: 1276: 1250: 1151: 1049: 974: 827: 811: 384: 356:: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during 204: 6133:

Brown, William Henry; Iverson, Brent L.; Anslyn, Eric V.; Foote, Christopher S. (2018).

5184:(3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888, p. 161); F. Sherwood Taylor, "The Origins of Greek Alchemy", 4693: 3093: 7685: 7508: 7474: 7336: 7305: 7186: 7128: 6826: 6809: 6804: 6759: 6722: 6712: 6673: 5544: 5354: 5175: 4842: 4715: 4453: 4320: 4140: 3950: 3413: 3301:. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, 3154: 2977: 2622: 2490: 2354: 2257:; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a 2254: 2035: 1983: 1857: 1730: 1665:

if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of

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can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as

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which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry,

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Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew; Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009).

6210: 6138: 6037: 5989: 5902: 5827: 5776: 5575: 5469: 5412: 5404: 5242: 5232: 5213: 5179: 5160: 5124: 5067: 5042: 5012: 4925: 4914: 4873: 4848: 4797: 4764: 4707: 4586: 4459: 4355: 4298: 4207: 4190: 4168: 4160: 4119: 4067: 4046: 3904: 3847: 3712: 3706: 3666: 3654: 3630: 3575: 3506: 3496: 3476: 3472: 3450: 3442: 3422: 3390:, unit atoms or molecules that show characteristic chemical properties in a compound. 3379: 3375: 3330: 3322: 3286: 3233: 3200: 3184: 3180: 3168: 3089: 3070: 3058: 3023: 2870: 2866: 2812: 2781: 2737: 2714:

name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as

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are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K

2014: 1991: 1976: 1925: 1915: 1903: 1798: 1757: 1681: 1613: 1605: 1412: 1314: 1144: 1045: 940: 850: 815: 692: 666: 658: 653: 615: 514: 428: 369: 357: 341: 199: 146: 5640: 5548: 7532: 7449: 7104: 6963: 6940: 6893: 6834: 6423: 5981: 5608: 5536: 5371: 5346: 4946: 4719: 4697: 4152: 3980: 3842: 3804: 3658: 3650: 3626: 3523: 3488: 3454: 3426: 3397: 3387: 3383: 3334: 3204: 3109: 3101: 3078: 3045:

His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist

2943: 2923: 2904: 2850: 2707: 2695: 2558: 2296: 2228: 2216: 2125: 2107: 2092: 2062: 1929: 1822: 1658:; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. 1631: 1569: 1530: 1420: 1392:

and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

1377: 1372: 954: 867: 768: 662: 611: 447: 337: 333: 329: 268: 231: 5440: 5062:

Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation".

4490:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 37. 2667:

and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Work, particularly the development of

403:), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded ( 7587: 7390: 7346: 7341: 7235: 7211: 7045: 7008: 6861: 6851: 6734: 5676: 5596: 5316: 5276: 5156: 4899: 4634: 4612: 4593: 4574: 4485: 4282: 4259: 3877: 3694: 3690: 3646: 3642: 3363: 3294: 3264: 3245: 3100:. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding ( 3062: 2935: 2842: 2765: 2741: 2610: 2379: 2350: 2220: 2212: 2066: 2017:. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the 1612:, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the 1546: 1482: 1310: 1232: 1123:, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules 1116: 913: 823: 392: 375:

In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between

3463:

is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within

2962:

at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.

2585:

were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.

1597:, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas 7654: 7274: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7197: 7193: 7176: 7133: 7064: 6925: 6920: 6905: 6717: 6635: 5306:

Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry

4452:

Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshom, Richard M.; Hutton, Alan T. (2005).

3818: 3682: 3670: 3614: 3610: 3579: 3567: 3563: 3535: 3527: 3438: 3356: 3316: 3312: 3196: 3039: 2986: 2973: 2955: 2939: 2838: 2808: 2761: 2586: 2336: 2318: 2290: 2129: 2070: 1899: 1861: 1818: 1655: 1443: 1427: 1346: 1150:

One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its

1120: 1108: 928: 901: 855: 783: 779: 726: 700: 408: 388: 136: 3928: 3325:

is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern

2985:

Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating

2687:, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and 2675:

period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian

2030: 1552: 7679: 7479: 7368: 7324: 7049: 6883: 6878: 6871: 6749: 6431: 6427: 5993: 5408: 5298:

The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical ed., translation and study

5246: 5217: 4733: 4711: 4426: 4164: 3606: 3583: 3543: 3367: 3342: 3252: 3208: 3167:

studies interactions between electromagnetic radiation (light) and matter. A

3074: 3066: 3050: 3019: 2959: 2938:

devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern

2931: 2908: 2885: 2562: 2544: 2507: 2474: 2323: 2137: 2133: 1836:

The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the

1506: 1498: 1464: 1439: 1040: 1029: 877: 619: 535: 524: 365: 141: 74: 3453:

and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from

3128:

applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems.

904:, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in 540:, which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately, 7356: 7206: 7121: 7097: 7087: 7079: 6980: 6915: 6814: 6663: 6198: 5613: 5416: 5330: 5143: 4172: 3678: 3638: 3480: 3434: 3176: 3164: 3011: 2995: 2900: 2896: 2830: 2793: 2789: 2715: 2699: 2668: 2601: 2486: 2441: 2307: 2270: 1865: 1389: 1253:. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are 1128: 924: 696: 670: 412: 194: 171: 5540: 4395: 3276:

creates syndiotactic polypropylene, which is rubbery and semi-crystalline.

3159: 2103: 1469: 6754: 6334:(Penguin Books) translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) 4647: 4509: 4407: 4368: 4351: 3501: 3464: 3360: 3105: 3015: 2881: 2865:(a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German 2688: 2547: 2002:

often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.

1734: 1361: 1270: 885: 810:

The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the

645: 452: 6577: 4627: 4605: 4275: 3378:

is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and

3370:). It generated an explosive force of over 15,000 tons of equivalent TNT 1388:

state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a

7380: 6328: 5358: 3483:, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of 3352: 3046: 2877:

and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.

2862: 2797: 2680: 2630: 2593: 2532: 1887: 1742: 1582: 1502: 1207:

Examples of pure chemical substances. From left to right: the elements

1136: 991: 778:

is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the

623: 564: 487: 467: 463: 3812: 3149:

is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their

1279:(also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly 636: 7442: 6744: 6316:

The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table

5985: 4794:

Affinity, That Elusive Dream – A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution

4624: 4272: 3531: 3256: 3237: 3054: 3007: 2951: 2672: 2605: 2566: 2166: 2082: 2078: 1577: 1490: 1326: 1220: 1199: 1132: 1080: 1033: 684: 622:

which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry

479: 475: 471: 6393:

Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F.

5566:

Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution

5350: 5090:. G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe. 25 February 2011. Archived from 4702: 4677: 4062:

Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Edward Bursten, H. Lemay.

2733: 1817:

O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by

490:

were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry.

7464: 4156: 3674: 3510: 3446: 3401: 3392: 3302: 3298: 3212: 3188: 3035: 3003: 2846: 2723: 2634: 2597: 2536: 2145: 1995: 1586: 1573: 1542: 1514: 1478: 1357: 1306: 1298: 996: 986: 839: 803: 799: 791: 734: 707:. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several 704: 591: 483: 420: 349: 49: 7556: 5308:. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available 2528: 1673:

if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of

1576:. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a 1055: 7484: 5112: 4141:"What Have We Learned from the Recent Historiography of Alchemy?" 3468: 3241: 2770: 2726:

disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the

2679:. Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the 2589: 2523: 2458: 2437: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1590: 1557: 1518: 1452: 1368: 1228: 1216: 1096: 1064: 890: 795: 787: 746: 708: 680: 603: 572: 457: 404: 400: 380: 376: 227: 6524:

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry

6371: 6007: 5897:

Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2018).

5032: 4977: 4486:

Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005).

4385: 4383: 3228: 3187:

and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living

1790:; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at 1616:

theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

1337: 1185: 1171: 5974:"Highly active metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization" 5800: 3514: 3333:

is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to

3248: 3124:

is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while

2858: 2785: 2592:

dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as

2430: 2136:

when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces

2061:. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral 2054: 1651: 1625: 1598: 1541:(Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na cation while 1538: 1474: 1447: 1400: 1224: 1212: 1140: 1084: 894: 873: 763: 738: 730: 720: 676: 629:

The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of

607: 498: 396: 325: 131: 5708: 4455:

Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005

1920: 1194: 427:

of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the

4380: 3347: 3104:

in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (

2912: 2426: 2422: 2410: 2194: 2058: 2006: 1957: 1738: 1526: 1396: 1258: 1104: 1100: 1092: 900:

The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the

831: 599: 547: 527: 161: 5466:

Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks

5088:"International Year of Chemistry – The History of Chemistry" 4458:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing / IUPAC. 4451: 3244:

metal centers. Depending on the placement of the catalyst's

1856:

The existence of characteristic energy levels for different

1533:

can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.

711:

are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:

560: 7459: 6422: 6223: 5266:

Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France

4521: 4515: 4413: 4401: 4374: 3779:

World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists

3097: 2664: 2418: 2121: 1975:

A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a

1892: 1408: 1294: 1166: 1088: 775: 758: 587: 345: 6137:(8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. p. 19. 5901:(7th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning. p. 120. 5197: 4043:

Chemical Sciences in the 20th Century: Bridging Boundaries

324:

is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of

7469: 5388:

Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (Autumn 2005).

5292:

Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber",

5066:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. 4189:, J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, 3715:

represents an important economic activity worldwide. The

2414: 2148: 2043: 1877: 1756:. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the 1404: 1302: 1245:

A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite

1208: 897:, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13. 835: 610:. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma 416: 353: 151: 5203:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D." 3897: 2946:

and independently by several other scientists including

2497:

The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by

1864:. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical 1139:), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar 387:

because it provides a foundation for understanding both

38:"Chemical science" redirects here. For the journal, see 6572:

General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications

6132: 4734:"Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry" 4348:

General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied Approach

3828:

Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling

2162: 1928:, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the 1669:

the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be

912:, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying 703:. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as 5641:"A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table" 5468:. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. 5460: 5458: 3297:

with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to

2132:, which states that acid is a substance that produces 1860:

is useful for their identification by the analysis of

1321:

is the amount of a particular substance per volume of

1127:. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of 640:

Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including

533: 3449:

in deriving equations. It is usually associated with

3191:. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering 1766: 1694: 1473:

An animation of the process of ionic bonding between

1419:

phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in

858:

of chemical elements. The colors represent different

725:

In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has

6382:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 33–76. 5978:

Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions

5739:"Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev" 5231:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. 5033:

Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983).

4500: 4321:"General Chemistry Online – Companion Notes: Matter" 3903:(14th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 46–85. 3794: 2744:, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article 614:, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, 541: 518: 502: 6247:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) . 5700: 5526: 5455: 5443:. University of California - Museum of Paleontology 5268:, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula. 4295:"California Occupational Guide Number 22: Chemists" 3329:is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the 3022:. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments 2231:, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. 1677:, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. 1525:, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ( 6468:Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks 6160:"C&EN's Global Top 50 Chemical Firms For 2014" 5329:Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965). 3236:is an organometallic complex that features either 2907:. Davy discovered nine new elements including the 1951:Chemical reactions can result in the formation or 1782: 1721: 1275:The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an 5896: 5113:Bryan H. Bunch & Alexander Hellemans (2004). 3754:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 3263:creates atactic polypropylene, which is soft and 3138:Outline of chemistry § Branches of chemistry 1994:and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many 951:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 582:. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of 7677: 6246: 5821: 5764: 5387: 5061: 4763:. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (reprint). 4389: 4297:. Calmis.ca.gov. 29 October 1999. Archived from 1972:are some examples of common chemical reactions. 5601:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4819:Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry 2825:is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry". 2110:exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule. 1537:force of attraction between them. For example, 1264: 786:. The nucleus is made up of positively charged 6197: 4867: 4527: 3487:, which is the art of developing and applying 2899:, made possible by the prior invention of the 2815:that could be subject to rigorous experiment. 2144:, acids are substances that donate a positive 1601:, which has two electrons in its outer shell. 1239:(baking soda), which are both ionic compounds. 1023:is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure 830:, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., 7572: 6593: 3723:980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%. 2557:A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in 578:The current model of atomic structure is the 302: 6151: 5709:"WebElements: the periodic table on the web" 5561: 5011:. New York: Penguin Classics. pp. 7–8. 3441:. Physical chemistry has large overlap with 2841:, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; 2436:Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, 508: 5826:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 164. 5381: 5328: 4947:"de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)" 3853:List of important publications in chemistry 1906:or to transform other chemical substances. 1028:typically a set of atoms bound together by 407:), the properties of the soil on the Moon ( 7579: 7565: 6600: 6586: 5296:, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R. 5223: 4568:Mechanical force induces chemical reaction 4539: 3981:"Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com" 3457:, but again, there is very strong overlap. 2764:(1494–1555), who published his major work 2535:' atomist philosophy was later adopted by 2120:A substance can often be classified as an 691:. They can be analyzed using the tools of 309: 295: 6607: 6552:Mathematical Methods for Science Students 6438:(1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 6397:(4th ed.) 2006 (Oxford University Press) 6109:"Little Boy and Fat Man - Nuclear Museum" 5612: 4953:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 4701: 4427:"IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry" 4345: 3917: 3726: 3445:. Physical chemistry involves the use of 3073:was developed by the American scientists 2310:(1809, relating pressure and temperature) 1779: 1568:In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of 1549:(NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. 1395:The most familiar examples of phases are 876:in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the 532:, which is in turn derived from the word 364:. Chemistry also addresses the nature of 5971: 5741:. Science History Institute. June 2016. 5206:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 5201:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). 5181:Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs 5006: 4675: 3891: 3500: 3391: 3346: 3259:. 3227: 3158: 2964: 2917: 2817: 2732: 2639: 2527: 2102: 2029: 1919: 1886: 1551: 1468: 1336: 1157: 1054: 990: 923: 849: 762: 635: 559: 6031: 5435: 5433: 5390:"Rediscovery of the Elements: Agricola" 4975: 4840: 4577:, NewScientist.com news service, Reilly 4542:"Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi, Ph" 4253:Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton 2299:(1787, relating volume and temperature) 2098: 995:A ball-and-stick representation of the 14: 7678: 6538:Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction 6411:6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. 6395:Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry 5159:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 284. 4911: 4783: 4740:from the original on 17 September 2018 4678:"In retrospect: The Sceptical Chymist" 4138: 3858:List of unsolved problems in chemistry 2140:when dissolved in water. According to 733:(it takes up space) and is made up of 7560: 6581: 6157: 5771:. Little, Brown and Company. p. 5119:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 5116:The History of Science and Technology 4944: 4816: 4758: 4671: 4669: 4654:from the original on 27 February 2009 4445: 4023:from the original on 29 November 2020 3057:, who went on to father the emerging 2608:expanded upon the theory in his poem 2065:, such as the Na and Cl ions forming 802:cloud consists of negatively charged 782:surrounded by a space occupied by an 451:comes from a modification during the 7660: 7515: 6388:Introductory undergraduate textbooks 6360:"Dictionary of the History of Ideas" 6158:Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014). 5651:from the original on 9 February 2020 5594: 5502:"History – Robert Boyle (1627–1691)" 5489:History of Geology and Palaeontology 5430: 5149:Mathematics for the nonmathematician 4113: 3597: 3471:). In particular the application of 3006:and soon after the French scientist 2950:. The inert gases, later called the 2644:15th-century artistic impression of 2510:. More recently, in 1998, Professor 2293:(1662, relating pressure and volume) 935:), an example of a chemical compound 555: 7586: 7539: 6174:from the original on 26 August 2014 5972:Kaminsky, Walter (1 January 1998). 5899:Principles of instrumental analysis 5824:The Development of Modern Chemistry 5799:. Chemistry2011.org. Archived from 5719:from the original on 4 January 2014 5508:from the original on 9 January 2011 4791: 4179: 4116:The development of modern chemistry 4085:"Chemistry – Chemistry and society" 3868:Periodic systems of small molecules 3759:Royal Australian Chemical Institute 3739:American Society for Neurochemistry 3088:Organic chemistry was developed by 2784:and others, a group of chemists at 2756:, giving chemistry its modern name. 2691:Europe through Latin translations. 2353:, even in modern physics. However, 2331:leads to the important concepts of 509: 399:), the formation of igneous rocks ( 24: 6271: 5745:from the original on 21 March 2018 5706: 5621:from the original on 18 April 2021 4982:The Internet History of Philosophy 4916:Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies 4902:, February 13, 1999, New Scientist 4666: 4234:from the original on 26 April 2012 3961:from the original on 7 August 2020 3764:Royal Netherlands Chemical Society 3341:which explores the topic of using 2849:and elucidated its properties and 1767: 1325:, and is commonly reported in mol/ 767:A diagram of an atom based on the 25: 7697: 6565: 5262:Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin 4957:from the original on 29 June 2011 4548:from the original on 17 July 2011 4327:from the original on 24 June 2011 3991:from the original on 5 March 2016 3131: 2543:Early civilizations, such as the 2473:, especially through the work of 2034:The crystal lattice structure of 2025: 648:, illuminated in different colors 7659: 7649: 7640: 7639: 7538: 7526: 7514: 7503: 7502: 5688:from the original on 2 July 2014 4988:from the original on 28 May 2010 4505:. ASM International. p. 59. 4433:from the original on 8 June 2011 3927:. Chemweb.ucc.ie. Archived from 3811: 3797: 3717:global top 50 chemical producers 3404:(right) functional group and an 3337:, nuclear chemistry encompasses 3034:the first element by bombarding 2264: 1783:{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,} 1198: 1193: 1184: 1179: 1170: 1165: 276: 275: 262: 73: 6510:The Nature of the chemical bond 6251:(3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex: 6190: 6164:Chemical & Engineering News 6126: 6101: 6075: 6050: 6025: 6000: 5965: 5940: 5915: 5890: 5865: 5840: 5815: 5789: 5757: 5731: 5663: 5633: 5588: 5555: 5520: 5494: 5478: 5365: 5322: 5286: 5254: 5191: 5169: 5137: 5106: 5080: 5055: 5025: 5000: 4976:Simpson, David (29 June 2005). 4969: 4938: 4905: 4886: 4861: 4834: 4825: 4810: 4777: 4752: 4726: 4640: 4618: 4599: 4580: 4560: 4533: 4494: 4479: 4419: 4339: 4313: 4287: 4265: 4246: 4216: 4200: 4132: 4095:from the original on 6 May 2023 4066:. Prentice Hall; 8 ed. (1999). 3838:International Year of Chemistry 3018:investigated the phenomenon of 2694:The Arabic works attributed to 2397:For a chronological guide, see 2207:idation) reactions include all 2142:Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory 1352:certain chemical properties. A 6522:Pauling, L., and Wilson, E.B. 6498:(Oxford Science Publications) 6203:Elements of Physical Chemistry 5852:www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca 5684:. Royal Society of Chemistry. 4503:Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 4107: 4077: 4064:Chemistry: The Central Science 4056: 4035: 4003: 3973: 3943: 3901:Chemistry: The Central Science 3120:In the practice of chemistry, 2911:by extracting them from their 2565:as propounded definitively by 2234: 1585:. However, some elements like 880:and represented by the symbol 13: 1: 6867:Interface and colloid science 6621:Glossary of chemical formulae 6304:(Cambridge University Press) 5647:. Western Oregon University. 5281:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 4951:The Internet Classics Archive 4187:The Oxford English Dictionary 3884: 3345:sources for generating energy 2617:An early form of the idea of 2517: 2506:characterization accepted by 2480: 2349:continues to be conserved in 2329:Law of conservation of energy 2019:interconversion of conformers 1426:Less familiar phases include 1367:Physical properties, such as 965:are created according to the 567:, Institute of Biochemistry, 6032:Fahlman, Bradley D. (2011). 5035:The Presocratic Philosophers 5007:Strodach, George K. (2012). 4784:Glaser, Christopher (1663). 4501:M.M. Avedesian; Hugh Baker. 4390:Housecroft & Sharpe 2008 3774:Society of Chemical Industry 3744:Chemical Institute of Canada 3522:Others subdivisions include 2987:a small, concentrated charge 2942:of elements in the 1860s by 2823:Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier 2773:as a scientific discipline. 2073:that do not split up during 1521:. In many simple compounds, 1265:Mole and amount of substance 1147:such as quartz and granite. 497:in turn is derived from the 434: 7: 7144:Bioorganometallic chemistry 6631:List of inorganic compounds 6512:(Cornell University Press) 6489:Molecular Quantum Mechanics 6201:; de Paula, Julio (2009) . 5037:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: 4847:. Dover Publications, Inc. 4230:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 4139:Newman, William R. (2011). 3833:Glossary of chemistry terms 3790: 3784:List of chemistry societies 3700: 3115: 3065:. The electronic theory of 2776:Under the influence of the 2375:Law of multiple proportions 2369:Law of definite composition 2347:Law of conservation of mass 2223:, reductants, or reducers. 1909: 1497:The chemical bond can be a 980: 957:are named according to the 919: 542: 519: 503: 419:evidence at a crime scene ( 10: 7702: 7070:Dynamic covalent chemistry 7041:Enantioselective synthesis 7021:Physical organic chemistry 6974:Organolanthanide chemistry 6477:(Oxford University Press) 6348:(Oxford University Press) 6318:(Black Swan) London, 2010 6205:(5th ed.). New York: 5848:"Chemistry Subdisciplines" 5645:Chemistry 412 course notes 5464:Rafferty, John P. (2012). 5403:(3). Alpha Chi Sigma: 59. 5039:Cambridge University Press 4978:"Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE)" 4606:Chemical Reaction Equation 4528:Atkins & de Paula 2009 3769:Royal Society of Chemistry 3704: 3572:physical organic chemistry 3135: 2623:Nothing comes from nothing 2521: 2396: 2390: 2386: 2268: 2238: 2227:defined as an increase in 2211:in which atoms have their 2192: 2171:acid dissociation constant 2113: 2041: 1913: 1831:dipole–dipole interactions 1623: 1462: 1458: 1344: 1268: 984: 971:Chemical Abstracts Service 938: 865: 845: 756: 718: 687:, phase, as well as their 548: 528: 438: 33:Chemistry (disambiguation) 29: 7635: 7607: 7594: 7498: 7401: 7162: 7078: 6999: 6949: 6825: 6768: 6659:Electroanalytical methods 6644: 6616: 6491:(Oxford University Press) 6168:American Chemical Society 6062:American Chemical Society 5952:American Chemical Society 5877:American Chemical Society 5822:Ihde, Aaron John (1984). 5765:Bronowski, Jacob (1973). 5675:24 September 2015 at the 4872:. New York: McGraw Hill. 4587:Changing States of Matter 4566:Reilly, Michael. (2007). 4346:Armstrong, James (2012). 4323:. Antoine.frostburg.edu. 4016:American Chemical Society 4011:"Chemistry Is Everywhere" 3951:"Definition of CHEMISTRY" 3734:American Chemical Society 3556:natural product chemistry 3507:Solvay Conference of 1927 3309:between different phases. 3163:In analytical chemistry, 2671:, continued in the early 2471:history of thermodynamics 2465:, who developed a law of 2154:A third common theory is 1722:{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}} 1661:A reaction is said to be 1619: 1604:Similarly, theories from 1432:Bose–Einstein condensates 1313:per mole is known as the 1206: 1192: 1178: 1164: 714: 411:), how medications work ( 383:. It is sometimes called 248:List of unsolved problems 27:Scientific field of study 7414:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 7330:Supramolecular chemistry 6969:Organometallic chemistry 5315:25 February 2021 at the 5155:5 September 2015 at the 5031:Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of 4258:28 February 2007 at the 3749:Chemical Society of Peru 3588:supramolecular chemistry 3560:organometallic chemistry 3493:condensed matter physics 3408:(left) functional group. 3224:organometallic chemistry 3028:University of Manchester 2980:of the atom undisturbed. 2629:, which can be found in 2627:Ancient Greek philosophy 2314:Le Chatelier's principle 2303:Fick's laws of diffusion 2245:Although the concept of 2188: 1332: 814:of the element, such as 606:and other aggregates of 580:quantum mechanical model 340:that make up matter and 238:List of chemistry awards 48:Not to be confused with 7352:Combinatorial chemistry 7263:Food physical chemistry 7226:Environmental chemistry 7110:Bioorthogonal chemistry 7036:Retrosynthetic analysis 6857:Chemical thermodynamics 6840:Spectroelectrochemistry 6783:Computational chemistry 6379:Encyclopædia Britannica 6346:A Guide to the Elements 6288:Oxford University Press 6230:Oxford University Press 6207:Oxford University Press 6083:"21: Nuclear Chemistry" 5923:"Studying Biochemistry" 5713:University of Sheffield 5335:by Seyyed Hossein Nasr" 4868:Chang, Raymond (1998). 4841:Pauling, Linus (1947). 4611:12 October 2007 at the 4262:by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. 4114:Ihde, Aaron J. (1984). 3873:Philosophy of chemistry 3635:environmental chemistry 3544:hydrogenation chemistry 3485:computational chemistry 3479:. Since the end of the 3475:to chemistry is called 3419:chemical thermodynamics 3396:4-Hydroxybutanal is an 3000:University of Cambridge 2922:In his periodic table, 2915:with electric current. 2835:Jan Baptist van Helmont 2728:transmutation of metals 2720:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 2359:mass–energy equivalence 2069:, or NaCl. Examples of 2000:Woodward–Hoffmann rules 1754:chemical thermodynamics 752: 741:. Matter can be a pure 534: 7424:of element discoveries 7270:Agricultural chemistry 7258:Carbohydrate chemistry 7149:Bioinorganic chemistry 7014:Alkane stereochemistry 6959:Coordination chemistry 6788:Mathematical chemistry 6654:Instrumental chemistry 6113:ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ 5873:"Analytical Chemistry" 5614:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001 5595:Davy, Humphry (1808). 5485:Karl Alfred von Zittel 5376:The Making of Humanity 4898:8 January 2015 at the 4817:Stahl, George (1730). 4792:Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). 4759:Boyle, Robert (1661). 4573:14 August 2014 at the 3727:Professional societies 3548:mathematical chemistry 3517: 3447:infinitesimal calculus 3409: 3371: 3277: 3172: 3092:and others, following 3010:as well as the couple 2990: 2958:in collaboration with 2927: 2826: 2757: 2748:, exclusively writing 2656: 2540: 2156:Lewis acid–base theory 2111: 2039: 1988:reaction intermediates 1933: 1895: 1784: 1723: 1565: 1529:), and the concept of 1486: 1342: 1076: 1016: 967:inorganic nomenclature 961:system. The names for 936: 863: 771: 649: 575: 441:Etymology of chemistry 415:), and how to collect 7419:Timeline of chemistry 7316:Post-mortem chemistry 7301:Clandestine chemistry 7231:Atmospheric chemistry 7154:Biophysical chemistry 6986:Solid-state chemistry 6936:Equilibrium chemistry 6845:Photoelectrochemistry 6526:(Dover Publications) 6487:Atkins, P. W. et al. 5948:"Inorganic Chemistry" 5570:. MIT Press. p. 5562:Mi Gyung Kim (2003). 5541:10.1007/s00897980249a 5529:The Chemical Educator 5275:18 April 2021 at the 4920:. Routledge. p. 4912:Barnes, Ruth (2004). 4761:The Sceptical Chymist 4676:Principe, L. (2011). 4592:28 April 2007 at the 3719:in 2013 had sales of 3687:solid-state chemistry 3619:atmospheric chemistry 3504: 3461:Theoretical chemistry 3437:, and more recently, 3431:statistical mechanics 3395: 3350: 3231: 3162: 2968: 2921: 2821: 2804:The Sceptical Chemyst 2778:new empirical methods 2736: 2643: 2531: 2447:The Sceptical Chymist 2399:Timeline of chemistry 2106: 2033: 1932:, and carbon dioxide. 1923: 1891:Emission spectrum of 1890: 1811:intermolecular forces 1785: 1724: 1675:endothermic reactions 1555: 1472: 1436:fermionic condensates 1423:(that is, in water). 1340: 1158:Substance and mixture 1058: 994: 927: 854:Standard form of the 853: 766: 689:chemical compositions 639: 569:University of Cologne 563: 7409:History of chemistry 7364:Chemical engineering 7139:Bioorganic chemistry 6889:Structural chemistry 6626:List of biomolecules 5927:www.biochemistry.org 5009:The Art of Happiness 4650:. BBC. 27 May 2004. 4648:"History of Acidity" 4633:4 March 2007 at the 4281:4 March 2007 at the 4185:"alchemy", entry in 3925:"What is Chemistry?" 3863:Outline of chemistry 3623:chemical engineering 3540:immunohistochemistry 3335:medical applications 3179:is the study of the 3151:chemical composition 3147:Analytical chemistry 2976:passing through the 2893:Jöns Jacob Berzelius 2884:proposed the modern 2875:conservation of mass 2855:Carl Wilhelm Scheele 2853:and, independently, 2677:Zosimos of Panopolis 2650:Perso-Arab alchemist 2621:is the notion that " 2619:conservation of mass 2467:conservation of mass 2406:history of chemistry 2393:History of chemistry 2241:Chemical equilibrium 2099:Acidity and basicity 1958:Oxidation, reduction 1946:laboratory glassware 1764: 1692: 1667:endergonic reactions 959:organic nomenclature 820:ionization potential 631:laboratory glassware 584:elementary particles 523:is derived from the 269:Chemistry portal 190:Analytical chemistry 167:Chemical equilibrium 31:For other uses, see 7432:The central science 7386:Ceramic engineering 7311:Forensic toxicology 7284:Chemistry education 7182:Radiation chemistry 7164:Interdisciplinarity 7117:Medicinal chemistry 7055:Fullerene chemistry 6931:Microwave chemistry 6800:Molecular mechanics 6795:Molecular modelling 6540:(Chapman and Hall) 6249:Inorganic Chemistry 6058:"Nuclear Chemistry" 6034:Materials Chemistry 5441:"Georgius Agricola" 5251:vol. II, pp. 41–42. 5199:Stapleton, Henry E. 4786:Traite de la chymie 4694:2011Natur.469...30P 4516:Burrows et al. 2009 4414:Burrows et al. 2009 4402:Burrows et al. 2009 4375:Burrows et al. 2009 4118:. New York: Dover. 4045:. Wiley-VCH, 2001. 4041:Carsten Reinhardt. 3697:, and many others. 3663:medicinal chemistry 3594:, and many others. 3592:synthetic chemistry 3552:molecular mechanics 3339:nuclear engineering 3291:inorganic chemistry 3282:Materials chemistry 3219:Inorganic chemistry 3193:medicinal chemistry 2954:were discovered by 2948:Julius Lothar Meyer 2561:with the theory of 2503:Jean-Baptiste Dumas 2259:dynamic equilibrium 2075:acid–base reactions 2011:elementary reaction 1858:chemical substances 1523:valence bond theory 1511:Van der Waals force 1509:or just because of 1319:Molar concentration 1311:number of particles 1277:amount of substance 975:CAS registry number 963:inorganic compounds 828:coordination number 812:chemical properties 385:the central science 205:Inorganic chemistry 61:Part of a series on 7475:Chemical substance 7337:Chemical synthesis 7306:Forensic chemistry 7187:Actinide chemistry 7129:Clinical chemistry 6810:Molecular geometry 6805:Molecular dynamics 6760:Elemental analysis 6713:Separation process 6475:Physical Chemistry 6332:The Periodic Table 6089:. 18 November 2014 5682:"Dmitri Mendeleev" 5176:Marcelin Berthelot 4544:. visionlearning. 4224:"chemical bonding" 3985:www.dictionary.com 3518: 3414:Physical chemistry 3410: 3372: 3278: 3185:chemical reactions 3173: 3071:molecular orbitals 2991: 2978:plum pudding model 2972:Expected results: 2928: 2880:English scientist 2827: 2813:chemical reactions 2758: 2708:organic substances 2657: 2541: 2491:Christopher Glaser 2357:shows that due to 2355:special relativity 2209:chemical reactions 2116:Acid–base reaction 2112: 2040: 2036:potassium chloride 1934: 1896: 1780: 1748:A related concept 1731:Arrhenius equation 1719: 1566: 1487: 1343: 1237:sodium bicarbonate 1231:(pure sugar), and 1081:noble gas elements 1077: 1061:structural formula 1025:chemical substance 1017: 937: 908:, or columns, and 864: 772: 743:chemical substance 650: 642:ammonium hydroxide 576: 370:chemical compounds 210:Physical chemistry 157:Acid–base reaction 7673: 7672: 7554: 7553: 7490:Quantum mechanics 7455:Chemical compound 7438:Chemical reaction 7376:Materials science 7294:General chemistry 7289:Amateur chemistry 7217:Photogeochemistry 7202:Stellar chemistry 7172:Nuclear chemistry 7093:Molecular biology 7060:Polymer chemistry 7031:Organic synthesis 7026:Organic reactions 6991:Ceramic chemistry 6981:Cluster chemistry 6911:Chemical kinetics 6899:Molecular physics 6778:Quantum chemistry 6691:Mass spectrometry 6536:Smart and Moore. 6496:Coulson's Valence 6445:978-0-19-850346-0 6436:Organic Chemistry 6426:; Greeves, Nick; 6424:Clayden, Jonathan 6373:"Chemistry" 6366:on 10 March 2008. 6340:978-0-14-139944-7 6324:978-0-552-77750-6 6302:Atkins' Molecules 6262:978-0-13-175553-6 6253:Pearson Education 6239:978-0-19-927789-6 6216:978-0-19-922672-6 6144:978-1-305-58035-0 6135:Organic chemistry 6043:978-94-007-0693-4 5908:978-1-305-57721-3 5833:978-0-486-64235-2 5803:on 8 October 2011 5782:978-0-316-10930-7 5768:The Ascent of Man 5581:978-0-262-11273-4 5270:"Jābir b. Ḥayyān" 5238:978-3-487-09115-0 5130:978-0-618-22123-3 5073:978-0-521-27556-9 5048:978-0-521-27455-5 5018:978-0-14-310721-7 4879:978-0-07-115221-1 4870:Chemistry, 6th Ed 4854:978-0-486-65622-9 4844:General Chemistry 4803:978-0-262-11273-4 4796:. The MIT Press. 4770:978-0-486-42825-3 4628:Chemical Reaction 4596:– Chemforkids.com 4488:General Chemistry 4361:978-0-534-49349-3 4125:978-0-486-64235-2 3931:on 3 October 2018 3848:List of compounds 3713:chemical industry 3707:Chemical industry 3667:molecular biology 3655:materials science 3631:chemo-informatics 3603:Interdisciplinary 3598:Interdisciplinary 3576:polymer chemistry 3497:molecular physics 3489:computer programs 3477:quantum chemistry 3473:quantum mechanics 3451:quantum chemistry 3443:molecular physics 3423:chemical kinetics 3388:functional groups 3384:organic compounds 3376:Organic chemistry 3331:table of nuclides 3323:Nuclear chemistry 3287:organic chemistry 3251:, it can produce 3234:Kaminsky catalyst 3201:molecular biology 3169:spectrophotometer 3126:applied chemistry 3090:Justus von Liebig 3059:nuclear chemistry 3049:, the Englishman 3024:Ernest Rutherford 2871:Antoine Lavoisier 2867:Georg Ernst Stahl 2782:Sir Francis Bacon 2738:Georgius Agricola 2704:ammonium chloride 2661:Hellenistic world 2654:organic chemistry 2600:. In 50 BCE, the 2499:Georg Ernst Stahl 2463:Antoine Lavoisier 2455:scientific method 2363:nuclear chemistry 2015:stepwise reaction 2005:According to the 1996:physical chemists 1977:chemical equation 1938:chemical reaction 1930:chemical elements 1916:Chemical reaction 1904:chemical reaction 1799:quantum mechanics 1758:Gibbs free energy 1682:activation energy 1614:molecular orbital 1606:classical physics 1570:valence electrons 1413:crystal structure 1315:Avogadro constant 1243: 1242: 1145:silicate minerals 1046:mass spectrometer 955:Organic compounds 941:Chemical compound 816:electronegativity 794:(together called 693:chemical analysis 667:radioactive decay 659:chemical equation 654:chemical reaction 556:Modern principles 552:'cast together'. 513:). This may have 429:chemical industry 338:chemical elements 336:that studies the 319: 318: 200:Organic chemistry 147:Chemical reaction 80:Science of matter 18:Chemical sciences 16:(Redirected from 7693: 7663: 7662: 7653: 7643: 7642: 7622:Physical science 7581: 7574: 7567: 7558: 7557: 7542: 7541: 7530: 7518: 7517: 7506: 7505: 7450:Chemical element 7105:Chemical biology 6964:Magnetochemistry 6941:Mechanochemistry 6894:Chemical physics 6835:Electrochemistry 6740:Characterization 6602: 6595: 6588: 6579: 6578: 6449: 6407:Chang, Raymond. 6383: 6375: 6367: 6362:. 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Lewis 2944:Dmitri Mendeleev 2924:Dmitri Mendeleev 2905:Alessandro Volta 2861:. The theory of 2851:Joseph Priestley 2833:and the Flemish 2807:. He formulated 2696:Jabir ibn Hayyan 2685:Muslim conquests 2646:Jābir ibn Hayyān 2559:Classical Greece 2351:isolated systems 2308:Gay-Lussac's law 2286:Beer–Lambert law 2229:oxidation number 2217:oxidizing agents 2130:Arrhenius theory 2108:Hydrogen bromide 1823:hydrogen sulfide 1801:, which require 1789: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1717: 1710: 1531:oxidation number 1421:aqueous solution 1378:phase transition 1373:refractive index 1292: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1202: 1197: 1188: 1183: 1174: 1169: 1162: 1161: 868:Chemical element 769:Rutherford model 663:nuclear reaction 551: 550: 546:may derive from 545: 539: 531: 530: 522: 512: 511: 506: 493:The modern word 334:natural sciences 330:physical science 311: 304: 297: 284: 279: 278: 271: 267: 266: 265: 243:List of journals 77: 58: 57: 53: 46: 41:Chemical Science 36: 21: 7701: 7700: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7690: 7676: 7675: 7674: 7669: 7631: 7603: 7590: 7588:Natural science 7585: 7555: 7550: 7494: 7397: 7391:Polymer science 7347:Click chemistry 7342:Green chemistry 7236:Ocean chemistry 7212:Biogeochemistry 7158: 7074: 7046:Total synthesis 7009:Stereochemistry 6995: 6945: 6862:Surface science 6852:Thermochemistry 6821: 6764: 6735:Crystallography 6640: 6612: 6606: 6568: 6550:Stephenson, G. 6452:Voet and Voet. 6446: 6370: 6358: 6277:Popular reading 6274: 6272:Further reading 6269: 6263: 6240: 6217: 6193: 6188: 6187: 6177: 6175: 6156: 6152: 6145: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6107: 6106: 6102: 6092: 6090: 6081: 6080: 6076: 6066: 6064: 6056: 6055: 6051: 6044: 6030: 6026: 6016: 6014: 6008:"Polypropylene" 6006: 6005: 6001: 5970: 5966: 5956: 5954: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5931: 5929: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5909: 5895: 5891: 5881: 5879: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5856: 5854: 5846: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5820: 5816: 5806: 5804: 5795: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5762: 5758: 5748: 5746: 5737: 5736: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5705: 5701: 5691: 5689: 5680: 5677:Wayback Machine 5668: 5664: 5654: 5652: 5639: 5638: 5634: 5624: 5622: 5593: 5589: 5582: 5560: 5556: 5525: 5521: 5511: 5509: 5500: 5499: 5495: 5483: 5479: 5463: 5456: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5431: 5421: 5419: 5392: 5386: 5382: 5370: 5366: 5351:10.2307/2851429 5327: 5323: 5317:Wayback Machine 5294:Sudhoffs Archiv 5291: 5287: 5277:Wayback Machine 5259: 5255: 5239: 5196: 5192: 5174: 5170: 5157:Wayback Machine 5142: 5138: 5131: 5111: 5107: 5097: 5095: 5094:on 15 June 2013 5086: 5085: 5081: 5074: 5060: 5056: 5049: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5005: 5001: 4991: 4989: 4974: 4970: 4960: 4958: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4910: 4906: 4900:Wayback Machine 4891: 4887: 4880: 4866: 4862: 4855: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4815: 4811: 4804: 4782: 4778: 4771: 4757: 4753: 4743: 4741: 4732: 4731: 4727: 4703:10.1038/469030a 4688:(7328): 30–31. 4674: 4667: 4657: 4655: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4635:Wayback Machine 4623: 4619: 4613:Wayback Machine 4604: 4600: 4594:Wayback Machine 4585: 4581: 4575:Wayback Machine 4565: 4561: 4551: 4549: 4538: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4510: 4499: 4495: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4468: 4466: 4450: 4446: 4436: 4434: 4429:. Acdlabs.com. 4425: 4424: 4420: 4412: 4408: 4400: 4396: 4388: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4362: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4301:on 10 June 2011 4293: 4292: 4288: 4283:Wayback Machine 4270: 4266: 4260:Wayback Machine 4251: 4247: 4237: 4235: 4222: 4221: 4217: 4205: 4201: 4184: 4180: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4112: 4108: 4098: 4096: 4083: 4082: 4078: 4074:. pp. 3–4. 4061: 4057: 4053:. pp. 1–2. 4040: 4036: 4026: 4024: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3994: 3992: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3955:Merriam-Webster 3949: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3878:Science tourism 3817: 3810: 3803: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3788: 3729: 3709: 3703: 3695:thermochemistry 3691:surface science 3647:immunochemistry 3643:green chemistry 3605:fields include 3600: 3295:crystallography 3255:with different 3246:cyclopentadiene 3140: 3134: 3118: 3112:in the 1870s). 3063:nuclear fission 3061:and discovered 3053:and the German 3040:alpha particles 3002:discovered the 2981: 2974:alpha particles 2936:J.A.R. Newlands 2886:theory of atoms 2843:Henry Cavendish 2766:De re metallica 2742:De re metallica 2652:and pioneer in 2611:De rerum natura 2526: 2520: 2483: 2402: 2395: 2389: 2384: 2273: 2267: 2243: 2237: 2221:reducing agents 2213:oxidation state 2197: 2191: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2118: 2101: 2088: 2071:polyatomic ions 2067:sodium chloride 2046: 2028: 1918: 1912: 1900:chemical energy 1828: 1816: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1741:in the form of 1706: 1699: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1628: 1622: 1610:metal complexes 1563: 1547:sodium chloride 1483:sodium chloride 1467: 1461: 1349: 1335: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1273: 1267: 1233:sodium chloride 1160: 1117:ionic compounds 1109:pharmaceuticals 1079:The "inert" or 1074: 1070: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 989: 983: 943: 934: 922: 914:periodic trends 870: 848: 824:oxidation state 761: 755: 749:of substances. 723: 717: 558: 443: 437: 315: 274: 263: 261: 260: 253: 252: 223: 215: 214: 185: 177: 176: 127: 119: 105: 82: 54: 47: 37: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7699: 7689: 7688: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7667: 7657: 7655:Science Portal 7647: 7636: 7633: 7632: 7630: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7601: 7595: 7592: 7591: 7584: 7583: 7576: 7569: 7561: 7552: 7551: 7549: 7548: 7536: 7524: 7512: 7499: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7435: 7428: 7427: 7426: 7416: 7411: 7405: 7403: 7399: 7398: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7361: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7321: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7313: 7303: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7280: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7275:Soil chemistry 7267: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7253:Food chemistry 7250: 7248:Carbochemistry 7245: 7243:Clay chemistry 7240: 7239: 7238: 7233: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7214: 7204: 7198:Astrochemistry 7194:Cosmochemistry 7191: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7177:Radiochemistry 7168: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7134:Neurochemistry 7131: 7126: 7125: 7124: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7084: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7065:Petrochemistry 7062: 7057: 7052: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7017: 7016: 7005: 7003: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6977: 6976: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6926:Spin chemistry 6923: 6921:Photochemistry 6918: 6913: 6908: 6906:Femtochemistry 6903: 6902: 6901: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6848: 6847: 6842: 6831: 6829: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6817: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6791: 6790: 6780: 6774: 6772: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6725: 6718:Chromatography 6715: 6710: 6709: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6661: 6656: 6650: 6648: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6638: 6636:Periodic table 6633: 6628: 6623: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6605: 6604: 6597: 6590: 6582: 6576: 6575: 6567: 6566:External links 6564: 6563: 6562: 6548: 6534: 6520: 6506: 6492: 6485: 6473:Atkins, P. W. 6465: 6464: 6450: 6444: 6432:Wothers, Peter 6428:Warren, Stuart 6420: 6405: 6385: 6384: 6368: 6356: 6342: 6326: 6312: 6298: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6267: 6261: 6244: 6238: 6221: 6215: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6150: 6143: 6125: 6100: 6074: 6049: 6042: 6024: 5999: 5964: 5939: 5914: 5907: 5889: 5864: 5839: 5832: 5814: 5788: 5781: 5756: 5730: 5707:Winter, Mark. 5699: 5662: 5632: 5587: 5580: 5554: 5519: 5493: 5477: 5454: 5429: 5380: 5378:, pp. 196–197. 5364: 5345:(4): 744–746. 5321: 5285: 5253: 5237: 5212:(6): 317–418. 5190: 5168: 5136: 5129: 5105: 5079: 5072: 5054: 5047: 5024: 5017: 4999: 4968: 4937: 4931:978-0415297660 4930: 4904: 4893:First chemists 4885: 4878: 4860: 4853: 4833: 4824: 4809: 4802: 4776: 4769: 4751: 4725: 4665: 4639: 4637:IUPAC Goldbook 4617: 4598: 4579: 4559: 4532: 4520: 4508: 4493: 4478: 4464: 4444: 4418: 4406: 4404:, p. 110. 4394: 4379: 4367: 4360: 4354:. p. 48. 4338: 4312: 4286: 4264: 4245: 4215: 4199: 4178: 4157:10.1086/660140 4151:(2): 313–321. 4131: 4124: 4106: 4076: 4055: 4034: 4002: 3972: 3942: 3916: 3910:978-0134414232 3909: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3822: 3819:Science portal 3808: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3705:Main article: 3702: 3699: 3683:phytochemistry 3671:nanotechnology 3615:cosmochemistry 3611:astrochemistry 3599: 3596: 3580:radiochemistry 3568:photochemistry 3564:petrochemistry 3536:flow chemistry 3528:femtochemistry 3520: 3519: 3458: 3439:astrochemistry 3411: 3373: 3320: 3317:neurochemicals 3313:Neurochemistry 3310: 3279: 3253:polypropylenes 3216: 3197:neurochemistry 3174: 3133: 3132:Subdisciplines 3130: 3122:pure chemistry 3117: 3114: 3067:chemical bonds 2956:William Ramsay 2940:periodic table 2857:isolated pure 2839:carbon dioxide 2780:propounded by 2762:Georg Agricola 2539:(341–270 BCE). 2519: 2516: 2482: 2479: 2391:Main article: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2366: 2344: 2337:thermodynamics 2326: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2305: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2283: 2281:Avogadro's law 2277: 2269:Main article: 2266: 2263: 2239:Main article: 2236: 2233: 2206: 2202: 2193:Main article: 2190: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2138:hydroxide ions 2134:hydronium ions 2114:Main article: 2100: 2097: 2086: 2042:Main article: 2027: 2026:Ions and salts 2024: 1968:and molecular 1966:neutralization 1914:Main article: 1911: 1908: 1862:spectral lines 1826: 1819:hydrogen bonds 1814: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1737:or mechanical 1716: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1698: 1624:Main article: 1621: 1618: 1561: 1463:Main article: 1460: 1457: 1345:Main article: 1334: 1331: 1269:Main article: 1266: 1263: 1241: 1240: 1204: 1203: 1190: 1189: 1176: 1175: 1159: 1156: 1121:network solids 1072: 1068: 1030:covalent bonds 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 985:Main article: 982: 979: 939:Main article: 932: 929:Carbon dioxide 921: 918: 902:periodic table 866:Main article: 856:periodic table 847: 844: 790:and uncharged 784:electron cloud 780:atomic nucleus 757:Main article: 754: 751: 719:Main article: 716: 713: 701:chromatography 620:chemical bonds 557: 554: 517:origins since 439:Main article: 436: 433: 409:cosmochemistry 366:chemical bonds 317: 316: 314: 313: 306: 299: 291: 288: 287: 286: 285: 272: 255: 254: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 224: 221: 220: 217: 216: 213: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 186: 183: 182: 179: 178: 175: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 128: 126:Key components 125: 124: 121: 120: 118: 117: 106: 104: 103: 98: 93: 87: 84: 83: 78: 70: 69: 63: 62: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7698: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7666: 7658: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7646: 7638: 7637: 7634: 7628: 7627:Space science 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7617:Life sciences 7615: 7613: 7612:Earth science 7610: 7609: 7606: 7600: 7597: 7596: 7593: 7589: 7582: 7577: 7575: 7570: 7568: 7563: 7562: 7559: 7547: 7546: 7537: 7535: 7534: 7529: 7525: 7523: 7522: 7513: 7511: 7510: 7501: 7500: 7497: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7480:Chemical bond 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7439: 7436: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7400: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7374: 7370: 7369:Stoichiometry 7367: 7366: 7365: 7362: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7335: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7325:Nanochemistry 7323: 7322: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7271: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7165: 7161: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7077: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7050:Semisynthesis 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7012: 7011: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7002: 6998: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6948: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6900: 6897: 6896: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6884:Sonochemistry 6882: 6880: 6879:Cryochemistry 6877: 6873: 6872:Micromeritics 6870: 6869: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6828: 6824: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6771: 6767: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6750:Wet chemistry 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6647: 6643: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6611: 6603: 6598: 6596: 6591: 6589: 6584: 6583: 6580: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6561: 6560:0-582-44416-0 6557: 6553: 6549: 6547: 6546:0-412-40040-5 6543: 6539: 6535: 6533: 6532:0-486-64871-0 6529: 6525: 6521: 6519: 6518:0-8014-0333-2 6515: 6511: 6507: 6505: 6504:0-19-855144-4 6501: 6497: 6493: 6490: 6486: 6484: 6483:0-19-879285-9 6480: 6476: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6463: 6462:0-471-58651-X 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6418: 6417:0-07-115221-0 6414: 6410: 6406: 6404: 6403:0-19-926463-5 6400: 6396: 6392: 6391: 6390: 6389: 6381: 6380: 6374: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6355: 6354:0-19-515027-9 6351: 6347: 6344:Stwertka, A. 6343: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6311: 6310:0-521-82397-8 6307: 6303: 6300:Atkins, P.W. 6299: 6297: 6296:0-19-860941-8 6293: 6289: 6285: 6282:Atkins, P.W. 6281: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6264: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6245: 6241: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6199:Atkins, Peter 6196: 6195: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6154: 6146: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6088: 6084: 6078: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6013: 6009: 6003: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5968: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5928: 5924: 5918: 5910: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5853: 5849: 5843: 5835: 5829: 5825: 5818: 5802: 5798: 5792: 5784: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5769: 5760: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5703: 5687: 5683: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5666: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5591: 5583: 5577: 5573: 5568: 5567: 5558: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5523: 5507: 5503: 5497: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5475: 5474:9781615305445 5471: 5467: 5461: 5459: 5442: 5436: 5434: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5391: 5384: 5377: 5373: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5334: 5325: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5257: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5230: 5227:(1942–1943). 5226: 5222:pp. 338–340; 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5194: 5188:1 (1937), 40. 5187: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5166: 5165:0-486-24823-2 5162: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5132: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5109: 5093: 5089: 5083: 5075: 5069: 5065: 5058: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5028: 5020: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4972: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4933: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4908: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4889: 4881: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4856: 4850: 4846: 4845: 4837: 4828: 4820: 4813: 4805: 4799: 4795: 4790:as found in: 4787: 4780: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4739: 4735: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4670: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4636: 4632: 4629: 4626: 4621: 4614: 4610: 4607: 4602: 4595: 4591: 4588: 4583: 4576: 4572: 4569: 4563: 4547: 4543: 4536: 4529: 4524: 4518:, p. 16. 4517: 4512: 4504: 4497: 4489: 4482: 4467: 4461: 4457: 4456: 4448: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4416:, p. 12. 4415: 4410: 4403: 4398: 4391: 4386: 4384: 4377:, p. 13. 4376: 4371: 4363: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4274: 4268: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4249: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4212:0-486-21873-2 4209: 4203: 4196: 4195:0-19-861213-3 4192: 4188: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4127: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4080: 4073: 4072:0-13-010310-1 4069: 4065: 4059: 4052: 4051:3-527-30271-9 4048: 4044: 4038: 4022: 4018: 4017: 4012: 4006: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3912: 3906: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3820: 3814: 3809: 3806: 3795: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3607:agrochemistry 3604: 3595: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3584:sonochemistry 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3369: 3368:critical mass 3365: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3343:nuclear power 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3327:transmutation 3324: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3210: 3209:plant science 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3080: 3076: 3075:Linus Pauling 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3051:Henry Moseley 3048: 3043: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3020:radioactivity 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2961: 2960:Lord Rayleigh 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2932:William Prout 2925: 2920: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2909:alkali metals 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2805: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2772: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2569:stating that 2568: 2564: 2563:four elements 2560: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2515: 2513: 2512:Raymond Chang 2509: 2508:Linus Pauling 2504: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2478: 2476: 2475:Willard Gibbs 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2425:, and making 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2400: 2394: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2297:Charles's law 2295: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2265:Chemical laws 2262: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2248: 2242: 2232: 2230: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2186: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2109: 2105: 2096: 2094: 2090: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2045: 2037: 2032: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1970:rearrangement 1967: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1824: 1820: 1812: 1807: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1760:is negative, 1759: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1700: 1696: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1638:or aggregate 1637: 1633: 1627: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1559: 1554: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1507:hydrogen bond 1504: 1500: 1499:covalent bond 1495: 1492: 1484: 1481:(Cl) to form 1480: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1465:Chemical bond 1456: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1444:ferromagnetic 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1386:supercritical 1382: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1339: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1309:), where the 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1278: 1272: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1155: 1153: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1129:formula units 1126: 1122: 1118: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1041:molecular ion 1037: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1022: 998: 993: 988: 978: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 942: 930: 926: 917: 915: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 887: 883: 879: 878:atomic number 875: 869: 861: 857: 852: 843: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 808: 805: 801: 798:), while the 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 770: 765: 760: 750: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 722: 712: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 672: 671:chemical laws 668: 664: 660: 655: 647: 643: 638: 634: 632: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 574: 570: 566: 562: 553: 544: 538: 537: 526: 525:Ancient Greek 521: 516: 505: 500: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 459: 454: 450: 449: 442: 432: 430: 424: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 373: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 312: 307: 305: 300: 298: 293: 292: 290: 289: 283: 273: 270: 259: 258: 257: 256: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 233: 229: 226: 225: 219: 218: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 187: 181: 180: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 129: 123: 122: 115: 111: 108: 107: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 88: 86: 85: 81: 76: 72: 71: 68: 65: 64: 60: 59: 56: 51: 44: 42: 34: 19: 7543: 7531: 7519: 7507: 7357:Biosynthesis 7207:Geochemistry 7122:Pharmacology 7098:Cell biology 7088:Biochemistry 6916:Spectroscopy 6815:VSEPR theory 6664:Spectroscopy 6609: 6608:Branches of 6551: 6537: 6523: 6509: 6508:Pauling, L. 6495: 6494:McWeeny, R. 6488: 6474: 6467: 6466: 6454:Biochemistry 6453: 6435: 6408: 6394: 6387: 6386: 6377: 6364:the original 6345: 6331: 6315: 6301: 6283: 6276: 6275: 6248: 6225: 6202: 6191:Bibliography 6176:. 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Thomson 2992: 2982: 2969: 2929: 2901:voltaic pile 2897:Humphry Davy 2890: 2879: 2831:Joseph Black 2828: 2802: 2794:Robert Hooke 2790:Robert Boyle 2775: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2740:, author of 2716:pseudo-Geber 2700:sal ammoniac 2693: 2669:distillation 2658: 2616: 2609: 2604:philosopher 2556: 2542: 2496: 2487:Robert Boyle 2484: 2452: 2445: 2442:Robert Boyle 2435: 2403: 2380:Raoult's law 2274: 2271:Chemical law 2252: 2244: 2225: 2198: 2160: 2153: 2119: 2091: 2049: 2047: 2004: 1981: 1974: 1964:, acid–base 1962:dissociation 1953:dissociation 1950: 1937: 1935: 1897: 1866:spectroscopy 1855: 1837: 1835: 1808: 1803:quantization 1796: 1747: 1685: 1679: 1660: 1629: 1603: 1594: 1567: 1560:molecule (CH 1535: 1496: 1488: 1440:paramagnetic 1425: 1416: 1394: 1390:triple point 1383: 1376: 1366: 1353: 1350: 1274: 1244: 1149: 1124: 1113: 1078: 1038: 1020: 1018: 946: 944: 899: 881: 871: 862:of elements. 822:, preferred 809: 773: 724: 697:spectroscopy 675: 651: 628: 577: 494: 492: 456: 455:of the word 446: 444: 425: 413:pharmacology 374: 321: 320: 195:Biochemistry 172:Chemical law 79: 66: 55: 40: 7545:WikiProject 6770:Theoretical 6755:Calorimetry 6329:Levi, Primo 6314:Kean, Sam. 5797:"Chemistry" 5625:30 November 5535:(5): 1–18. 5397:The Hexagon 5225:Kraus, Paul 4992:10 November 4945:Lucretius. 4352:Brooks/Cole 3465:mathematics 3361:uranium-235 3357:atomic bomb 3106:J. W. Gibbs 3016:Marie Curie 2952:noble gases 2882:John Dalton 2845:discovered 2837:discovered 2809:Boyle's law 2689:Renaissance 2648:(Geber), a 2548:Babylonians 2333:equilibrium 2319:Henry's law 2291:Boyle's law 2247:equilibrium 2235:Equilibrium 2167:logarithmic 1792:equilibrium 1750:free energy 1735:electricity 1362:temperature 1293:particles ( 1249:and set of 1247:composition 1235:(salt) and 1067:molecule (C 999:molecule (C 886:mass number 646:nitric acid 453:Renaissance 360:with other 332:within the 7381:Metallurgy 7080:Biological 6646:Analytical 6554:(Longman) 6087:Libretexts 5723:27 January 4465:0854044388 4276:Definition 4238:1 November 4228:Britannica 4089:Britannica 4027:1 December 3885:References 3353:Little Boy 3307:interfaces 3136:See also: 3047:Niels Bohr 3032:transmuted 2863:phlogiston 2798:John Mayow 2683:after the 2681:Arab world 2631:Empedocles 2594:Democritus 2533:Democritus 2522:See also: 2518:Background 2481:Definition 2324:Hess's law 2250:of phase. 1840:of energy 1821:. Whereas 1743:ultrasound 1671:exothermic 1583:octet rule 1503:ionic bond 1446:phases of 1251:properties 1137:table salt 1133:unit cells 1034:lone pairs 624:laboratory 596:substances 565:Laboratory 488:alchemists 468:philosophy 464:metallurgy 362:substances 328:. It is a 7686:Chemistry 7443:Catalysis 6951:Inorganic 6745:Titration 6610:chemistry 6409:Chemistry 6228:. Italy: 6226:Chemistry 6178:22 August 5994:1364-5447 5422:7 January 5409:0164-6109 5247:468740510 5218:706947607 4961:9 January 4821:. London. 4744:8 October 4712:1476-4687 4625:Gold Book 4273:Gold Book 4165:0021-1753 3995:24 August 3965:24 August 3511:electrons 3380:reactions 3299:materials 3265:amorphous 3257:tacticity 3238:zirconium 3205:forensics 3189:organisms 3181:chemicals 3155:structure 3055:Otto Hahn 3008:Becquerel 2712:Latinized 2673:Byzantine 2606:Lucretius 2567:Aristotle 2545:Egyptians 2421:, making 2083:phosphate 2081:(OH) and 2079:hydroxide 1984:mechanism 1898:The term 1874:microwave 1774:≤ 1768:Δ 1701:− 1663:exergonic 1640:structure 1636:molecular 1595:duet rule 1578:noble gas 1515:molecules 1491:multipole 1477:(Na) and 1307:electrons 1299:molecules 1221:allotrope 1211:(Sn) and 1152:structure 953:(IUPAC). 804:electrons 735:particles 727:rest mass 685:structure 616:reactions 592:molecules 480:mysticism 476:astronomy 472:astrology 448:chemistry 445:The word 435:Etymology 421:forensics 358:reactions 350:molecules 342:compounds 322:Chemistry 67:Chemistry 43:(journal) 7680:Category 7645:Category 7509:Category 7465:Molecule 7402:See also 6827:Physical 6456:(Wiley) 6434:(2001). 6172:Archived 6118:11 April 6093:11 April 6067:11 April 6017:11 April 5932:11 April 5807:10 March 5749:20 March 5743:Archived 5717:Archived 5686:Archived 5673:Archived 5649:Archived 5619:Archived 5607:: 1–45. 5549:97557390 5506:Archived 5374:(1938). 5339:Speculum 5313:Archived 5273:Archived 5153:Archived 5098:12 March 4986:Archived 4955:Archived 4896:Archived 4788:. Paris. 4738:Archived 4652:Archived 4631:Archived 4609:Archived 4590:Archived 4571:Archived 4546:Archived 4431:Archived 4325:Archived 4279:Archived 4256:Archived 4232:Archived 4173:21874691 4093:Archived 4021:Archived 3989:Archived 3959:Archived 3791:See also 3701:Industry 3675:oenology 3402:aldehyde 3400:with an 3303:polymers 3213:genetics 3116:Practice 3036:nitrogen 3004:electron 2930:British 2847:hydrogen 2754:chymista 2724:Avicenna 2635:Epicurus 2598:Epicurus 2537:Epicurus 2459:chemists 2450:(1661). 2341:kinetics 2185:values. 2146:hydrogen 1992:kinetics 1942:solution 1926:compound 1910:Reaction 1648:decrease 1644:increase 1587:hydrogen 1574:molecule 1543:chlorine 1519:crystals 1479:chlorine 1448:magnetic 1438:and the 1358:pressure 1323:solution 1050:radicals 1021:molecule 997:caffeine 987:Molecule 981:Molecule 947:compound 920:Compound 891:isotopes 840:covalent 832:metallic 800:electron 796:nucleons 792:neutrons 709:concepts 705:chemists 604:crystals 543:al-kīmīā 520:al-kīmīā 515:Egyptian 510:الكیمیاء 504:al-kīmīā 484:medicine 344:made of 282:Category 222:Research 184:Branches 114:timeline 101:Glossary 50:Kemistry 7665:Commons 7599:Outline 7521:Commons 7485:Alchemy 7001:Organic 6012:pslc.ws 5957:1 April 5882:1 April 5857:1 April 5692:18 July 5655:20 July 5512:12 June 5504:. 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