Cell signaling - Knowledge

99:(e.g. Na+, K+, Ca++, etc.), lipids (e.g. steroid, prostaglandin), peptides (e.g. insulin, ACTH), carbohydrates, glycosylated proteins (proteoglycans), nucleic acids, etc. Peptide and lipid ligands are particularly important, as most hormones belong to these classes of chemicals. Peptides are usually polar, hydrophilic molecules. As such they are unable to diffuse freely across the bi-lipid layer of the plasma membrane, so their action is mediated by a cell membrane bound receptor. On the other hand, liposoluble chemicals such as steroid hormones, can diffuse passively across the plasma membrane and interact with intracellular receptors. Cell signaling can occur over short or long distances, and can be further classified as 5329: 447:), but important exceptions to both are numerous, and the same molecule can act both via surface receptors or in an intracrine manner to different effects. In animal cells, specialized cells release these hormones and send them through the circulatory system to other parts of the body. They then reach target cells, which can recognize and respond to the hormones and produce a result. This is also known as endocrine signaling. Plant growth regulators, or plant hormones, move through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas to reach their targets. 1854: 1161: 888: 1489:

are known as relay molecules. The multistep process of the transduction stage is often composed of the activation of proteins by addition or removal of phosphate groups or even the release of other small molecules or ions that can act as messengers. The amplifying of a signal is one of the benefits to this multiple step sequence. Other benefits include more opportunities for regulation than simpler systems do and the fine-tuning of the response, in both unicellular and multicellular organism.

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targets for about 50% of drugs currently on the market, mainly due to their involvement in signaling pathways related to many diseases i.e. mental, metabolic including endocrinological disorders, immunological including viral infections, cardiovascular, inflammatory, senses disorders, and cancer. The long ago discovered association between GPCRs and many endogenous and exogenous substances, resulting in e.g. analgesia, is another dynamically developing field of pharmaceutical research.

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signaling all ensure that the right cells are behaving as told, at the right time, and in synchronization with other cells and their own functions within the organism. At the end, the end of a signal pathway leads to the regulation of a cellular activity. This response can take place in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm of the cell. A majority of signaling pathways control protein synthesis by turning certain genes on and off in the nucleus.

6700: 376: 1308: 142:. Receptors have the ability to detect a signal either by binding to a specific chemical or by undergoing a conformational change when interacting with physical agents. It is the specificity of the chemical interaction between a given ligand and its receptor that confers the ability to trigger a specific cellular response. Receptors can be broadly classified into cell membrane receptors and intracellular receptors. 1036: 2124: 1389:

Intracellular receptors often have a level of specificity, this allows the receptors to initiate certain responses when bound to a corresponding ligand. Intracellular receptors typically act on lipid soluble molecules. The receptors bind to a group of DNA binding proteins. Upon binding, the receptor-ligand complex translocates to the nucleus where they can alter patterns of gene expression.

3495: 2203:. Cell signaling research involves studying the spatial and temporal dynamics of both receptors and the components of signaling pathways that are activated by receptors in various cell types. Emerging methods for single-cell mass-spectrometry analysis promise to enable studying signal transduction with single-cell resolution. 1462:

is common way of turning receptors "off". Endocytic down regulation is regarded as a means for reducing receptor signaling. The process involves the binding of a ligand to the receptor, which then triggers the formation of coated pits, the coated pits transform to coated vesicles and are transported

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each have an equal chance of terminally differentiating or becoming a uterine precursor cell that continues to divide. The choice of which cell continues to divide is controlled by competition of cell surface signals. One cell will happen to produce more of a cell surface protein that activates the

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A specific cellular response is the result of the transduced signal in the final stage of cell signaling. This response can essentially be any cellular activity that is present in a body. It can spur the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, or even as catalysis by an enzyme. These three steps of cell

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In intracrine signaling, the signaling chemicals are produced inside the cell and bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors without being secreted from the cell.. In intracrine signaling, signals are relayed without being secreted from the cell. The intracrine signals not being secreted outside of the

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When binding to the signaling molecule, the receptor protein changes in some way and starts the process of transduction, which can occur in a single step or as a series of changes in a sequence of different molecules (called a signal transduction pathway). The molecules that compose these pathways

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have a different mechanism of action. They usually bind to lipid soluble ligands that diffuse passively through the plasma membrane such as steroid hormones. These ligands bind to specific cytoplasmic transporters that shuttle the hormone-transporter complex inside the nucleus where specific genes

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Ion channels receptors are large transmembrane proteins with a ligand activated gate function. When these receptors are activated, they may allow or block passage of specific ions across the cell membrane. Most receptors activated by physical stimuli such as pressure or temperature belongs to this

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occurs when the chemical signal acts on the same cell that produced the signaling chemical. Intracrine signaling occurs when the chemical signal produced by a cell acts on receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the same cell. Juxtacrine signaling occurs between physically adjacent cells.

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are multimeric proteins embedded within the plasma membrane. These receptors have extracellular, trans-membrane and intracellular domains. The extracellular domain is responsible for the interaction with a specific ligand. The intracellular domain is responsible for the initiation of a cascade of

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G protein-coupled receptors are an important drug target and approximately 34% of all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs target 108 members of this family. The global sales volume for these drugs is estimated to be 180 billion US dollars as of 2018. It is estimated that GPCRs are

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seven times. The G-protein acts as a "middle man" transferring the signal from its activated receptor to its target and therefore indirectly regulates that target protein. Ligands can bind either to extracellular N-terminus and loops (e.g. glutamate receptors) or to the binding site within

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Cserép, Csaba; Pósfai, Balázs; Lénárt, Nikolett; Fekete, Rebeka; László, Zsófia I.; Lele, Zsolt; Orsolits, Barbara; Molnár, Gábor; Heindl, Steffanie; Schwarcz, Anett D.; Ujvári, Katinka; Környei, Zsuzsanna; Tóth, Krisztina; Szabadits, Eszter; Sperlágh, Beáta; Baranyi, Mária; Csiba, László;

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Intracellular receptors exist freely in the cytoplasm, nucleus, or can be bound to organelles or membranes. For example, the presence of nuclear and mitochondrial receptors is well documented. The binding of a ligand to the intracellular receptor typically induces a response in the cell.

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Reducing the sensitivity of the receptor is a result of receptors being occupied for a long time. This results in a receptor adaptation in which the receptor no longer responds to the signaling molecule. Many receptors have the ability to change in response to ligand concentration.

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when the population is dense enough. The mechanism involves the production and detection of a signaling molecule, and the regulation of gene transcription in response. Quorum sensing operates in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and both within and between species.

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cascade that propagates the signal through the cell. Second messenger systems can amplify or modulate a signal, in which activation of a few receptors results in multiple secondary messengers being activated, thereby amplifying the initial signal (the first messenger). The

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In paracrine signaling, a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells. Signaling molecules known as paracrine factors diffuse over a relatively short distance (local action), as opposed to cell signaling by

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in the body - even between different species - are known to utilize a similar sets of paracrine factors in differential development. The highly conserved receptors and pathways can be organized into four major families based on similar structures:

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with an extracellular domain responsible for binding a specific ligand and an intracellular domain with enzymatic or catalytic activity. Upon activation the enzymatic portion is responsible for promoting specific intracellular chemical reactions.

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that code for signaling proteins that interact specifically with Notch receptors and stimulate a response in cells that express Notch on their surface. Molecules that activate (or, in some cases, inhibit) receptors can be classified as hormones,

184:. In this process, the signal, by interacting with the receptor, starts a series of molecular events within the cell leading to the final effect of the signaling process. Typically the final effect consists in the activation of an ion channel ( 1524:

effect of the ligand on the cell's behavior is produced. Often, the behavior of a chain of several interacting cell proteins is altered following receptor activation. The entire set of cell changes induced by receptor activation is called a

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Hortobágyi, Tibor; Maglóczky, Zsófia; Martinecz, Bernadett; Szabó, Gábor; Erdélyi, Ferenc; Szipőcs, Róbert; Tamkun, Michael M.; Gesierich, Benno; Duering, Marco; Katona, István; Liesz, Arthur; Tamás, Gábor; Dénes, Ádám (31 January 2020).

1267:. The G protein's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type ( 575:

Autocrine signaling involves a cell secreting a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell itself. This can be contrasted with

1637:, which is also found in social insects, the multiplicity of individual signals has the potentiality to create a positive feedback loop, generating coordinated response. In this context, the signaling molecules are called 3244:

Clarke MB, Sperandio V (June 2005). "Events at the host-microbial interface of the gastrointestinal tract III. Cell-to-cell signaling among microbial flora, host, and pathogens: there is a whole lot of talking going on".

1350:. The signaling molecule binds to the receptor on the outside of the cell and causes a conformational change on the catalytic function located on the receptor inside the cell. Examples of the enzymatic activity include: 1520:. However, for many cell surface receptors, ligand-receptor interactions are not directly linked to the cell's response. The activated receptor must first interact with other proteins inside the cell before the ultimate 1603:

and, thus, alter gene transcription and, ultimately, cell cycle progression. Many cellular proteins are activated downstream of the growth factor receptors (such as EGFR) that initiate this signal transduction pathway.

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Cell surface receptors play an essential role in the biological systems of single- and multi-cellular organisms and malfunction or damage to these proteins is associated with cancer, heart disease, and asthma. These

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cell is what sets apart intracrine signaling from the other cell signaling mechanisms such as autocrine signaling. In both autocrine and intracrine signaling, the signal has an effect on the cell that produced it.

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These receptor proteins are typically composed of at least two different domains: a transmembrane domain which includes the ion pore, and an extracellular domain which includes the ligand binding location (an

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Dahlman-Wright K, Cavailles V, Fuqua SA, Jordan VC, Katzenellenbogen JA, Korach KS, Maggi A, Muramatsu M, Parker MG, Gustafsson JA (Dec 2006). "International Union of Pharmacology. LXIV. Estrogen receptors".

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is produced in small amounts by some cells of the human body and has a number of biological signaling functions. Only two other such gases are currently known to act as signaling molecules in the human body:

1093:. If these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, a resulting conformational change opens the ion channels, which leads to a flow of ions across the cell membrane. This, in turn, results in either a 1109:

binding site). This modularity has enabled a 'divide and conquer' approach to finding the structure of the proteins (crystallising each domain separately). The function of such receptors located at

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In the case of Notch-mediated signaling, the signal transduction mechanism can be relatively simple. As shown in Figure 2, the activation of Notch can cause the Notch protein to be altered by a

899:. Receptors may bind with some molecules (ligands) or may interact with physical agents like light, mechanical temperature, pressure, etc. Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a 1614:

Complex multi-component signal transduction pathways provide opportunities for feedback, signal amplification, and interactions inside one cell between multiple signals and signaling pathways.

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environment. Factors then travel to nearby cells in which the gradient of factor received determines the outcome. However, the exact distance that paracrine factors can travel is not certain.

907:) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to a receptor protein on the cell surface, or once inside the cell, the signaling molecule can bind to 515:. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structures at the cell plasma membrane, where secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse to release intra-vesicular contents from the cell. 511:. Exocytosis is the process by which a large amount of molecules are released; thus it is a form of bulk transport. Exocytosis occurs via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called 3957:"International Union of Pharmacology. LXV. The pharmacology and classification of the nuclear receptor superfamily: glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid, progesterone, and androgen receptors" 2920:

Cserép, Csaba; Schwarcz, Anett D.; Pósfai, Balázs; László, Zsófia I.; Kellermayer, Anna; Környei, Zsuzsanna; Kisfali, Máté; Nyerges, Miklós; Lele, Zsolt; Katona, István (September 2022).

2160:. Ligand receptor interactions such as that of the Notch receptor interaction, are known to be the main interactions responsible for cell signaling mechanisms and communication. 383:

Many cell signals are carried by molecules that are released by one cell and move to make contact with another cell. Signaling molecules can belong to several chemical classes:

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to reach all parts of the body. Specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone. Endocrine signaling involves the release of

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In some cases, receptor activation caused by ligand binding to a receptor is directly coupled to the cell's response to the ligand. For example, the neurotransmitter

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Lu NZ, Wardell SE, Burnstein KL, Defranco D, Fuller PJ, Giguere V, Hochberg RB, McKay L, Renoir JM, Weigel NL, Wilson EM, McDonnell DP, Cidlowski JA (Dec 2006).

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acts as a receptor for ligands that are expressed on adjacent cells. While some receptors are cell-surface proteins, others are found inside cells. For example,

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enables individuals to begin an activity only when the population is sufficiently large. This signaling between cells was first observed in the marine bacterium

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Paracrine signaling occurs between nearby cells. Endocrine interaction occurs between distant cells, with the chemical signal usually carried by the blood.

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Although paracrine signaling elicits a diverse array of responses in the induced cells, most paracrine factors utilize a relatively streamlined set of

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inside the cell, induced by an external signal. Many growth factors bind to receptors at the cell surface and stimulate cells to progress through the

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or system that reduces Notch expression in the cell that will differentiate and that increases Notch on the surface of the cell that continues as a

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They have two important domains, an extra-cellular ligand binding domain and an intracellular domain, which has a catalytic function; and a single

526:, where they dock and fuse at porosomes and their contents (i.e., water-soluble molecules) are secreted into the extracellular environment. This 3282:"A microdomain formed by the extracellular ends of the transmembrane domains promotes activation of the G protein-coupled alpha-factor receptor" 4907: 1584:(MAPK) pathway. The signal transduction component labeled as "MAPK" in the pathway was originally called "ERK," so the pathway is called the 130:

are complex proteins or tightly bound multimer of proteins, located in the plasma membrane or within the interior of the cell such as in the

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Purves, Dale; George J. Augustine; David Fitzpatrick; William C. Hall; Anthony-Samuel LaMantia; James O. McNamara; Leonard E. White (2008).

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receptor activation allows negatively charged chloride ions to move into the neuron, which inhibits the ability of the neuron to produce

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King N, Hittinger CT, Carroll SB (July 2003). "Evolution of key cell signaling and adhesion protein families predates animal origins".

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Some signaling transduction pathways respond differently, depending on the amount of signaling received by the cell. For instance, the

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Receptor Phosphorylation is another type of receptor down-regulation. Biochemical changes can reduce receptor affinity for a ligand.

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Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).

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can generate a binding site for a different protein and thus induce protein–protein interaction. In this case, the ligand (called

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is a special case of paracrine signaling where the secreting cell has the ability to respond to the secreted signaling molecule.

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The AMPA receptor bound to a glutamate antagonist showing the amino terminal, ligand binding, and transmembrane domain, PDB 3KG2

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from unicellular to multicellular organisms. Bacteria also use contact-dependent signaling, notably to limit their growth.

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signal pathway. When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a

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Brief overview of some signaling pathways (based on receptor families) that result in short-acting cellular responses

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can be further classified into ion channel linked receptors, G-Protein coupled receptors and enzyme linked receptors.

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Ferrell JE, Machleder EM (May 1998). "The biochemical basis of an all-or-none cell fate switch in Xenopus oocytes".

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Bassler, Bonnie L. (1999). "How bacteria talk to each other: regulation of gene expression by quorum sensing".

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which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone

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Wettschureck N, Offermanns S (October 2005). "Mammalian G proteins and their cell type specific functions".

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links the intracellular compartments of two adjacent cells, allowing transit of relatively small molecules.

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interacts with itself, other cells, and the environment. Cell signaling is a fundamental property of all

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mechanism, exocytosis requires the use of energy to transport material. Exocytosis and its counterpart,

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chemical reactions which ultimately triggers the specific cellular function controlled by the receptor.

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Typically, the signaling process involves three components: the signal, the receptor, and the effector.

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Jesmin S, Mowa CN, Sakuma I, Matsuda N, Togashi H, Yoshioka M, Hattori Y, Kitabatake A (October 2004).

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and are transported to the heart by way of the blood stream. Norepinephrine can also be produced by

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Each cell is programmed to respond to specific extracellular signal molecules, and is the basis of

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Brief overview of some signaling pathways (based on receptor families) that control gene activity

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Roepstorff, Kirstine; Grøvdal, Lene; Grandal, Michael; Lerdrup, Mads; van Deurs, Bo (May 2008).

2839: 2833: 1572:). This activates the receptor to phosphorylate itself. The phosphorylated receptor binds to an 1243:

There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-coupled receptors:

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Signaling molecules can be synthesized from various biosynthetic pathways and released through

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A more complex signal transduction pathway is the MAPK/ERK pathway, which involves changes of

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Hauser AS, Chavali S, Masuho I, Jahn LJ, Martemyanov KA, Gloriam DE, Babu MM (January 2018).

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VEGF receptors are a type of enzyme-coupled receptors, specifically tyrosine kinase receptors

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Some signaling molecules can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. For example,

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Tirindelli R, Dibattista M, Pifferi S, Menini A (July 2009). "From pheromones to behavior".

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In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, signaling can be used to 'activate' peers from a

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receptors are able to transmit information from outside the cell to the inside because they

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Clark, James H.; Peck, Ernest J. (1984), Goldberger, Robert F.; Yamamoto, Keith R. (eds.),

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that start to phosphorylate themselves and other proteins when binding to a ligand. This

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In biology, signals are mostly chemical in nature, but can also be physical cues such as

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to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a

6664: 6574:. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article. 5968: 5929: 5875: 5738: 4993: 4885: 4764: 4731: 4707: 4682: 4527: 4502: 4437: 4404: 4380: 4355: 4201: 4176: 4103: 4070: 4046: 4013: 3987: 3937: 3822: 3789: 3767: 3748: 3727: 3669: 3644: 3552: 3479: 3454: 3355: 3330: 3221: 3186: 3051: 3026: 3007: 2946: 2921: 2897: 2864: 2809: 2784: 2592:"Chemical identity of the acrasin of the cellular slime mold Polysphondylium violaceum" 1960: 1673: 1149: 1137: 1078: 842: 826: 716: 492: 491:, the process that brings substances into the cell, are used by all cells because most 355: 240: 84: 54: 3788:

Lee, Junghee; Sharma, Swati; Kim, Jinho; Ferrante, Robert J.; Ryu, Hoon (April 2008).

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In plants and animals, signaling between cells occurs either through release into the

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Mohamed OA, Jonnaert M, Labelle-Dumais C, Kuroda K, Clarke HJ, Dufort D (June 2005).

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is a cell surface protein that functions as a receptor. Animals have a small set of

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Cells receive information from their neighbors through a class of proteins known as

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Han R, Bansal D, Miyake K, Muniz VP, Weiss RM, McNeil PL, Campbell KP (July 2007).

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although a spontaneous auto-activation of an empty receptor can also be observed.

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activates different genes, depending on the amount of hedgehog protein present.

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of these signaling pathways may include additional enzymatic activities such as

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Trzaskowski B, Latek D, Yuan S, Ghoshdastider U, Debinski A, Filipek S (2012).

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3164: 3042: 2690: 2297: 2153: 2046: 1967: 1853: 1634: 1589: 1501: 1181: 1169: 1160: 1094: 1086: 984:) into their environment. The mating factor peptide may bind to a cell surface 753: 606: 543: 531: 432: 272: 95:. These molecules, also referred as ligands, are chemically diverse, including 62: 58: 4620: 4518: 4029: 3846: 2755: 1188:, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the 887: 6714: 6178: 6124: 6101: 6060: 5952: 5943: 5824: 5579: 5041: 4153: 4094: 4037: 3813: 3455:"Action of molecular switches in GPCRs--theoretical and experimental studies" 3258: 2922:"Microglial control of neuronal development via somatic purinergic junctions" 2888: 2625: 2431: 2282: 2230: 2177: 2173: 2100: 1734: 1729: 1686: 1630: 1553: 1189: 1044: 963: 927: 870: 866: 862: 757: 738: 728: 683: 657: 614: 523: 504: 444: 424: 236: 4755: 4428: 4283: 3540: 3211: 2995: 2616: 6492: 6460: 6367: 6362: 6346: 6218: 6042: 5996: 5849: 5504: 5266: 5031: 5027: 4805: 4788: 4773: 4716: 4581: 4536: 4503:"Bacterial landlines: contact-dependent signaling in bacterial populations" 4487: 4446: 4389: 4340: 4210: 4112: 4055: 3983: 3933: 3831: 3739: 3678: 3626: 3570:

Gilman AG (1987). "G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals".

3548: 3488: 3364: 3315: 3266: 3230: 3150: 3109: 3060: 3003: 2955: 2906: 2818: 2576: 2439: 2252: 1991: 1986: 1830: 1805: 1404: 1118: 850: 667: 404: 388: 252: 139: 4814: 4667: 4478: 4462:"Phylogeny and evolution of chemical communication: an endocrine approach" 4461: 4302: 4161: 3591: 2643: 2539: 2188:

from a variety of cell types can be activated by estrogen produced in the

1216:

that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds,

1193:

transmembrane helices (Rhodopsin-like family). They are all activated by

620: 567: 6571: 6437: 6374: 6325: 6019: 6003: 5989: 5887: 5882: 5811: 5699: 5669: 5594: 5261: 5074: 4175:

Dinasarapu AR, Saunders B, Ozerlat I, Azam K, Subramaniam S (June 2011).

2971: 2292: 2169: 1938: 1878: 1638: 1497: 1444: 1114: 1047: 931: 749: 675: 500: 488: 428: 420: 412: 244: 225: 206: 88: 3141: 3124: 2865:"An intracrine view of sex steroids, immunity, and metabolic regulation" 2478: 411:. Signaling molecules binding surface receptors are generally large and 6543: 6474: 6425: 6404: 6395: 6339: 6294: 6258: 6171: 6110: 6035: 6010: 5959: 5840: 5519: 5405: 5308: 5214: 4257:

Mukamolova GV, Kaprelyants AS, Young DI, Young M, Kell DB (July 1998).

2423: 1549: 1521: 1122: 959: 935: 846: 825:. Hormones are produced by endocrine cells and they travel through the 727:. Cells that produce paracrine factors secrete them into the immediate 581: 468: 392: 302: 298: 290: 108: 104: 66: 4698: 4319:

Miller MB, Bassler BL (1 October 2001). "Quorum sensing in bacteria".

3975: 3925: 3805: 2800: 1532: 6444: 6429: 6420: 6298: 6288: 6276: 6263: 6249: 6238: 6234: 6203: 6198: 6191: 6150: 5712: 5244: 4978: 3346: 3247:

American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology

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Signaling molecules used by multicellular organisms are often called

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activity on the intracellular side. Hence a catalytic receptor is an

1324: 1256: 1221: 1201: 1185: 1055: 981: 804:. Binding of a paracrine factor to its respective receptor initiates 773: 699: 691: 585: 527: 396: 312: 301:, i.e. they are attracted by the chemical gradient. Some species use 135: 131: 116: 112: 100: 70: 4879: 4856:: authoritative information about signaling pathways in human cells. 2408:"The intracrine hypothesis and intracellular peptide hormone action" 546:

via exocytosis; however, neurotransmitters can also be released via

6699: 6467: 6271: 6145: 6138: 5915: 5036: 3184: 2385:(1st ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2196: 2165: 2149: 1867: 1716: 1622: 1509: 1436: 1177: 1063: 955: 942:, leading to various physiological effects. In many mammals, early 838: 765: 687: 679: 512: 472: 268: 256: 198: 80: 3910: 3027:"Retinoic acid synthesis and signaling during early organogenesis" 2210:, direct contact between cells allows for precise control of cell 869:. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as 375: 177:

are activated and the synthesis of specific proteins is promoted.

6644: 6527: 6355: 6313: 6284: 6131: 6085: 5277: 5018: 4549: 4069:

Li, Xin; Huang, Yao; Jiang, Jing; Frank, Stuart J. (2008-11-01).

3494: 3452: 3187:"Uterine Wnt/beta-catenin signaling is required for implantation" 2338: 2027: 2018: 1910: 1408: 1307: 1237: 1233: 1225: 1194: 1110: 1059: 1015:

when a specific ligand binds to it. There are three major types:

977: 830: 822: 634: 480: 400: 347: 294: 38: 6561: 4356:"Bacterial cell-to-cell signaling in the gastrointestinal tract" 2453:

Gilbert, Scott F.; Tyler, Mary S.; Kozlowski, Ronald N. (2000).

1035: 6117: 6078: 5859: 4256: 4011: 1557: 1332: 1051: 947: 943: 919: 912: 854: 761: 630: 359: 248: 2341:– a curated resource of signal transduction pathways in humans 1089:. The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors located on the 715:, hormones which travel considerably longer distances via the 617:

organisms that requires close contact. There are three types:

247:. Errors in signaling interactions may cause diseases such as 4593: 4591: 4174: 3888:"Intracellular Receptor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 3498:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

2221: 2189: 1857:

Signal transduction pathways that lead to a cellular response

1600: 1240:. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases. 1205: 834: 769: 642: 384: 4177:"Signaling gateway molecule pages--a data model perspective" 988:

on other yeast cells and induce them to prepare for mating.

180:

The effector component of the signaling pathway begins with

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Shimomura, O.; Suthers, H. L.; Bonner, J. T. (1982-12-01).

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electrical signal. Many LICs are additionally modulated by

1117:

released neurotransmitter directly and very quickly into a

853:

is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. In

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Example of Ligands/ activators (Bracket: receptor for it)

772:

and function as a hormone or act locally via paracrine or

6499: 1900:

Response Regulator - flagellar movement, Gene expression

1776:

Response Regulator - flagellar movement, Gene expression

1512:-selective ion channel that is part of the receptor. GABA 1454: 1133: 624:

This image displays the different types of cell signaling

427:), while those entering the cell are generally small and 416: 96: 4915: 4605: 4603: 2968: 1496:

can activate a cell surface receptor that is part of an

741:

target only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell.

350:

signaling is a special case of paracrine signaling (for

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A G Protein-coupled receptor within the plasma membrane

938:

signaling. This generally results in the activation of

4789:"LIN-12/Notch signaling: lessons from worms and flies" 4128:"Receptor Cell Biology: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis" 3604: 2589: 334:(over long distances), or by direct contact, known as 6688: 4600: 3851:

Biological Regulation and Development: Hormone Action

3725: 2452: 2358:– physical communication via sound waves in membranes 1641:. This signaling mechanism may have been involved in 1315:

Enzyme-linked receptors (or catalytic receptors) are

918:

Signaling molecules interact with a target cell as a

571:

Differences between autocrine and paracrine signaling

5319: 4627:(2nd ed.). Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates. 3787: 3518: 3328: 3074:

Cartford MC, Samec A, Fister M, Bickford PC (2004).

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Regulation of Kinases and channels- Diverse actions

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activity (e.g. gasses), as in intracrine signaling.

764:

to function as a neurotransmitter within the brain.

3726:Alexander SP, Mathie A, Peters JA (February 2007). 3698:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 19–. 2689:Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). 2688: 694:cellular signals, playing an important role in the 4225: 3373:"Faulty Cell Membrane Repair Causes Heart Disease" 2722: 2132:-mediated juxtacrine signal between adjacent cells 4068: 3598: 2665:(6. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Assoc. 2502:Nealson, K.H.; Platt, T.; Hastings, J.W. (1970). 2495: 2457:(6th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Assoc. 1536:Key components of a signal transduction pathway ( 1168:G protein-coupled receptors are a large group of 745:represent another example of a paracrine signal. 702:both during development, and in the adult brain. 6712: 4680: 4637: 2335:– an antibody development and production company 1655: 1419:(typically cytoplasmic or nuclear) and initiate 1361:. Most enzyme-linked receptors are of this type. 1255:(GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated 958:exchange signals with each other and with human 756:can function as hormones when released from the 538:, neurotransmitters are typically released from 3691: 3279: 3243: 2596:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1473: 1184:and activate cellular responses. Coupling with 1030: 926:, and/or by entering into the cell through its 4402: 4353: 3638: 3636: 1200:G protein-coupled receptors are found only in 1155: 5293: 4901: 4860:Intercellular+Signaling+Peptides+and+Proteins 4780: 4405:"Bacterial small-molecule signaling pathways" 4318: 2838:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 2762:(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. 2753: 2106:Work as/ interact with transcription factors 1435:subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for 4500: 4494: 4453: 4396: 4347: 3948: 3904: 3853:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 99–127, 3512: 3322: 3067: 1097:, for an excitatory receptor response, or a 1043:Ion channel linked receptors are a group of 534:with the plasma membrane. In the context of 530:is possible because the vesicle transiently 4250: 4232:(9th ed.). Benjamin Cummings. p. 3633: 3563: 3178: 2835:Introduction To The Pharmaceutical Sciences 2697:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. 2546: 2383:Introduction to the pharmaceutical sciences 1848: 1820:Regulation of cGMP Gated channels, Kinases 1403:Steroid hormone receptors are found in the 1392: 1232:, and vary in size from small molecules to 5300: 5286: 4908: 4894: 4831:"The Inside Story of Cell Communication". 3719: 3280:Lin JC, Duell K, Konopka JB (March 2004). 3237: 3116: 2691:"General Principles of Cell Communication" 2214:during embryonic development. In the worm 2118: 2002:MHC-peptide complex - TCR, Antigens - BCR 1383: 1319:that, upon activation by an extracellular 1302: 1050:proteins which open to allow ions such as 557: 471:is the process by which a cell transports 379:Different types of extracellular signaling 4872:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 4862:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 4804: 4786: 4763: 4706: 4681:Slavov N, Carey J, Linse S (April 2013). 4563: 4526: 4477: 4436: 4379: 4314: 4312: 4292: 4282: 4200: 4143: 4102: 4045: 3844: 3821: 3747: 3685: 3668: 3478: 3354: 3305: 3220: 3210: 3140: 3099: 3050: 2945: 2896: 2808: 2785:"Porosome: the secretory portal in cells" 2756:"Signaling Molecules and Their Receptors" 2633: 2615: 2529: 991: 946:cells exchange signals with cells of the 808:cascades, eliciting different responses. 4732:"Unpicking the proteome in single cells" 4125: 3393:"Gene Family: Ligand gated ion channels" 2716: 2714: 2122: 1852: 1568:, or EGF) binds to the receptor (called 1531: 1365:Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase 1306: 1159: 1034: 891:Transmembrane receptor working principle 886: 619: 566: 518:In exocytosis, membrane-bound secretory 374: 370: 4854:NCI-Nature Pathway Interaction Database 4403:Camilli A, Bassler BL (February 2006). 3645:"Pharmacogenomics of GPCR Drug Targets" 3273: 3024: 3018: 2862: 2684: 2682: 2656: 2552: 2229:on the adjacent cell. This activates a 1881:, axin - APC, GSK3-beta - Beta catenin 845:, regulating distant target organs. In 499:molecules that cannot pass through the 365: 14: 6713: 6541: 6532: 6525: 6504: 6497: 6490: 6481: 6472: 6465: 6458: 6449: 6442: 6435: 6418: 6409: 6402: 6393: 6386: 6379: 6372: 6344: 6337: 6330: 6323: 6311: 6304: 6282: 6269: 6256: 6232: 6225: 6216: 6209: 6183: 6176: 6155: 6136: 6122: 6108: 6099: 6090: 6083: 6076: 6058: 6049: 6040: 6033: 6024: 6017: 6008: 6001: 5994: 5973: 5966: 5957: 5950: 5941: 5934: 5927: 5920: 5913: 5906: 5899: 5892: 5775: 5760: 5747: 5734: 5721: 5708: 5695: 5680: 5650: 5637: 5622: 5605: 5590: 5575: 5562: 5545: 5530: 5515: 5469: 5458: 5445: 5430: 5415: 5402: 5389: 5376: 5361: 5348: 5335: 4838:"When Cell Communication Goes Wrong". 4729: 4621:"Functions of Cell Surface Receptors." 4618: 4309: 3569: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3427:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 156–7. 3416: 2831: 2380: 1833:, other extracellular matrix proteins 1455:Mechanisms of Receptor Down-Regulation 6513: 6360: 6353: 6247: 6196: 6169: 6143: 6067: 5987: 5980: 5880: 5873: 5864: 5847: 5838: 5820: 5807: 5794: 5665: 5500: 5485: 5281: 4889: 4459: 4223: 3695:High-yield cell and molecular biology 3335:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 2720: 2711: 1113:is to convert the chemical signal of 2782: 2679: 1415:of target cells. They are generally 5155:Transcription preinitiation complex 4501:Blango MG, Mulvey MA (April 2009). 4354:Kaper JB, Sperandio V (June 2005). 4126:Schwartz, Alan L. (December 1995). 3692:Ronald W. Dudek (1 November 2006). 3584:10.1146/annurev.bi.56.070187.003151 3500:Attribution 2.5 Generic (CC BY 2.5) 3441: 3395:. HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. 2825: 2795:(19). ACS Publications: 4009–4018. 2172:molecule that can pass through the 1588:. The MAPK protein is an enzyme, a 24: 5307: 5123:Signal transducing adaptor protein 4824: 4466:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 3129:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 2405: 2057:Sphingomyelinase linked receptors 1999:Tyrosine kinase Linked- receptors 1870:(special type of 7Helix receptor) 1378:atrial natriuretic factor receptor 1253:guanine nucleotide exchange factor 605:Juxtacrine signaling is a type of 262: 25: 6752: 4847: 2268:Bacterial outer membrane vesicles 1697:Changes in membrane permeability 1556:. Several of these receptors are 1359:fibroblast growth factor receptor 783:and pathways. In fact, different 6698: 6670: 6654: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6602: 6590: 6578: 6560: 5327: 4145:10.1203/00006450-199512000-00003 3794:Journal of Neuroscience Research 3493: 2863:Rubinow, Katya B. (2018-03-08). 2014:Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinase 1692:Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor 1582:mitogen-activated protein kinase 670:and a membrane protein interact. 267:In many small organisms such as 4723: 4674: 4631: 4612: 4543: 4507:Current Opinion in Microbiology 4372:10.1128/IAI.73.6.3197-3209.2005 4217: 4168: 4119: 4062: 4018:Histochemistry and Cell Biology 4005: 3880: 3838: 3781: 3756: 3399: 3385: 3298:10.1128/MCB.24.5.2041-2051.2004 3157: 2962: 2913: 2856: 2776: 2747: 2556:Current Opinion in Microbiology 2345:Synthetic Biology Open Language 1596:to target proteins such as the 1170:evolutionarily-related proteins 911:, other elements, or stimulate 354:) or juxtacrine signaling (for 4625:The Cell: A Molecular Approach 4333:10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.165 3379:(Press release). July 6, 2007. 3286:Molecular and Cellular Biology 2760:The cell: a molecular approach 2754:Cooper GM, Hausman RE (2000). 2650: 2583: 2471: 2446: 2399: 2374: 2226: 2220:, two cells of the developing 2087:Cytoplasmic Steroid receptors 1451:for certain steroid hormones. 1146:ionotropic glutamate receptors 1101:, for an inhibitory response. 305:as the signal; others such as 13: 1: 6741:Human female endocrine system 4321:Annual Review of Microbiology 4193:10.1093/bioinformatics/btr190 4087:10.1016/j.cellsig.2008.08.006 3572:Annual Review of Biochemistry 2729:. Benjamin Cummings. p. 2695:Molecular biology of the cell 2569:10.1016/s1369-5274(99)00025-9 2522:10.1128/jb.104.1.313-322.1970 2406:Re, Richard N. (April 2003). 2368: 2356:Soliton model in neuroscience 1802:Cytoplasmic Guanylyl cyclase 1700:Change in membrane potential 1656:Short-term cellular responses 1460:Receptor mediated endocytosis 1263:bound to the G protein for a 600: 591: 463: 4660:10.1126/science.280.5365.895 3734:. 150 Suppl 1 (S1): S122–7. 3411:Dorland's Medical Dictionary 3025:Duester G (September 2008). 2938:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369 2881:10.1016/j.molmet.2018.03.001 2273:Membrane vesicle trafficking 2258:Molecular cellular cognition 2005:Cytoplasmic Tyrosine Kinase 1836:Nonreceptor tyrosine kinase 1789:Sea urchin egg peptide etc. 1546:protein–protein interactions 1474:Signal transduction pathways 1031:Ion channel linked receptors 1017:Ion channel linked receptors 876: 811: 705: 562: 495:important to them are large 7: 4597:Cell biology/Pollard et al, 3859:10.1007/978-1-4757-4619-8_3 3459:Current Medicinal Chemistry 2758:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.). 2693:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.). 2661:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.). 2240: 2079:Ceramide activated kinases 2052:Control of gene expression 1758:G-protein gated ion channel 1678:Further downstream effects 1484:List of signalling pathways 1441:G protein-coupled receptors 1156:G protein–coupled receptors 1021:G protein–coupled receptors 552:membrane transport proteins 330:(over short distances) and 10: 6757: 4880:Signaling Pathways Project 4574:10.1152/physrev.00037.2008 3661:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.033 3619:10.1152/physrev.00003.2005 3471:10.2174/092986712799320556 3043:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.002 2832:Pandit, Nikita K. (2007). 2288:JAK-STAT signaling pathway 2033:Bone-morphogenetic protein 1785:Atrial natriuretic peptide 1781:Membrane Guanylyl Cyclase 1683:Ligand Gated Ion Channels 1477: 1396: 1369:bone morphogenetic protein 1081:is excited, it releases a 995: 880: 297:. The individuals move by 29: 5316: 5207: 5177: 5140: 5115: 5092: 5083: 5055: 5009: 5002: 4927: 4787:Greenwald I (June 1998). 4730:Slavov N (January 2020). 4687:ACS Chemical Neuroscience 4519:10.1016/j.mib.2009.01.011 4224:Reece JB (Sep 27, 2010). 4030:10.1007/s00418-008-0401-3 3847:"Intracellular Receptors" 2721:Reece JB (Sep 27, 2010). 2333:Cell Signaling Technology 2278:Host–pathogen interaction 1992:STAT transcription factor 1329:integral membrane protein 308:Polysphondylium violaceum 188:) or the initiation of a 5235:Neuroendocrine signaling 4874:Medical Subject Headings 4864:Medical Subject Headings 3505:22 February 2011 at the 3259:10.1152/ajpgi.00572.2004 2381:Pandit, Nita K. (2007). 1931:-Alpha, FGF-Beta, etc. ( 1906:Receptor Tyrosine Kinase 1849:Regulating gene activity 1755:cGMP phosphodiesterase, 1399:Steroid hormone receptor 1393:Steroid hormone receptor 1355:Receptor tyrosine kinase 1002:Receptor–ligand kinetics 969:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 790:fibroblast growth factor 584:signaling, or classical 186:ligand-gated ion channel 6585:carbohydrate metabolism 4842:. Retrieved 2018-10-24. 4840:learn.genetics.utah.edu 4835:. Retrieved 2018-10-20. 4833:learn.genetics.utah.edu 4793:Genes & Development 4756:10.1126/science.aaz6695 4429:10.1126/science.1121357 4284:10.1073/pnas.95.15.8916 3964:Pharmacological Reviews 3914:Pharmacological Reviews 3541:10.1126/science.1083853 3212:10.1073/pnas.0500612102 2996:10.1126/science.aax6752 2617:10.1073/pnas.79.23.7376 2509:Journal of Bacteriology 2119:Notch signaling pathway 1972:Growth Hormone Receptor 1955:Gene expression change 1566:epidermal growth factor 1417:intracellular receptors 1384:Intracellular receptors 1317:transmembrane receptors 1303:Enzyme-linked receptors 1085:from vesicles into the 1025:enzyme-linked receptors 909:intracellular receptors 883:Receptor (biochemistry) 768:can be released by the 721:juxtacrine interactions 558:Forms of Cell Signaling 483:out of the cell. As an 190:second messenger system 174:Intracellular receptors 163:Enzyme-linked receptors 146:Cell membrane receptors 27:System of communication 5097:cAMP-dependent pathway 4806:10.1101/gad.12.12.1751 4460:Stoka AM (June 1999). 4360:Infection and Immunity 4259:"A bacterial cytokine" 3740:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707205 3406:"ligand-gated channel" 2659:"Juxtacrine Signaling" 2217:Caenorhabditis elegans 2133: 2049:transcription factors 1858: 1739:prostaglandin receptor 1541: 1529:mechanism or pathway. 1449:cell surface receptors 1312: 1174:cell surface receptors 1165: 1040: 992:Cell surface receptors 980:signal (mating factor 952:gastrointestinal tract 924:cell surface receptors 892: 649:of two adjacent cells 625: 572: 380: 167:transmembrane proteins 6633:amino acid metabolism 5223:Synaptic transmission 5219:Neurocrine signaling 5142:Transcription factors 4989:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 4609:The Cell/ G.M. Cooper 4552:Physiological Reviews 4479:10.1677/jme.0.0220207 3892:www.sciencedirect.com 3728:"Catalytic Receptors" 3607:Physiological Reviews 3080:Learning & Memory 2663:Developmental biology 2455:Developmental biology 2126: 1856: 1810:Nitric oxide receptor 1535: 1478:Further information: 1310: 1163: 1038: 998:Ligand (biochemistry) 966:cells. For the yeast 890: 623: 570: 378: 371:Synthesis and release 30:For the journal, see 6609:cellular respiration 3425:Neuroscience. 4th ed 2869:Molecular Metabolism 2783:Jena, Bhanu (2009). 2350:Nanoscale networking 2156:, in general called 1706:Seven Helix Receptor 1598:transcription factor 1508:on a neuron opens a 1500:. GABA binding to a 1249:phosphatidylinositol 976:, some cells send a 665:extracellular matrix 611:extracellular matrix 366:Extracellular signal 336:juxtacrine signaling 199:proteolytic cleavage 5781:Transcription & 5252:Mechanotransduction 5240:Exocrine signalling 5047:Signaling molecules 4921:Signal transduction 4748:2020Sci...367..512S 4652:1998Sci...280..895F 4421:2006Sci...311.1113C 4275:1998PNAS...95.8916M 4075:Cellular Signalling 3533:2003Sci...301..361K 3203:2005PNAS..102.8579M 3165:"Paracrine Factors" 3142:10.1677/jme.1.01548 2988:2020Sci...367..528C 2657:Gilbert SF (2000). 2608:1982PNAS...79.7376S 2298:Localisation signal 2263:Crosstalk (biology) 1894:Diverse activators 1863: 1770:Diverse activators 1662: 1527:signal transduction 1480:Signal transduction 1431:are members of the 1421:signal transduction 1348:transmembrane helix 1247:signal pathway and 1212:, and animals. The 1091:postsynaptic neuron 1013:change conformation 821:signals are called 806:signal transduction 725:autocrine signaling 578:paracrine signaling 522:are carried to the 493:chemical substances 356:electrical synapses 344:Autocrine signaling 332:endocrine signaling 328:paracrine signaling 324:extracellular space 278:Aliivibrio fischeri 182:signal transduction 156:G-protein receptors 121:Autocrine signaling 32:Cellular Signalling 6731:Cell communication 6568:metabolic pathways 5262:Ion channel gating 4994:Integrin receptors 4928:Signaling pathways 4870:Cell+Communication 4619:Cooper GM (2000). 4132:Pediatric Research 3655:(1–2): 41–54.e19. 2424:10.1002/bies.10248 2186:estrogen receptors 2134: 1994:- Gene expression 1981:IFN-Gamma receptor 1961:Cytokine receptors 1861: 1859: 1660: 1542: 1411:, and also on the 1313: 1259:by exchanging the 1166: 1150:ATP-gated channels 1142:cys-loop receptors 1138:membrane potential 1079:presynaptic neuron 1041: 893: 843:circulatory system 841:directly into the 717:circulatory system 678:organisms such as 626: 573: 381: 362:and target cells. 195:downstream effects 6686: 6685: 6556: 6555: 6516:Neurotransmitters 5895:Nucleotide sugars 5628:Direct / C4 / CAM 5275: 5274: 5257:Phototransduction 5215:Intracrine action 5173: 5172: 5136: 5135: 5024:Neurotransmitters 4742:(6477): 512–513. 4699:10.1021/cn300218d 4243:978-0-321-55823-7 4081:(11): 2145–2155. 3976:10.1124/pr.58.4.9 3926:10.1124/pr.58.4.8 3868:978-1-4757-4619-8 3806:10.1002/jnr.21564 3705:978-0-7817-6887-0 3434:978-0-87893-697-7 2982:(6477): 528–537. 2849:978-0-7817-4478-2 2801:10.1021/bi9002698 2602:(23): 7376–7379. 2464:978-0-87893-243-6 2392:978-0-7817-4478-2 2362:Temporal feedback 2328:Signaling cascade 2180:. As part of the 2146:neurotransmitters 2113: 2112: 1897:Histidine Kinase 1843: 1842: 1839:Diverse response 1773:Histidine Kinase 1751:Adenylate Cyclase 1721:Dopamine receptor 1629:, defend against 1518:action potentials 1463:to the endosome. 1374:Guanylate cyclase 1230:neurotransmitters 1210:choanoflagellates 1099:hyperpolarization 940:second messengers 802:TGF-β superfamily 743:Neurotransmitters 713:endocrine factors 674:Additionally, in 548:reverse transport 540:synaptic vesicles 536:neurotransmission 509:passive transport 477:neurotransmitters 352:chemical synapses 222:active transports 16:(Redirected from 6748: 6703: 6702: 6694: 6680: 6677:lipid metabolism 6674: 6673: 6668: 6658: 6657: 6652: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6630: 6629: 6624: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6605: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6582: 6581: 6564: 6563: 6546: 6539: 6530: 6523: 6521:thyroid hormones 6511: 6502: 6495: 6488: 6479: 6470: 6463: 6456: 6447: 6440: 6433: 6416: 6407: 6400: 6391: 6384: 6377: 6370: 6358: 6351: 6342: 6335: 6328: 6321: 6309: 6302: 6280: 6267: 6254: 6245: 6230: 6223: 6214: 6207: 6194: 6181: 6174: 6167: 6153: 6141: 6134: 6120: 6106: 6097: 6088: 6081: 6074: 6065: 6056: 6047: 6038: 6031: 6022: 6015: 6006: 5999: 5992: 5985: 5978: 5971: 5964: 5955: 5948: 5939: 5932: 5925: 5918: 5911: 5904: 5897: 5890: 5878: 5871: 5862: 5845: 5833: 5829: 5818: 5814: 5805: 5801: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5773: 5769: 5758: 5754: 5745: 5741: 5732: 5728: 5719: 5715: 5706: 5702: 5693: 5689: 5678: 5674: 5663: 5659: 5648: 5644: 5635: 5631: 5620: 5616: 5603: 5599: 5588: 5584: 5573: 5569: 5560: 5556: 5543: 5539: 5528: 5524: 5513: 5509: 5498: 5494: 5480: 5477: 5467: 5464: 5456: 5453: 5443: 5440: 5428: 5425: 5413: 5410: 5400: 5397: 5387: 5384: 5374: 5371: 5359: 5356: 5346: 5343: 5331: 5320: 5302: 5295: 5288: 5279: 5278: 5228:Chemical synapse 5128:Scaffold protein 5090: 5089: 5085:Second messenger 5011:Receptor ligands 5007: 5006: 4910: 4903: 4896: 4887: 4886: 4819: 4818: 4808: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4767: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4710: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4616: 4610: 4607: 4598: 4595: 4586: 4585: 4567: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4530: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4481: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4440: 4415:(5764): 1113–6. 4400: 4394: 4393: 4383: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4316: 4307: 4306: 4296: 4286: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4231: 4228:Campbell Biology 4221: 4215: 4214: 4204: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4147: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4106: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4049: 4009: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3994:. Archived from 3961: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3875: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3766:. Archived from 3760: 3754: 3753: 3751: 3732:Br. J. Pharmacol 3723: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3672: 3640: 3631: 3630: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3516: 3510: 3497: 3492: 3482: 3450: 3439: 3438: 3420: 3414: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3368: 3358: 3347:10.1172/JCI30848 3326: 3320: 3319: 3309: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3214: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3161: 3155: 3154: 3144: 3120: 3114: 3113: 3103: 3092:10.1101/lm.83104 3071: 3065: 3064: 3054: 3022: 3016: 3015: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2949: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2900: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2812: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2728: 2725:Campbell Biology 2718: 2709: 2708: 2686: 2677: 2676: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2637: 2619: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2533: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2490: 2489: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2403: 2397: 2396: 2378: 2308:Protein dynamics 2248:Scaffold protein 2184:, intracellular 2182:endocrine system 2158:receptor ligands 2109:Gene expression 2096:Thyroid hormones 2091:Steroid hormones 2082:Gene expression 2023:activin receptor 2008:Gene expression 1965:Erythropoietin, 1915:insulin receptor 1884:Gene expression 1864: 1860: 1666:Receptor Family 1663: 1659: 1609:hedgehog protein 1592:that can attach 1586:MAPK/ERK pathway 1538:MAPK/ERK pathway 1433:nuclear receptor 1425:steroid hormones 1331:possessing both 1130:channel blockers 1083:neurotransmitter 1072:neurotransmitter 903:specific to the 901:receptor protein 859:endocrine glands 737:signals such as 656:A communicating 647:membrane protein 485:active transport 449:Hydrogen sulfide 437:thyroid hormones 211:ubiquitinylation 21: 6756: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6745: 6736:Systems biology 6711: 6710: 6709: 6697: 6689: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6671: 6669: 6655: 6653: 6639: 6637: 6627: 6625: 6615: 6613: 6603: 6601: 6591: 6589: 6579: 6577: 6575: 6572:metro-style map 6565: 6557: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6526: 6524: 6518: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6507:Polyunsaturated 6505: 6503: 6498: 6496: 6491: 6489: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6466: 6464: 6459: 6457: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6443: 6441: 6436: 6434: 6423: 6419: 6417: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6387: 6385: 6380: 6378: 6373: 6371: 6365: 6361: 6359: 6354: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6338: 6336: 6331: 6329: 6324: 6322: 6316: 6312: 6310: 6305: 6303: 6292: 6283: 6281: 6274: 6270: 6268: 6261: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6233: 6231: 6226: 6224: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6210: 6208: 6201: 6197: 6195: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6177: 6175: 6170: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6156: 6154: 6148: 6144: 6142: 6137: 6135: 6129: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6115: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6084: 6082: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6002: 6000: 5995: 5993: 5988: 5986: 5981: 5979: 5974: 5972: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5951: 5949: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5935: 5933: 5928: 5926: 5921: 5919: 5914: 5912: 5907: 5905: 5900: 5898: 5893: 5891: 5885: 5881: 5879: 5874: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5855: 5848: 5846: 5842: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5819: 5812: 5808: 5806: 5799: 5795: 5793: 5786: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5774: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5759: 5752: 5748: 5746: 5739: 5735: 5733: 5727:Steroidogenesis 5726: 5722: 5720: 5713: 5709: 5707: 5700: 5696: 5694: 5687: 5685: 5681: 5679: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5664: 5658:phosphorylation 5657: 5655: 5651: 5649: 5642: 5638: 5636: 5629: 5627: 5623: 5621: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5604: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5589: 5582: 5580: 5576: 5574: 5567: 5563: 5561: 5554: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5544: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5529: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5514: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5499: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5332: 5312: 5306: 5276: 5271: 5203: 5169: 5132: 5111: 5107:Lipid signaling 5079: 5051: 4998: 4923: 4914: 4850: 4845: 4827: 4825:Further reading 4822: 4799:(12): 1751–62. 4785: 4781: 4728: 4724: 4679: 4675: 4646:(5365): 895–8. 4636: 4632: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4601: 4596: 4589: 4565:10.1.1.460.5566 4548: 4544: 4499: 4495: 4458: 4454: 4401: 4397: 4366:(6): 3197–209. 4352: 4348: 4317: 4310: 4269:(15): 8916–21. 4255: 4251: 4244: 4222: 4218: 4173: 4169: 4124: 4120: 4067: 4063: 4010: 4006: 3998: 3959: 3953: 3949: 3909: 3905: 3896: 3894: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3843: 3839: 3786: 3782: 3773: 3771: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3724: 3720: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3690: 3686: 3641: 3634: 3613:(4): 1159–204. 3603: 3599: 3568: 3564: 3527:(5631): 361–3. 3517: 3513: 3507:Wayback Machine 3465:(8): 1090–109. 3451: 3442: 3435: 3421: 3417: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3371: 3327: 3323: 3278: 3274: 3242: 3238: 3197:(24): 8579–84. 3183: 3179: 3169: 3167: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3121: 3117: 3072: 3068: 3023: 3019: 2967: 2963: 2918: 2914: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2830: 2826: 2781: 2777: 2770: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2687: 2680: 2673: 2655: 2651: 2588: 2584: 2551: 2547: 2500: 2496: 2487: 2485: 2483:medlineplus.gov 2477: 2476: 2472: 2465: 2451: 2447: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2323:Redox signaling 2318:Lipid signaling 2313:Systems biology 2243: 2212:differentiation 2208:notch signaling 2201:gene regulation 2121: 2099: 2094: 2068: 2040: 2031: 2026: 1975: 1966: 1927: 1918: 1851: 1788: 1756: 1754: 1733: 1724: 1715: 1689: 1658: 1574:adaptor protein 1562:phosphorylation 1515: 1505: 1486: 1476: 1457: 1413:plasma membrane 1401: 1395: 1386: 1305: 1293: 1286: 1279: 1272: 1158: 1115:presynaptically 1033: 1004: 994: 950:. In the human 905:signal molecule 885: 879: 814: 708: 696:immune response 639:oligosaccharide 603: 594: 565: 560: 503:portion of the 466: 458:carbon monoxide 441:cholecalciferol 433:glucocorticoids 373: 368: 340:notch signaling 265: 263:Taxonomic range 224:, or even from 203:phosphorylation 51:British English 47:cell signalling 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Cell signalling 15: 12: 11: 5: 6754: 6744: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6721:Cell signaling 6708: 6707: 6684: 6683: 6621:cell signaling 6597:photosynthesis 6595:Violet nodes: 6583:Orange nodes: 6559: 6558: 6554: 6553: 6240: 6186:Aromatic amino 6093:Branched-chain 5643:Light reaction 5334: 5333: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5305: 5304: 5297: 5290: 5282: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5237: 5232: 5231: 5230: 5225: 5217: 5211: 5209: 5208:Other concepts 5205: 5204: 5202: 5201: 5196: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5175: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5146: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5130: 5125: 5119: 5117: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5093: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5061: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5042:Growth factors 5039: 5034: 5021: 5015: 5013: 5004: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4944: 4939: 4937: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4917:Cell signaling 4913: 4912: 4905: 4898: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4877: 4867: 4857: 4849: 4848:External links 4846: 4844: 4843: 4836: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4779: 4722: 4673: 4630: 4611: 4599: 4587: 4542: 4493: 4452: 4395: 4346: 4308: 4249: 4242: 4216: 4187:(12): 1736–8. 4181:Bioinformatics 4167: 4138:(6): 835–843. 4118: 4061: 4024:(5): 563–578. 4004: 4001:on 2019-02-28. 3947: 3903: 3879: 3867: 3837: 3800:(5): 961–971. 3780: 3755: 3718: 3704: 3684: 3632: 3597: 3562: 3511: 3440: 3433: 3415: 3398: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3341:(7): 1805–13. 3321: 3292:(5): 2041–51. 3272: 3253:(6): G1105–9. 3236: 3177: 3156: 3115: 3066: 3017: 2961: 2932:(12): 111369. 2912: 2855: 2848: 2824: 2775: 2769:978-0878933006 2768: 2746: 2740:978-0321558237 2739: 2710: 2704:978-0815332183 2703: 2678: 2672:978-0878932436 2671: 2649: 2582: 2563:(6): 582–587. 2545: 2494: 2470: 2463: 2445: 2418:(4): 401–409. 2398: 2391: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2154:growth factors 2120: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2088: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2058: 2054: 2053: 2050: 2044: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1989: 1984: 1968:Growth Hormone 1963: 1957: 1956: 1953: 1936: 1908: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1882: 1876: 1871: 1850: 1847: 1841: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1828: 1822: 1821: 1818: 1813: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1790: 1782: 1778: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1762: 1761: 1748: 1742: 1708: 1702: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1667: 1657: 1654: 1635:quorum sensing 1631:bacteriophages 1590:protein kinase 1513: 1503: 1475: 1472: 1456: 1453: 1397:Main article: 1394: 1391: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1371: 1362: 1304: 1301: 1291: 1284: 1277: 1270: 1157: 1154: 1095:depolarization 1087:synaptic cleft 1032: 1029: 1009:trans-membrane 993: 990: 881:Main article: 878: 875: 867:adrenal glands 813: 810: 792:(FGF) family, 754:norepinephrine 707: 704: 684:growth factors 672: 671: 661: 654: 609:–cell or cell– 602: 599: 593: 590: 564: 561: 559: 556: 544:synaptic cleft 465: 462: 372: 369: 367: 364: 283:produces light 273:quorum sensing 264: 261: 43:cell signaling 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6753: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6678: 6675:Green nodes: 6666: 6662: 6659:Brown nodes: 6650: 6646: 6634: 6622: 6610: 6598: 6586: 6573: 6569: 6545: 6538: 6529: 6522: 6517: 6510: 6501: 6494: 6493:Sphingolipids 6487: 6486:sphingolipids 6478: 6469: 6462: 6461:Glycerolipids 6455: 6454:phospholipids 6446: 6439: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6415: 6406: 6399: 6390: 6383: 6376: 6369: 6368:proteoglycans 6364: 6363:Glycoproteins 6357: 6350: 6341: 6334: 6327: 6320: 6315: 6308: 6300: 6296: 6290: 6286: 6278: 6273: 6265: 6260: 6253: 6243: 6236: 6229: 6222: 6213: 6205: 6200: 6193: 6189: 6180: 6173: 6166: 6159: 6152: 6147: 6140: 6133: 6128: 6119: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6080: 6073: 6064: 6055: 6046: 6037: 6030: 6021: 6014: 6005: 5998: 5991: 5984: 5977: 5970: 5963: 5954: 5947: 5938: 5931: 5924: 5917: 5910: 5903: 5896: 5889: 5884: 5877: 5870: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5844: 5837: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5817: 5816: 5815: 5804: 5803: 5802: 5791: 5790: 5789: 5783: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5705: 5704: 5703: 5692: 5691: 5690: 5677: 5676: 5675: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5630:carbon intake 5619: 5618: 5617: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5572: 5571: 5570: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5484: 5479: 5478: 5466: 5465: 5455: 5454: 5442: 5441: 5427: 5426: 5412: 5411: 5399: 5398: 5386: 5385: 5373: 5372: 5358: 5357: 5345: 5344: 5330: 5322: 5321: 5315: 5310: 5303: 5298: 5296: 5291: 5289: 5284: 5283: 5280: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5180: 5176: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5139: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5082: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5070:Intracellular 5068: 5066: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5032:Neurohormones 5029: 5028:Neuropeptides 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5012: 5008: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4979:Fas apoptosis 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4949: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4906: 4904: 4899: 4897: 4892: 4891: 4888: 4881: 4878: 4875: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4816: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4693:(4): 601–12. 4692: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4626: 4622: 4615: 4606: 4604: 4594: 4592: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4558:(3): 921–56. 4557: 4553: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4513:(2): 177–81. 4512: 4508: 4504: 4497: 4489: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4472:(3): 207–25. 4471: 4467: 4463: 4456: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4327:(1): 165–99. 4326: 4322: 4315: 4313: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4245: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4229: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4008: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3970:(4): 782–97. 3969: 3965: 3958: 3951: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3920:(4): 773–81. 3919: 3915: 3907: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3870: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3770:on 2007-05-25 3769: 3765: 3759: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3707: 3701: 3697: 3696: 3688: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3639: 3637: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3578:(1): 615–49. 3577: 3573: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3508: 3504: 3501: 3496: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3436: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3394: 3388: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3166: 3160: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3135:(2): 343–59. 3134: 3130: 3126: 3119: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3037:(6): 921–31. 3036: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2965: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2851: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2836: 2828: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2771: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2742: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2726: 2717: 2715: 2706: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2683: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2557: 2549: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2516:(1): 313–22. 2515: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2498: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2466: 2460: 2456: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2394: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2373: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2283:Retinoic acid 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2231:feedback loop 2228: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2174:lipid bilayer 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2116: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2101:Retinoic acid 2097: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2074:TNF-receptors 2071: 2066: 2065:IL-1 receptor 2062: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1933:FGF-receptors 1930: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1890:Two-component 1888: 1887: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1865: 1855: 1846: 1838: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1766:Two-component 1764: 1763: 1759: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1735:Prostaglandin 1731: 1730:GABA receptor 1727: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1688: 1687:Acetylcholine 1685: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1653: 1651: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1623:dormant state 1619: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1539: 1534: 1530: 1528: 1523: 1522:physiological 1519: 1511: 1507: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1481: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1400: 1390: 1379: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1309: 1300: 1296: 1294: 1287: 1280: 1273: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1196: 1191: 1190:cell membrane 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1162: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1070:), such as a 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1046: 1045:transmembrane 1037: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1003: 999: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 970: 965: 964:immune system 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 889: 884: 874: 872: 871:endocrinology 868: 864: 863:thyroid gland 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 819: 809: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 786: 782: 777: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 758:adrenal gland 755: 751: 746: 744: 740: 739:retinoic acid 736: 732: 730: 729:extracellular 726: 722: 718: 714: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 669: 666: 662: 659: 655: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 627: 622: 618: 616: 615:multicellular 613:signaling in 612: 608: 598: 589: 587: 583: 579: 569: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 524:cell membrane 521: 516: 514: 510: 506: 505:cell membrane 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 461: 459: 455: 450: 446: 445:retinoic acid 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 425:Acetylcholine 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 405:glycoproteins 402: 398: 394: 390: 389:phospholipids 386: 377: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 326:, divided in 325: 320: 318: 314: 310: 309: 304: 300: 296: 292: 287: 284: 280: 279: 274: 270: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 237:tissue repair 234: 229: 227: 223: 219: 214: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 191: 187: 183: 178: 175: 171: 168: 164: 160: 157: 153: 149: 147: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 74: 72: 68: 64: 63:cellular life 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 6726:Cell biology 6643:Grey nodes: 6631:Blue nodes: 6620: 6619:Pink nodes: 6537:cannabinoids 6375:Chlorophylls 6326:Antioxidants 6079:Serine group 5990:Photosystems 5976:P-glycerates 5923:P-glycerates 5888:sialic acids 5883:Amino sugars 5835: 5823: 5822: 5810: 5809: 5797: 5796: 5778: 5777: 5763: 5762: 5750: 5749: 5737: 5736: 5724: 5723: 5711: 5710: 5698: 5697: 5683: 5682: 5668: 5667: 5653: 5652: 5640: 5639: 5625: 5624: 5608: 5607: 5593: 5592: 5578: 5577: 5568:Fermentation 5565: 5564: 5548: 5547: 5533: 5532: 5518: 5517: 5503: 5502: 5488: 5487: 5482: 5471: 5460: 5447: 5432: 5417: 5404: 5391: 5378: 5363: 5350: 5337: 5267:Gap junction 5102:Ca signaling 5065:Cell surface 5046: 4916: 4839: 4832: 4796: 4792: 4782: 4739: 4735: 4725: 4690: 4686: 4676: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4624: 4614: 4555: 4551: 4545: 4510: 4506: 4496: 4469: 4465: 4455: 4412: 4408: 4398: 4363: 4359: 4349: 4324: 4320: 4266: 4262: 4252: 4227: 4219: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4135: 4131: 4121: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4021: 4017: 4007: 3996:the original 3967: 3963: 3950: 3917: 3913: 3906: 3895:. Retrieved 3891: 3882: 3872:, retrieved 3850: 3840: 3797: 3793: 3783: 3772:. Retrieved 3768:the original 3758: 3731: 3721: 3709:. Retrieved 3694: 3687: 3652: 3648: 3610: 3606: 3600: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3462: 3458: 3424: 3418: 3409: 3401: 3387: 3377:ScienceDaily 3376: 3338: 3334: 3324: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3194: 3190: 3180: 3168:. Retrieved 3159: 3132: 3128: 3118: 3086:(6): 732–7. 3083: 3079: 3069: 3034: 3030: 3020: 2979: 2975: 2964: 2929: 2926:Cell Reports 2925: 2915: 2872: 2868: 2858: 2834: 2827: 2792: 2789:Biochemistry 2788: 2778: 2759: 2749: 2724: 2694: 2662: 2652: 2599: 2595: 2585: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2513: 2507: 2497: 2486:. Retrieved 2482: 2473: 2454: 2448: 2415: 2411: 2401: 2382: 2376: 2253:Biosemiotics 2215: 2205: 2194: 2135: 2127: 2114: 2037:BMP Receptor 1924:EGF receptor 1844: 1831:Fibronectins 1806:Nitric Oxide 1647: 1639:autoinducers 1620: 1616: 1613: 1606: 1543: 1491: 1487: 1468: 1465: 1458: 1445:ion channels 1402: 1387: 1345: 1314: 1297: 1242: 1204:, including 1199: 1180:outside the 1176:that detect 1167: 1119:postsynaptic 1103: 1076: 1042: 1005: 967: 917: 894: 857:, the major 851:hypothalamus 833:by internal 816: 815: 800:family, and 778: 747: 733: 709: 673: 668:glycoprotein 604: 595: 574: 517: 467: 454:nitric oxide 382: 321: 306: 288: 276: 266: 253:autoimmunity 230: 215: 179: 172: 161: 154: 150: 144: 126: 78: 75: 46: 42: 36: 6667:metabolism. 6651:metabolism. 6607:Red nodes: 6544:Eicosanoids 6509:fatty acids 6438:Cholesterol 6426:carotenoids 6405:Polyketides 6340:Nucleotides 6295:tocopherols 6259:Calciferols 6172:Amino acids 6165:amino acids 6095:amino acids 6070:Respiratory 5813:Proteolysis 5800:Translation 5787:replication 5753:MEP pathway 5740:MVA pathway 5701:Lipogenesis 5673:deamination 5463:Peroxisomal 5355:respiration 5178:By distance 5116:Assistants: 5075:Co-receptor 3764:"lecture10" 3711:16 December 2303:Oscillation 2293:Imd pathway 2170:hydrophobic 1943:MAP-kinases 1879:Dishevelled 1672:Example of 1498:ion channel 1343:functions. 1048:ion-channel 932:endocytosis 847:vertebrates 776:signaling. 750:epinephrine 676:unicellular 629:A membrane 588:signaling. 501:hydrophobic 489:endocytosis 429:hydrophobic 421:Vasopressin 413:hydrophilic 393:amino acids 291:slime molds 245:homeostasis 233:development 226:cell damage 207:methylation 89:temperature 67:prokaryotes 57:by which a 6715:Categories 6661:nucleotide 6445:Bile acids 6421:Terpenoids 6252:vitamin Bs 6235:Cobalamins 6163:glucogenic 6151:polyamines 6111:Homoserine 5983:Glyoxylate 5876:Inositol-P 5671:Amino acid 5611:feeders to 5439:elongation 5394:Glyoxylate 5383:acid cycle 5309:Metabolism 5245:Pheromones 5185:Juxtacrine 3897:2023-11-29 3874:2023-11-29 3774:2007-03-03 2875:: 92–103. 2488:2023-11-28 2479:"Hormones" 2369:References 1987:JAK kinase 1951:PI3-Kinase 1650:pheromones 1633:, etc. In 1625:, enhance 1550:cell cycle 1222:pheromones 1202:eukaryotes 1186:G proteins 1123:allosteric 1107:allosteric 996:See also: 982:pheromones 960:epithelial 936:intracrine 601:Juxtacrine 592:Intracrine 582:intracrine 469:Exocytosis 464:Exocytosis 397:monoamines 358:) between 303:cyclic AMP 299:chemotaxis 152:category. 136:organelles 109:juxtacrine 105:intracrine 71:eukaryotes 6430:vitamin A 6414:backbones 6412:Terpenoid 6307:Cofactors 6299:vitamin E 6289:vitamin K 6277:vitamin A 6272:Retinoids 6264:vitamin D 6239:vitamin B 6204:vitamin C 6199:Ascorbate 6192:histidine 6179:Shikimate 6158:Ketogenic 6125:Glutamate 6102:Aspartate 6054:glutarate 5969:Pentose-P 5953:Succinate 5944:Propionyl 5937:Tetrose-P 5930:Pentose-P 5826:Glycosyl- 5766:Shikimate 5714:Lipolysis 5656:Oxidative 5613:gluconeo- 5555:oxylation 5536:Gluconeo- 5493:genolysis 5476:oxidation 5452:oxidation 5424:synthesis 5368:phosphate 5199:Endocrine 5194:Paracrine 5190:Autocrine 5057:Receptors 5037:Cytokines 4560:CiteSeerX 4154:1530-0447 4095:0898-6568 4038:0948-6143 3814:0360-4012 3012:209343260 2889:2212-8778 2626:0027-8424 2432:0265-9247 2412:BioEssays 2235:stem cell 2178:membranes 2150:cytokines 1977:IFN-Gamma 1826:Integrins 1746:G protein 1744:Trimeric 1712:Rhodopsin 1690:(such as 1674:effectors 1643:evolution 1627:virulence 1594:phosphate 1429:receptors 1337:catalytic 1333:enzymatic 1325:enzymatic 1323:, causes 1257:G protein 1236:to large 1178:molecules 1172:that are 1136:, or the 1062:, and/or 897:receptors 877:Receptors 818:Endocrine 812:Endocrine 781:receptors 774:autocrine 735:Paracrine 706:Paracrine 700:microglia 692:chemokine 586:endocrine 563:Autocrine 542:into the 528:secretion 513:porosomes 473:molecules 315:known as 313:dipeptide 132:cytoplasm 128:Receptors 117:endocrine 113:paracrine 101:autocrine 53:) is the 6649:cofactor 6528:Steroids 6468:Acyl-CoA 6452:Glycero- 6356:Proteins 6319:minerals 6314:Vitamins 6285:Quinones 6221:pigments 6146:Creatine 6139:Arginine 6043:Succinyl 5997:Pyruvate 5916:Glycerol 5909:Triose-P 5902:Hexose-P 5854:multiple 5551:Pyruvate 5342:fixation 5019:Hormones 4969:JAK-STAT 4957:MAPK/ERK 4952:TGF beta 4774:32001644 4717:23384199 4582:19584317 4537:19246237 4488:10343281 4447:16497924 4390:15908344 4341:11544353 4211:21505029 4113:18762250 4056:18288481 3992:28626145 3984:17132855 3942:45996586 3934:17132854 3832:18041090 3679:29249361 3627:16183910 3549:12869759 3509:license. 3503:Archived 3489:22300046 3365:17607357 3316:14966283 3267:15890712 3231:15930138 3151:15525594 3110:15537737 3061:18805086 3004:31831638 2956:36130488 2907:29551633 2819:19364126 2577:10607620 2440:12655647 2241:See also 2227:receptor 2197:protease 2166:estrogen 2042:TGF-beta 1868:Frizzled 1717:Dopamine 1510:chloride 1506:receptor 1437:estrogen 1376:, as in 1367:, as in 1357:, as in 1341:receptor 1238:proteins 1234:peptides 1226:hormones 1195:agonists 1111:synapses 986:receptor 956:bacteria 928:membrane 865:and the 861:are the 839:organism 831:hormones 823:hormones 796:family, 794:Hedgehog 766:Estrogen 688:cytokine 680:bacteria 658:junction 651:interact 645:) and a 550:through 520:vesicles 481:proteins 475:such as 401:proteins 348:Synaptic 338:such as 281:, which 269:bacteria 257:diabetes 241:immunity 93:receptor 81:pressure 6705:Biology 6665:protein 6645:vitamin 6347:Nucleic 6250:Various 6132:proline 6086:Alanine 6052:α-Keto- 6029:acetate 6020:Citrate 6004:Lactate 5860:glycans 5768:pathway 5688:shuttle 5686:Citrate 5615:genesis 5598:genesis 5553:decarb- 5538:genesis 5508:genesis 5370:pathway 5366:Pentose 5150:General 4974:Akt/PKB 4815:9637676 4765:7029782 4744:Bibcode 4736:Science 4708:3629746 4668:9572732 4648:Bibcode 4640:Science 4528:2668724 4438:2776824 4417:Bibcode 4409:Science 4381:1111840 4303:9671779 4271:Bibcode 4202:3106186 4162:8618782 4104:2613789 4047:2323030 3823:2670446 3749:2013840 3670:5766829 3592:3113327 3557:9708224 3529:Bibcode 3521:Science 3480:3343417 3356:1904311 3222:1150820 3199:Bibcode 3170:27 July 3052:2632951 2984:Bibcode 2976:Science 2947:9513806 2898:6066741 2810:4580239 2644:6961416 2604:Bibcode 2540:5473898 2339:Netpath 2190:ovaries 2176:of the 2028:Inhibin 2019:Activin 1983:) etc. 1911:Insulin 1760:, etc. 1741:) etc. 1710:Light ( 1558:kinases 1447:act as 1409:cytosol 1405:nucleus 1214:ligands 1126:ligands 1077:When a 978:peptide 972:during 762:neurons 635:protein 360:neurons 295:acrasin 218:passive 140:nucleus 85:voltage 55:process 39:biology 6691:Portal 6566:Major 6519:& 6484:Glyco- 6424:& 6396:Acetyl 6366:& 6317:& 6293:& 6190:& 6149:& 6130:& 6118:lysine 6116:& 6063:bodies 6061:Ketone 6036:Malate 6027:Oxalo- 6011:Acetyl 5960:Acetyl 5886:& 5869:sugars 5867:Simple 5858:& 5856:sugars 5850:Double 5521:Glyco- 5506:Glyco- 5491:Glyco- 5381:Citric 5353:Photo- 5340:Carbon 5003:Agents 4876:(MeSH) 4866:(MeSH) 4813: 4772: 4762: 4715: 4705: 4666: 4580: 4562: 4535: 4525: 4486: 4445: 4435: 4388: 4378: 4339: 4301: 4291: 4240: 4209: 4199: 4160: 4152: 4111: 4101: 4093: 4054: 4044: 4036: 3990: 3982: 3940: 3932: 3865: 3830: 3820: 3812: 3746: 3702: 3677: 3667: 3625: 3590: 3555: 3547: 3487: 3477: 3431: 3363: 3353: 3314: 3307:350546 3304: 3265: 3229: 3219: 3149: 3108: 3101:534701 3098: 3059: 3049: 3010: 3002: 2954: 2944: 2905: 2895: 2887: 2846: 2817: 2807: 2766: 2737: 2701: 2669: 2642: 2635:347342 2632: 2624: 2575: 2538: 2531:248216 2528: 2461: 2438: 2430: 2389: 2225:Notch 2152:, and 1554:divide 1540:shown) 1339:, and 1321:ligand 1292:α12/13 1228:, and 1068:ligand 1023:, and 974:mating 948:uterus 944:embryo 920:ligand 913:enzyme 855:humans 849:, the 837:of an 835:glands 785:organs 723:; and 631:ligand 431:(e.g. 415:(e.g. 385:lipids 317:glorin 311:use a 255:, and 249:cancer 243:, and 209:, and 138:, and 6535:Endo- 6500:Waxes 6477:acids 6475:Fatty 6349:acids 6228:Hemes 6212:δ-ALA 6188:acids 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