Metal casting - Knowledge

163: 1053:. The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in controlling shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required to introduce metal to more than one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important because if the material is traveling too slowly it can cool before completely filling, leading to misruns and cold shuts. If the material is moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the gating system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round or square channels minimize heat loss. 1549: 647:

allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid center, gradually solidifying the metal from the outside in. After solidification, the strand, as it is sometimes called, is continuously withdrawn from the mold. Predetermined lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an initial

1639:, is an uncommon filling technique where the crucible is attached to the gating system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the mold cavity with little turbulence. The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting turbulence. For most uses tilt filling is not feasible because the following inherent problem: if the system is rotated slow enough to not induce turbulence, the front of the metal stream begins to solidify, which results in mis-runs. If the system is rotated faster it induces turbulence, which defeats the purpose. 155: 1057:

open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are used to minimize the distance the material must fall when entering the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to prevent the formation of a vortex as the material flows into the mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A large sprue well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing turbulence. The

1501:, are used to make the patterns oversized to compensate for this type of shrinkage. These rulers are up to 2.5% oversize, depending on the material being cast. These rulers are mainly referred to by their percentage change. A pattern made to match an existing part would be made as follows: First, the existing part would be measured using a standard ruler, then when constructing the pattern, the pattern maker would use a contraction rule, ensuring that the casting would contract to the correct size. 1660: 901: 1829: 1036: 1561: 915: 1253: 844:

form the interface surfaces. It then recalescences, or heats back up to its solidification temperature, for the crystal growth stage. Nucleation occurs on a pre-existing solid surface because not as much energy is required for a partial interface surface as for a complete spherical interface surface. This can be advantageous because fine-grained castings possess better properties than coarse-grained castings. A fine grain structure can be induced by

134: 1764: 466: 332: 1105:. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases. Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to 31: 1061:, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system used to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow down and smooth out the flow. Note that on some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part easier, but induces extreme turbulence. The gates are usually attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and splashing. 39: 1274:, are the most common way of providing directional solidification. It supplies liquid metal to the solidifying casting to compensate for solidification shrinkage. For a riser to work properly the riser must solidify after the casting, otherwise it cannot supply liquid metal to shrinkage within the casting. Risers add cost to the casting because it lowers the 151:

other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations. The process allows for castings small enough fit in the palm of one's hand to those large enough for a train car bed (one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car). Sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds.

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modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into reusable hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.

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Low-pressure filling uses 5 to 15 psig (35 to 100 kPag) of air pressure to force liquid metal up a feed tube into the mold cavity. This eliminates turbulence found in gravity casting and increases density, repeatability, tolerances, and grain uniformity. After the casting has solidified the

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and slag, as these are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool. The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mold. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure. The first patented vacuum casting machine and process dates to

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The distortion allowance is only necessary for certain geometries. For instance, U-shaped castings will tend to distort with the legs splaying outward, because the base of the shape can contract while the legs are constrained by the mold. This can be overcome by designing the mold cavity to slope the

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The machining allowance varies drastically from one process to another. Sand castings generally have a rough surface finish, therefore need a greater machining allowance, whereas die casting has a very fine surface finish, which may not need any machining tolerance. Also, the draft may provide enough

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and account for patternmaker's shrinkage, draft, machining, and distortion. In non-expendable processes, these allowances are imparted directly into the permanent mold, but in expendable mold processes they are imparted into the patterns, which later form the mold cavity. Note that for non-expendable

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The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of the fact that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of the gating system. Therefore, long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the runners can trap dross in

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Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also results in improved repeatability in

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Loam molding has been used to produce large symmetrical objects such as cannon and church bells. Loam is a mixture of clay and sand with straw or dung. A model of the produced is formed in a friable material (the chemise). The mold is formed around this chemise by covering it with loam. This is then

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Sand casting requires a lead time of days, or even weeks sometimes, for production at high output rates (1–20 pieces/hr-mold) and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand, which is black in color, has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of

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Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper, aluminum and lead are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this

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Centrifugal casting is both gravity and pressure independent since it creates its own force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber. Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30–50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit for

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and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast component's quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete

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is lower than the surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface between the two. The formation of the surface at this interface requires energy, so as nucleation occurs, the material actually undercools (i.e. cools below its solidification temperature) because of the extra energy required to

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Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting is that the wax

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filling, is more metal efficient than gravity pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield as compared to 60 to 95% for vacuum pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to

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For the materials that have narrow solidification ranges, pipes can be overcome by designing the casting to promote directional solidification, which means the casting freezes first at the point farthest from the gate, then progressively solidifies toward the gate. This allows a continuous feed of

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Note that before the thermal arrest the material is a liquid and after it the material is a solid; during the thermal arrest the material is converting from a liquid to a solid. Also, note that the greater the superheat the more time there is for the liquid material to flow into intricate details.

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are usually used because of greater casting speed (in case of vertical upcasting) and because of better physical features obtained. The advantage of this method is that metals are almost oxygen-free and that the rate of product crystallization (solidification) may be adjusted in a crystallizer - a

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Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. It's primarily used to produce a semi-finished products for further processing. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled mold, which

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In waste molding a simple and thin plaster mold, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over the original clay mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally destroying the fine details in undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in the mold. The mold may

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For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must be included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the pattern can be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes. The required draft

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which accelerate cooling in a certain part of the mold. There are two types: external and internal chills. External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity and high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed on an edge of the molding cavity. Internal chills are pieces of the same metal that is

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The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive, but aluminium and magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive materials usually have a short and

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being poured, which are placed inside the mold cavity and become part of the casting. Insulating sleeves and toppings may also be installed around the riser cavity to slow the solidification of the riser. Heater coils may also be installed around or above the riser cavity to slow solidification.

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Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost, but there are

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Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from using uncoated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and ductility. Other

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Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also

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Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material, SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A

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A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze sculpture or as a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a plaster, the work is more durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept moist to avoid

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2,300–2,700 kg (5,100–6,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075–0.1 kg (0.17–0.22 lb). The sand is bonded using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little maintenance.

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can be advantageous. These take advantage of the fact that the dross is usually located at the beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is extended past the last gate(s) and the contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters may also be used to trap contaminates.

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is used instead of sand as a mold material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production rate of 1–10 units/hr-mold is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with very good

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of each casting; i.e. more metal is lost as scrap for each casting. Another way to promote directional solidification is by adding chills to the mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from the casting more rapidly than the material used for molding.

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which affects the microstructure and properties. Generally speaking, an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain structure and an area which cools slowly will have a coarse grain structure. Below is an example cooling curve of a pure metal or

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so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include

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baked (fired) and the chemise removed. The mold is then stood upright in a pit in front of the furnace for the molten metal to be poured. Afterwards the mold is broken off. Molds can thus only be used once, so that other methods are preferred for most purposes.

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The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with

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This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour, which means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting. The two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.

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angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold cavity, how the part or pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material, the mold material, and the process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%.

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In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to inertial force, the liquid metal is thrown out toward the periphery.

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liquid material to be present at the point of solidification to compensate for the shrinkage. Note that there is still a shrinkage void where the final material solidifies, but if designed properly, this will be in the gating system or riser.

318:, it can be an expensive process. However, the components that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast. 119:

The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.

1208:. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type of shrinkage depends on how wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with a narrow freezing range, less than 50 °C (122 °F), a cavity, known as a 293:

formed the pattern, to today's high technology waxes, refractory materials, and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility, and integrity.

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then at any later time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster positive image, identical to the original clay. The surface of this plaster may be further refined and may be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.

89:, and weapons and tools. Highly engineered castings are found in 90 percent of durable goods, including cars, trucks, aerospace, trains, mining and construction equipment, oil wells, appliances, pipes, hydrants, wind turbines, 669:

The upcasting (up-casting, upstream, or upward casting) is a method of either vertical or horizontal continuous casting of rods and pipes of various profiles (cylindrical, square, hexagonal, slabs etc.) of 8-30mm in diameter.

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Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the use of temporary, non-reusable molds.

1212:, forms in the center of the casting, because the outer shell freezes first and progressively solidifies to the center. Pure and eutectic metals usually have narrow solidification ranges. These materials tend to form a 578:

die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.

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Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a

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casting or stone carving may be deferred until a patron is found, and as such work is considered to be a technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be deferred beyond the lifetime of the artist.

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the runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more rapidly than round or square runners. For materials where the dross is a similar density to the base material, such as aluminium,

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Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the low

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is when the material solidifies at one end and proceeds to solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal type of grain growth because it allows liquid material to compensate for shrinkage.

1085:, of a casting system can be calculated by dividing the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured. Therefore, the higher the number the more efficient the gating system/risers. 1049:

The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid material to the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping

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the material. Here is where the nucleation phase of the solidification process takes place. As more heat is removed the grains grow towards the center of the casting. These are thin, long

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zone (the temperature range between the solidus and the liquidus), which leads to small pockets of liquid trapped throughout and ultimately porosity. These castings tend to have poor

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The grain macrostructure in ingots and most castings have three distinct regions or zones: the chill zone, columnar zone, and equiaxed zone. The image below depicts these zones.

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in art) is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. From 5000 years ago, when

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process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls most of the properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during solidification, such as

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advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.

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for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities for an interactive or automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mold filling and solidification,

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resistance. Moreover, for these types of materials to be fluid-tight, a secondary operation is required to impregnate the casting with a lower melting point metal or resin.

62:) that contains a negative impression (i.e., a three-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is poured into the mold through a hollow channel called a 1988:

10th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Eds. G. Hirt, A. Rassili & A. Buhrig-Polaczek, Aachen Germany & Liege, Belgium, 2008

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The mold cavity of a casting does not reflect the exact dimensions of the finished part due to a number of reasons. These modifications to the mold cavity are known as

1817:, commercial programs are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting process. 1640: 1027:

is the mold constant. It is most useful in determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser does solidify first then it is worthless.

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Note that there is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing range. The freezing range corresponds directly to the liquidus and solidus found on the

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is extracted from the liquid until there is no liquid left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled to maximize the properties of the casting.

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Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is removed to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.

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foam pattern which is then surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

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The above cooling curve depicts a basic situation with a pure metal, however, most castings are of alloys, which have a cooling curve shaped as shown below.

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leg inward to begin with. Also, long horizontal sections tend to sag in the middle if ribs are not incorporated, so a distortion allowance may be required.

213:. Plaster casting is an inexpensive alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster and its ability to produce 2733: 1077:

It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from the casting and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or

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The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making,

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Riser aids are items used to assist risers in creating directional solidification or reducing the number of risers required. One of these items are

2064:"Technologies of continuous casting: horizontal, vertical downward, vertical upward – KMM | bronze and brass foundry | vertical continuous casting" 1813:, mainly in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late 2695: 772:: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the gating system. The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners. 162: 1677:

properties. Finally, in the center the equiaxed zone contains spherical, randomly oriented crystals. These are desirable because they have

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Chaplet: Long vertical holding rod for core that after casting it become the integral part of casting, provide the support to the core.

70:) is extracted. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. 1540:

Cores may be used in expendable mold processes to produce internal features. The core can be of metal but it is usually done in sand.

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Intermediate cooling rates from melt result in a dendritic microstructure. Primary and secondary dendrites can be seen in this image.

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of France was the first to try tilt casting, in the 1800s. He tried to use it to reduce surface defects when casting coinage from

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Note that patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into account. For example, eutectic reactions,

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Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it is then it is called an

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Cooling curves are important in controlling the quality of a casting. The most important part of the cooling curve is the

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Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed specifically for the alloy used.

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Mold cavity: The combined open area of the molding material and core, where the metal is poured to produce the casting.

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Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the molten material from the pouring vessel.

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castings. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as

1298:. Finally, if the riser is located on the gating system so that it fills after the molding cavity, it is known as a 361: 4001: 2756: 1842: 257:, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized. 1525:

molds an allowance is required for the dimensional change of the mold due to heating to operating temperatures.

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type. The second criterion is where the riser is located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a

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Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method developed by the

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properties. The creation of this zone can be promoted by using a low pouring temperature, alloy inclusions, or

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Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the mold, flask, or pattern.

357: 353: 760:: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage during solidification. 4021: 2654: 1306:, but if the riser fills with materials that have already flowed through the molding cavity it is known as a 495: 617:

batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3–4.5 kg.

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control turbulence. Plus, because the metal is drawn from below the top of the pool the metal is free from

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Most materials shrink as they solidify, but, as the adjacent table shows, a few materials do not, such as

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molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

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of foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold.

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Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the mold cavities.

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There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types are:

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under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from

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Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting and

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N. Hansen; Erwin Flender; Jörg C. Sturm (April 2010). "Thirty Years of Casting Process Simulation".

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Schleg, Frederick P.; Kohloff, Frederick H.; Sylvia, J. Gerin; American Foundry Society (2003),

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Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mold used to locate and support the core.

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pressure is released and any remaining liquid returns to the crucible, which increases yield.

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Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early

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Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the gates.

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high-temperature resistant device that cools a growing metal rod or pipe by using water.

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Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and have been widely used for

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that are perpendicular to the casting surface, which are undesirable because they have

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and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical properties,

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Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.

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The chill zone is named so because it occurs at the walls of the mold where the wall

1016: 714: 567: 501: 450: 444: 426: 508:. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a 154: 3432: 3261: 3215: 3135: 2483: 1862: 1847: 1644: 846: 286: 280: 201: 97: 938:

The local solidification time can be calculated using Chvorinov's rule, which is:

3527: 3462: 3273: 3246: 2869: 2839: 2658: 2625: 2604: 2564: 2505: 2270: 1730: 1265: 1261: 840: 792:: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mold 757: 723: 1806:, and finishing. This saves costs along the entire casting manufacturing route. 3880: 3824: 3812: 3741: 3385: 3323: 2890: 1791: 1787: 1509: 1205: 882: 858: 835: 811: 475: 214: 206: 90: 86: 3100: 2046: 1682: 3995: 3955: 3885: 3844: 3512: 3200: 2844: 2818: 1872: 1803: 921: 802:

Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.

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Personal protective equipment to shield from radiant heat and molten splashes

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Castings or Forgings? A look at the advantages of each manufacturing process

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are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called

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castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as

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Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mold cavities.

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Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable

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cracking. With the low cost plaster at hand, the expensive work of

265: 59: 854:, which is the process of adding impurities to induce nucleation. 3960: 3870: 3782: 3691: 3656: 3641: 3626: 3611: 3601: 3474: 3408: 3359: 3298: 3155: 3130: 3095: 2977: 2937: 2905: 2651: 1857: 1852: 726:: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the molding material. 695: 621: 290: 82: 628:

and this capability enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.

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Aluminum structures: a guide to their specifications and design

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All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the

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to calculate cast component quality considering mold filling,

66:. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part (the 3839: 3829: 3819: 3802: 3797: 3787: 3746: 3576: 3556: 3492: 3424: 3165: 3140: 3085: 2910: 2900: 1616: 1050: 625: 563: 505: 303: 249: 2988: 1591:

There are a few common methods for filling the mold cavity:

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Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process

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and if it is located next to the casting it is known as a

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Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),

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is a process in which a liquid metal is delivered into a

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Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:

738:: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core. 200:

Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that

2385:, vol. 86, Iron and Steel Institute, p. 547. 1705:. Common inspection methods for aluminum castings are 516:, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are 1039:

A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.

947: 93:, medical devices, defense products, toys, and more. 1914:"About Metalcasting | American Foundry Society" 1824: 795:

Core box: The mold or die used to produce the cores.

732:: The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core. 1331:Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals 2669:Video clip of a 50 gram arc cast alloy solidifying 2524: 2363: 2348: 2331: 2310: 2295: 2227: 2210: 2198: 2183: 2168: 2153: 2138: 2126: 2114: 2099: 2087: 1976: 1937: 1900: 985:{\displaystyle t=B\left({\frac {V}{A}}\right)^{n}} 984: 2652:Interactive casting design/manufacturing examples 2627:Metal Casting: Computer-aided Design and Analysis 2606:Science and Engineering of Casting Solidification 2402:(2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, p. 39, 1693:Common inspection methods for steel castings are 3993: 2543: 2268: 2027:Karl-Heinrich Grote; Hamid Hefazi, eds. (2021). 1964: 2563:Kissell, J. Randolph; Ferry, Robert L. (2002), 2252: 2250: 2248: 1216:in open air molds, therefore they are known as 460: 405: 3004: 2727: 2689: 2359: 2357: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2306: 2304: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2194: 2192: 2179: 2177: 2164: 2162: 2149: 2147: 2110: 2108: 1758: 2562: 2503: 2461: 2449: 2269:Porter, David A.; Easterling, K. E. (2000), 2245: 2544:Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven (2006), 2504:Blair, Malcolm; Stevens, Thomas L. (1995), 2426:Castings practice: the 10 rules of castings 2029:Springer handbook of mechanical engineering 1118:Solidification shrinkage of various metals 1112: 582: 360:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 321: 3011: 2997: 2734: 2720: 2696: 2682: 2602: 2354: 2337: 2316: 2301: 2272:Phase transformations in metals and alloys 2256: 2239: 2216: 2189: 2174: 2159: 2144: 2105: 574:, copper, and aluminium-based alloys, but 123: 2429:, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 69–71, 481: 380:Learn how and when to remove this message 2546:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2527:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 2422: 2275:(2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 236, 1762: 1547: 1533:of a machining allowance to begin with. 1325: 1251: 1247: 1034: 872: 464: 264: 161: 153: 37: 29: 2382:Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 504:("permanent molds"), usually made from 189: 14: 3994: 1512:can cause expansions or contractions. 601: 562:The die casting process forces molten 2992: 2715: 2677: 2569:(2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, 2476:International Journal of Metalcasting 2395: 2058: 2056: 1960: 1958: 635: 260: 2623: 1555: 1093:There are three types of shrinkage: 1030: 827:Solidification occurs in two steps: 608:Centrifugal casting (silversmithing) 438: 420: 358:adding citations to reliable sources 325: 2510:(6th ed.), ASM International, 927: 492:low-pressure permanent mold casting 100:(which may be further divided into 24: 2053: 1955: 1286:riser, otherwise it is known as a 896:alloy, with defining terminology. 306:castings of up to 300 kg and 25: 4033: 2645: 2603:Stefanescu, Doru Michael (2008), 1799:, material, and tooling savings. 1650: 1015:of the casting that contacts the 868: 158:Iron bell cooling after iron pour 2703: 2364:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2349:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2332:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2311:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2296:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2228:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2211:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2199:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2184:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2169:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2154:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2139:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2127:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2115:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2100:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2088:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2031:(2nd ed.). Cham: Springer. 1977:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 1938:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 1901:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 1843:Bronze and brass ornamental work 1827: 1658: 1559: 913: 899: 528:alloys. Other materials include 330: 236: 132: 27:Pouring liquid metal into a mold 2497: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2416: 2389: 2369: 2289: 2262: 2233: 2204: 2132: 2120: 2093: 2081: 2009:from the original on 2022-10-04 1920:from the original on 2023-06-07 1627: 174: 139: 96:Traditional techniques include 2916:Semi-finished casting products 2020: 1991: 1982: 1970: 1943: 1931: 1906: 1894: 1610:Vacuum filling, also known as 1515: 1329: 1116: 705: 551: 269:An investment-cast valve cover 13: 1: 3018: 1883: 1795:casting system also leads to 1688: 496:vacuum permanent mold casting 469:The permanent molding process 285:Investment casting (known as 2588:, American Foundry Society, 1965:Kalpakjian & Schmid 2006 1780:Casting processes simulation 1088: 999:is the solidification time, 690:The method is comparable to 658: 632:applied to jewelry casting. 474:parts produced and delivers 7: 2741: 1820: 544:and steel are also cast in 461:Non-expendable mold casting 412:Evaporative-pattern casting 406:Evaporative-pattern casting 42:Casting iron in a sand mold 34:Molten metal before casting 10: 4038: 2609:(2nd ed.), Springer, 2586:Technology of Metalcasting 1775:and flow characteristics). 1759:Casting process simulation 1728: 1724: 1543: 1259: 1042: 931: 880: 863:Directional solidification 698:(Si) crystals, which is a 662: 651:process before being cut. 639: 605: 586: 555: 485: 442: 424: 409: 278: 272: 240: 193: 178: 143: 3948: 3910: 3853: 3775: 3546: 3483: 3422: 3384: 3377: 3337: 3239: 3193: 3186: 3026: 2933: 2883: 2832: 2749: 2711: 2548:(5th ed.), Pearson, 1696:magnetic particle testing 1256:Different types of risers 805: 106:vacuum assist direct pour 2462:Kissell & Ferry 2002 2450:Blair & Stevens 1995 2377:Iron and Steel Institute 1888: 1719:liquid penetrant testing 1702:liquid penetrant testing 1113:Solidification shrinkage 1103:patternmaker's shrinkage 1099:solidification shrinkage 924:for the specific alloy. 822:solidification shrinkage 589:Semi-solid metal casting 583:Semi-solid metal casting 322:Waste molding of plaster 4002:Casting (manufacturing) 3513:Nickel silver (alpacca) 2529:(9th ed.), Wiley, 2507:Steel castings handbook 2423:Campbell, John (2004), 1095:shrinkage of the liquid 124:Expendable mold casting 1776: 1553: 1270:Risers, also known as 1257: 1040: 986: 878: 488:Permanent mold casting 482:Permanent mold casting 470: 270: 167: 159: 43: 35: 4012:History of metallurgy 3854:Other natural objects 2973:Tools and terminology 2789:Investment (Lost wax) 2630:(1st ed.), PHI, 1999:"Centrifugal casting" 1766: 1753:metallurgical defects 1749:pouring metal defects 1745:mold material defects 1551: 1326:Patternmaker's shrink 1255: 1248:Risers and riser aids 1045:Sprue (manufacturing) 1038: 987: 876: 468: 268: 165: 157: 41: 33: 4022:Sculpture techniques 3329:Wire wrapped jewelry 3309:Repoussé and chasing 945: 455:expanded polystyrene 354:improve this section 196:Plaster mold casting 190:Plaster mold casting 110:plaster mold casting 50:and jewelry making, 3871:Ebonite (vulcanite) 2772:Evaporative-pattern 2396:Lesko, Jim (2007), 2366:, pp. 319–320. 2298:, pp. 286–288. 1767:A high-performance 1332: 1218:skin forming alloys 1119: 1107:thermal contraction 1023:is a constant, and 624:industrial company 602:Centrifugal casting 102:centrifugal casting 3216:Jewellery designer 2657:2020-06-09 at the 2488:10.1007/BF03355463 2213:, pp. 285–286 2129:, pp. 280–281 2102:, pp. 279–280 2090:, pp. 278–279 1950:Schleg et al. 2003 1835:Engineering portal 1777: 1714:ultrasonic testing 1571:. You can help by 1554: 1330: 1258: 1117: 1041: 982: 879: 692:Czochralski method 665:Czochralski method 642:Continuous casting 636:Continuous casting 471: 275:Investment casting 271: 261:Investment casting 168: 160: 44: 36: 3989: 3988: 3906: 3905: 3776:Organic gemstones 3373: 3372: 2986: 2985: 2929: 2928: 2637:978-81-203-2726-9 2616:978-0-387-74609-8 2595:978-0-87433-257-5 2576:978-0-471-01965-7 2517:978-0-87170-556-3 2436:978-0-7506-4791-5 2409:978-0-470-05538-0 2399:Industrial design 2282:978-0-7487-5741-1 2038:978-3-030-47035-7 1784:numerical methods 1741:shrinkage defects 1589: 1588: 1481: 1480: 1202: 1201: 1195:Ductile cast iron 1171:High carbon steel 1067:runner extensions 1031:The gating system 970: 568:nonferrous metals 451:lost-foam casting 445:Full-mold casting 439:Full-mold casting 427:Lost-foam casting 421:Lost-foam casting 390: 389: 382: 16:(Redirected from 4029: 4007:Jewellery making 3433:Britannia silver 3382: 3381: 3191: 3190: 3013: 3006: 2999: 2990: 2989: 2809:Semi-solid metal 2736: 2729: 2722: 2713: 2712: 2698: 2691: 2684: 2675: 2674: 2640: 2624:Ravi, B (2010), 2619: 2598: 2580: 2558: 2539: 2521: 2492: 2491: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2420: 2414: 2413: 2393: 2387: 2386: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2346: 2335: 2329: 2314: 2308: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2285: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2243: 2237: 2231: 2225: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2187: 2181: 2172: 2166: 2157: 2151: 2142: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2078: 2076: 2075: 2070:on March 7, 2021 2066:. 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3029: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3009: 3007: 3002: 3000: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2935: 2932: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2845:Cope and drag 2843: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2819:Shell molding 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2737: 2732: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2718: 2717: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2694: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2680: 2679: 2676: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2633: 2629: 2628: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2601: 2597: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2561: 2557: 2555:0-13-148965-8 2551: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2536:0-471-65653-4 2532: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2509: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2470: 2464:, p. 73. 2463: 2458: 2451: 2446: 2438: 2432: 2428: 2427: 2419: 2411: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2392: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2372: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2351:, p. 290 2350: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2334:, p. 289 2333: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2313:, p. 288 2312: 2307: 2305: 2297: 2292: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2259:, p. 67. 2258: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2242:, p. 66. 2241: 2236: 2230:, p. 286 2229: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2212: 2207: 2201:, p. 287 2200: 2195: 2193: 2186:, p. 285 2185: 2180: 2178: 2171:, p. 284 2170: 2165: 2163: 2156:, p. 282 2155: 2150: 2148: 2141:, p. 281 2140: 2135: 2128: 2123: 2117:, p. 280 2116: 2111: 2109: 2101: 2096: 2089: 2084: 2069: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2030: 2023: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1994: 1985: 1979:, p. 315 1978: 1973: 1966: 1961: 1959: 1951: 1946: 1940:, p. 278 1939: 1934: 1919: 1915: 1909: 1903:, p. 277 1902: 1897: 1893: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1873:Spray forming 1871: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1825: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1709: 1704: 1703: 1698: 1697: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1661: 1656: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1601:high-pressure 1598: 1594: 1583: 1580:February 2010 1574: 1570: 1567:This section 1565: 1562: 1558: 1557: 1550: 1541: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1491: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1323: 1320: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1267: 1263: 1254: 1245: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1086: 1084: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1062: 1060: 1054: 1052: 1046: 1037: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 977: 972: 967: 964: 959: 954: 951: 948: 941: 940: 939: 935: 925: 923: 922:phase diagram 918: 916: 911: 908: 904: 902: 897: 895: 890: 884: 875: 866: 864: 860: 855: 853: 849: 848: 842: 838: 837: 832: 831: 825: 823: 819: 818: 813: 810:Casting is a 803: 797: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 777: 774: 771: 768: 765: 764: 762: 759: 756: 753: 748: 747: 745: 742: 737: 734: 731: 728: 727: 725: 722: 719: 716: 713: 712: 711: 703: 701: 697: 693: 688: 685: 684:nickel alloys 681: 677: 673: 666: 656: 652: 650: 643: 633: 629: 627: 623: 618: 614: 609: 599: 595: 590: 580: 577: 576:ferrous metal 573: 569: 565: 559: 549: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 514:slush casting 511: 507: 503: 497: 493: 489: 479: 477: 467: 458: 456: 453:. It uses an 452: 446: 436: 434: 433:boiling point 428: 418: 413: 403: 399: 396: 384: 381: 373: 370:February 2009 363: 359: 355: 349: 348: 344: 339:This section 337: 333: 328: 327: 319: 317: 313: 309: 305: 299: 295: 292: 288: 282: 276: 267: 258: 256: 251: 244: 243:Shell molding 237:Shell molding 234: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 203: 197: 187: 182: 172: 164: 156: 152: 147: 137: 135: 130: 121: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 94: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 40: 32: 19: 3981:Wearable art 3976:Phaleristics 3971:Metalworking 3876:Gutta-percha 3652:Lapis lazuli 3438:Colored gold 3319:Stonesetting 3266: 3251: 2860:Molding sand 2814:Shaw process 2799:Plaster mold 2742: 2705:Metalworking 2626: 2605: 2585: 2565: 2545: 2526: 2506: 2498:Bibliography 2479: 2475: 2469: 2457: 2445: 2425: 2418: 2398: 2391: 2381: 2371: 2291: 2271: 2264: 2235: 2206: 2134: 2122: 2095: 2083: 2072:. Retrieved 2068:the original 2028: 2022: 2011:. Retrieved 2002: 1993: 1984: 1972: 1945: 1933: 1922:. Retrieved 1908: 1896: 1868:Spin casting 1808: 1801: 1778: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1737:gas porosity 1736: 1734: 1718: 1712: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1692: 1670: 1666: 1664: 1657: 1654: 1637:tilt casting 1636: 1633:Tilt filling 1632: 1631: 1628:Tilt filling 1622: 1611: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1597:low-pressure 1596: 1592: 1590: 1577: 1573:adding to it 1568: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1521: 1519: 1503: 1493: 1484: 1482: 1318: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1281: 1275: 1271: 1269: 1242: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1203: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1092: 1078: 1076: 1071:runner wells 1070: 1066: 1063: 1058: 1055: 1048: 1024: 1020: 1013:surface area 1008: 1000: 996: 994: 937: 919: 912: 909: 905: 898: 889:cooling rate 888: 886: 856: 851: 845: 834: 828: 826: 821: 817:gas porosity 815: 809: 801: 709: 689: 668: 653: 645: 630: 619: 615: 611: 596: 592: 561: 499: 472: 448: 430: 415: 400: 391: 376: 367: 352:Please help 340: 316:sand casting 300: 296: 284: 246: 199: 184: 181:Loam molding 175:Loam molding 169: 149: 146:Sand casting 140:Sand casting 131: 127: 118: 114:sand casting 95: 72: 67: 51: 48:metalworking 45: 3918:Art jewelry 3742:Tiger's eye 3647:Labradorite 3597:Chrysocolla 3592:Chrysoberyl 3508:Mokume-gane 3485:Base metals 3257:centrifugal 3226:Silversmith 3101:Ferronnière 3051:Belt buckle 3046:Belly chain 2943:Fabrication 2884:Terminology 2757:Centrifugal 2482:(2): 7–23. 1878:Stone mould 1708:radiography 1675:anisotropic 1516:Mold cavity 1506:martensitic 1496:shrink rule 1158:3.7 or 6.5 1150:4.0 or 4.2 1126:Percentage 852:inoculation 706:Terminology 694:of growing 649:hot rolling 558:Die casting 552:Die casting 540:alloys and 312:die casting 4017:Metallurgy 3996:Categories 3752:Tourmaline 3697:Prasiolite 3572:Aventurine 3443:Crown gold 3345:Draw plate 3294:Metal clay 3231:Watchmaker 3221:Lapidarist 3206:Clockmaker 3081:Collar pin 3076:Chatelaine 2963:Metallurgy 2833:Components 2762:Continuous 2074:2022-05-05 2047:1246246146 2013:2022-05-09 1924:2021-01-12 1884:References 1689:Inspection 1683:inoculants 1522:allowances 1339:Percentage 1312:cold riser 1308:dead riser 1300:live riser 1296:side riser 1043:See also: 881:See also: 830:nucleation 663:See also: 279:See also: 211:tolerances 209:and close 108:casting), 3898:Toadstone 3835:Operculum 3762:Variscite 3757:Turquoise 3737:Tanzanite 3672:Moonstone 3667:Marcasite 3662:Malachite 3587:Carnelian 3562:Amazonite 3549:gemstones 3523:Pinchbeck 3468:Argentium 3458:Shibuichi 3399:Palladium 3378:Materials 3314:Soldering 3304:Polishing 3279:Engraving 3274:Enameling 3240:Processes 3211:Goldsmith 3146:Tie chain 3121:Neck ring 3111:Lapel pin 3020:Jewellery 2958:Machining 2953:Jewellery 2782:Lost foam 2777:Full mold 2750:Processes 1679:isotropic 1424:Cast iron 1395:Magnesium 1347:Aluminium 1304:hot riser 1292:top riser 1234:toughness 1230:ductility 1198:−4.5–2.7 1190:−2.5–1.6 1147:Magnesium 1131:Aluminium 1089:Shrinkage 700:metalloid 659:Upcasting 522:magnesium 478:results. 341:does not 308:aluminium 255:cast iron 227:magnesium 219:aluminium 75:sculpture 3966:Gemology 3940:Fineness 3931:(purity) 3866:Bog-wood 3813:Precious 3793:Ammolite 3732:Sunstone 3722:Sodalite 3717:Sapphire 3677:Obsidian 3617:Fluorite 3607:Diopside 3567:Amethyst 3547:Mineral 3538:Tungsten 3533:Titanium 3448:Electrum 3404:Platinum 3289:Kazaziye 3284:Filigree 3262:lost-wax 3161:Toe ring 3151:Tie clip 3126:Pectoral 3116:Necklace 3091:Cufflink 3066:Bracelet 3061:Bolo tie 3041:Barrette 2968:Smithing 2655:Archived 2379:(1912), 2007:Archived 1918:Archived 1821:See also 1773:porosity 1769:software 1641:Durville 1182:4.0–5.5 1166:2.5–3.0 894:eutectic 682:alloy), 655:method. 546:graphite 518:aluminum 60:crucible 18:Castings 3961:Fashion 3935:Finding 3783:Abalone 3692:Peridot 3657:Larimar 3642:Kyanite 3627:Howlite 3612:Emerald 3602:Diamond 3475:Tumbaga 3453:Shakudō 3409:Rhodium 3360:Mandrel 3299:Plating 3252:Casting 3247:Carving 3156:Tie pin 3131:Pendant 3106:Genital 3096:Earring 2978:Welding 2948:Forming 2938:Casting 2906:Foundry 2865:Pattern 2743:Casting 1858:Foundry 1853:Forging 1725:Defects 1671:columns 1593:gravity 1544:Filling 1473:⁄ 1463:⁄ 1456:1.5–2.0 1444:⁄ 1434:⁄ 1427:0.8–1.0 1415:⁄ 1405:⁄ 1398:1.0–1.3 1386:⁄ 1367:⁄ 1357:⁄ 1350:1.0–1.3 1272:feeders 1238:fatigue 1011:is the 1003:is the 715:Pattern 696:silicon 362:removed 347:sources 291:beeswax 83:jewelry 68:casting 52:casting 3925:(mass) 3861:Bezoar 3767:Zircon 3727:Spinel 3702:Quartz 3637:Jasper 3622:Garnet 3518:Pewter 3503:Copper 3498:Bronze 3425:alloys 3414:Silver 3365:Pliers 3355:Hammer 3267:vacuum 3194:People 3187:Making 3171:pocket 3071:Brooch 3036:Anklet 2634: 2613: 2592: 2573: 2552: 2533: 2514: 2433: 2406: 2279: 2045: 2035: 1797:energy 1751:, and 1717:, and 1667:chills 1620:1879. 1605:vacuum 1603:, and 1342:in/ft 1319:chills 1236:, and 1226:slushy 1139:Copper 1005:volume 995:Where 806:Theory 676:bronze 674:(Cu), 672:Copper 622:German 536:, and 526:copper 524:, and 510:vacuum 494:, and 395:bronze 229:, and 223:copper 104:, and 79:bronze 3929:Carat 3923:Carat 3911:Terms 3886:Shell 3840:Pearl 3830:Nacre 3820:Ivory 3808:Black 3803:Coral 3798:Copal 3788:Amber 3747:Topaz 3706:smoky 3577:Beryl 3557:Agate 3493:Brass 3338:Tools 3176:strap 3166:Watch 3141:Tiara 3086:Crown 3056:Bindi 3028:Forms 2911:Ingot 2901:Dross 2896:Draft 2875:Sprue 2870:Riser 2855:Flask 2840:Chill 1889:Notes 1815:1980s 1811:1970s 1782:uses 1617:dross 1492:, or 1453:Steel 1376:Brass 1336:Metal 1288:blind 1276:yield 1222:mushy 1123:Metal 1081:yield 1059:choke 1051:dross 790:Draft 770:Sprue 758:Riser 724:Flask 626:Krupp 564:metal 506:metal 502:molds 304:steel 250:resin 64:sprue 3881:Hair 3712:Ruby 3687:Opal 3682:Onyx 3632:Jade 3394:Gold 3350:File 3136:Ring 2921:Slag 2850:Core 2824:Spin 2804:Sand 2632:ISBN 2611:ISBN 2590:ISBN 2571:ISBN 2550:ISBN 2531:ISBN 2512:ISBN 2431:ISBN 2404:ISBN 2277:ISBN 2043:OCLC 2033:ISBN 1699:and 1284:open 1264:and 1214:skin 1210:pipe 1174:4.0 1155:Zinc 1142:4.9 1134:6.6 1101:and 1069:and 1017:mold 833:and 820:and 744:Core 736:Drag 730:Cope 678:(Cu· 572:zinc 542:iron 538:lead 534:zinc 345:any 343:cite 231:zinc 112:and 81:), 56:mold 3825:Jet 3581:red 2767:Die 2484:doi 1575:. 1379:1.5 1310:or 1302:or 1224:or 850:or 530:tin 356:by 314:or 85:in 46:In 3998:: 2478:. 2356:^ 2339:^ 2318:^ 2303:^ 2247:^ 2218:^ 2191:^ 2176:^ 2161:^ 2146:^ 2107:^ 2055:^ 2041:. 2005:. 2001:. 1957:^ 1916:. 1755:. 1747:, 1743:, 1739:, 1721:. 1711:, 1685:. 1647:. 1607:. 1599:, 1595:, 1465:16 1436:10 1417:32 1388:16 1369:32 1314:. 1232:, 1109:. 1097:, 1019:, 824:. 702:. 680:Sn 532:, 520:, 490:, 233:. 225:, 221:, 116:. 3708:) 3704:( 3583:) 3579:( 3012:e 3005:t 2998:v 2735:e 2728:t 2721:v 2697:e 2690:t 2683:v 2641:. 2620:. 2599:. 2579:. 2559:. 2540:. 2520:. 2490:. 2486:: 2480:4 2439:. 2412:. 2286:. 2077:. 2049:. 2016:. 1967:. 1927:. 1582:) 1578:( 1499:s 1490:s 1475:4 1471:1 1468:– 1461:3 1446:8 1442:1 1439:– 1432:1 1413:5 1410:– 1407:8 1403:1 1384:3 1365:5 1362:– 1359:8 1355:1 1025:B 1021:n 1009:A 1001:V 997:t 978:n 973:) 968:A 965:V 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