676:, SV). The result is then multiplied by the heart rate (HR) to obtain cardiac output. Although used in clinical medicine, it has a wide test-retest variability. It is said to require extensive training and skill, but the exact steps needed to achieve clinically adequate precision have never been disclosed. 2D measurement of the aortic valve diameter is one source of noise; others are beat-to-beat variation in stroke volume and subtle differences in probe position. An alternative that is not necessarily more reproducible is the measurement of the pulmonary valve to calculate right-sided CO. Although it is in wide general use, the technique is time-consuming and is limited by the reproducibility of its component elements. In the manner used in clinical practice, precision of SV and CO is of the order of ±20%.
1782:
3660:
1043:
and data acquisition times are benefits of this technology. Disadvantages include its inability to provide data regarding right-sided heart pressures or mixed venous oxygen saturation. The measurement of Stroke Volume
Variation (SVV), which predicts volume responsiveness is intrinsic to all arterial waveform technologies. It is used for managing fluid optimisation in high-risk surgical or critically ill patients. A physiologic optimization program based on haemodynamic principles that incorporates the data pairs SV and SVV has been published.
1133:
patient's heart's right atrium. After the indicator traverses the heart and lung, the concentration curve in the arterial line is recorded and displayed on the COstatus HCM101 Monitor. Cardiac output is calculated from the area of the concentration curve using the
Stewart-Hamilton equation. UD is a non-invasive procedure, requiring only a connection to the AV loop and two lines from a patient. UD has been specialised for application in pediatric ICU patients and has been demonstrated to be relatively safe although invasive and reproducible.
22:
1029:. Khi is designed to reflect arterial resistance; compliance is a multivariate polynomial equation that continuously quantifies arterial compliance and vascular resistance. Khi does this by analyzing the morphological changes of arterial pressure waveforms on a bit-by-bit basis, based on the principle that changes in compliance or resistance affect the shape of the arterial pressure waveform. By analyzing the shape of said waveforms, the effect of vascular tone is assessed, allowing the calculation of SV.
3649:
3140:
711:
481:
measurement. Cardiac output can also be affected significantly by the phase of respiration – intra-thoracic pressure changes influence diastolic filling and therefore cardiac output. This is especially important during mechanical ventilation, in which cardiac output can vary by up to 50% across a single respiratory cycle. Cardiac output should therefore be measured at evenly spaced points over a single cycle or averaged over several cycles.
827:—and continuously measuring the PP waveform. This is generally done by connecting the catheter to a signal processing device with a display. The PP waveform can then be analysed to provide measurements of cardiovascular performance. Changes in vascular function, the position of the catheter tip or damping of the pressure waveform signal will affect the accuracy of the readings. Invasive PP measurements can be calibrated or uncalibrated.
320:
1145:
standard ECG electrodes are required for measurement of cardiac output. Electrical
Cardiometry is a method trademarked by Cardiotronic, Inc., and shows promising results in a wide range of patients. It is currently approved in the US for use in adults, children and babies. Electrical cardiometry monitors have shown promise in postoperative cardiac surgical patients, in both haemodynamically stable and unstable cases.
3463:
494:
753:(PP) methods measure the pressure in an artery over time to derive a waveform and use this information to calculate cardiac performance. However, any measure from the artery includes changes in pressure associated with changes in arterial function, for example compliance and impedance. Physiological or therapeutic changes in vessel diameter are assumed to reflect changes in
3426:, the Fick method is invasive and requires time for sample analysis, and accurate oxygen consumption samples are difficult to acquire. There have been modifications to the Fick method where respiratory oxygen content is measured as part of a closed system and the consumed oxygen is calculated using an assumed oxygen consumption index, which is then used to calculate
734:. Because the transducer is close to the blood flow, the signal is clear. The probe may require re-focussing to ensure an optimal signal. This method has good validation, is widely used for fluid management during surgery with evidence for improved patient outcome, and has been recommended by the UK's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (
3644:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{Oxygen content of blood}}&=\left\left({\text{g/dL}}\right)\ \times \ 1.34\left({\text{mL}}\ {\ce {O2}}/{\text{g of haemoglobin}}\right)\\&\times \ {\text{saturation of blood}}\ \left({\text{percent}}\right)\ +\ 0.0032\ \times \ {\text{partial pressure of oxygen}}\left({\text{torr}}\right)\end{aligned}}}
1173:, is quantified by measuring the average signal intensity of the pixels in the cross-section of the vessel then multiplying by a known constant. The flow is calculated by multiplying the mean velocity by the cross-sectional area of the vessel. This flow data can be used in a flow-versus-time graph. The area under the flow-versus-time curve for one
2243:), the LV is filled with blood to the capacity known as end diastolic volume (EDV). During systole, the LV contracts and ejects blood until it reaches its minimum capacity known as end systolic volume (ESV). It does not completely empty. The following equations help translate the effect of EF and EDV on cardiac output Q, via SV.
1161:. These changes are proportional to the velocity of the protons' movement through a magnetic field with a known gradient. When using velocity-encoded MRI, the result is two sets of images, one for each time point in the cardiac cycle. One is an anatomical image and the other is an image in which the signal intensity in each
910:, which states pulse pressure (PP) is proportional to stroke volume (SV). The algorithm calculates the product of the standard deviation of the arterial pressure (AP) wave over a sampled period of 20 seconds and a vascular tone factor (Khi, or χ) to generate stroke volume. The equation in simplified form is:
2434:
2483:
In all resting mammals of normal mass, CO value is a linear function of body mass with a slope of 0.1 L/(min kg). Fat has about 65% of oxygen demand per mass in comparison to other lean body tissues. As a result, the calculation of normal CO value in an obese subject is more complex; a single, common
1144:
is a non-invasive method similar to
Impedance cardiography; both methods measure thoracic electrical bioimpedance (TEB). The underlying model differs between the two methods; Electrical cardiometry attributes the steep increase of TEB beat-to-beat to the change in orientation of red blood cells. Four
1046:
Arterial monitoring systems are unable to predict changes in vascular tone; they estimate changes in vascular compliance. The measurement of pressure in the artery to calculate the flow in the heart is physiologically irrational and of questionable accuracy, and of unproven benefit. Arterial pressure
1042:
This system estimates Q using an existing arterial catheter with variable accuracy. These arterial monitors do not require intracardiac catheterisation from a pulmonary artery catheter. They require an arterial line and are therefore invasive. As with other arterial waveform systems, the short set-up
793:
fixation, a new pneumatic proportional control valve principle, and a set point strategy for the determining and tracking the correct volume at which to clamp the finger arteries—the
Physiocal system. An acronym for physiological calibration of the finger arteries, this Physiocal tracker was found to
701:
measurements, simplifying operation and reducing the time of acquisition compared to conventional echocardiography. USCOM has been validated from 0.12 L/min to 18.7 L/min in new-born babies, children and adults. The method can be applied with equal accuracy to patients of all ages for the development
671:
is a non-invasive method of quantifying cardiac output using ultrasound. Two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound and
Doppler measurements are used together to calculate cardiac output. 2D measurement of the diameter (d) of the aortic annulus allows calculation of the flow cross-sectional area (CSA), which is
1153:
Velocity-encoded phase contrast
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most accurate technique for measuring flow in large vessels in mammals. MRI flow measurements have been shown to be highly accurate compared to measurements made with a beaker and timer, and less variable than the Fick principle
1128:
The UD method is based on ultrasound indicator dilution. Blood ultrasound velocity (1560–1585 m/s) is a function of total blood protein concentration—sums of proteins in plasma and in red blood red cells—and temperature. Injection of body-temperature normal saline (ultrasound velocity of saline
1796:
The capacitance, also known as compliance, of the arterio-vascular channels that carry the blood also controls cardiac output. As the body's blood vessels actively expand and contract, the resistance to blood flow decreases and increases respectively. Thin-walled veins have about eighteen times the
1756:
The dye dilution method is one of the most accurate methods of determining cardiac output during exercise. The error of a single calculation of cardiac output values at rest and during exercise is less than 5%. This method does not allow measurement of 'beat to beat' changes, and requires a cardiac
797:
The
Finapres methodology was developed to use this information to calculate arterial pressure from finger cuff pressure data. A generalised algorithm to correct for the pressure level difference between the finger and brachial sites in patients was developed. This correction worked under all of the
3679:
The PAC is balloon tipped and is inflated, which helps "sail" the catheter balloon through the right ventricle to occlude a small branch of the pulmonary artery system. The balloon is then deflated. The PAC thermodilution method involves the injection of a small amount (10 mL) of cold glucose at a
1109:
Ultrasound dilution (UD) uses body-temperature normal saline (NS) as an indicator introduced into an extracorporeal loop to create an atrioventricular (AV) circulation with an ultrasound sensor, which is used to measure the dilution then to calculate cardiac output using a proprietary algorithm. A
1093:
across the thoracic region over the cardiac cycle. Lower impedance indicates greater intrathoracic fluid volume and blood flow. By synchronizing fluid volume changes with the heartbeat, the change in impedance can be used to calculate stroke volume, cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance.
798:
circumstances it was tested in—even when it was not designed for it—because it applied general physiological principles. This innovative brachial pressure waveform reconstruction method was first implemented in the
Finometer, the successor of Finapres that BMI-TNO introduced to the market in 2000.
3695:
PAC use can be complicated by arrhythmias, infection, pulmonary artery rupture and damage to the right heart valve. Recent studies in patients with critical illnesses, sepsis, acute respiratory failure and heart failure suggest that use of the PAC does not improve patient outcomes. This clinical
3151:
in 1870, assumes the rate of oxygen consumption is a function of the rate of blood flow and the rate of oxygen picked up by the red blood cells. Application of the Fick principle involves calculating the oxygen consumed over time by measuring the oxygen concentration of venous blood and arterial
1132:
UD requires the establishment of an extracorporeal circulation through its unique AV loop with two pre-existing arterial and central venous lines in ICU patients. When the saline indicator is injected into the AV loop, it is detected by the venous clamp-on sensor on the loop before it enters the
3999:
Pasche B, Knobloch TJ, Bian Y, Liu J, Phukan S, Rosman D, Kaklamani V, Baddi L, Siddiqui FS, Frankel W, Prior TW, Schuller DE, Agrawal A, Lang J, Dolan ME, Vokes EE, Lane WS, Huang CC, Caldes T, Di
Cristofano A, Hampel H, Nilsson I, von Heijne G, Fodde R, Murty VV, de la Chapelle A, Weghorst CM
3687:
technology enabled the observations that low CO registers temperature change slowly and high CO registers temperature change rapidly. The degree of temperature change is directly proportional to the cardiac output. In this unique method, three or four repeated measurements or passes are usually
1077:
Generally monitored haemodynamic values, fluid responsiveness parameters and an exclusive reference are provided by PRAM: Cardiac Cycle Efficiency (CCE). It is expressed by a pure number ranging from 1 (best) to -1 (worst) and it indicates the overall heart-vascular response coupling. The ratio
777:
of measuring continuous blood pressure. The principle of the volume clamp method is to dynamically provide equal pressures, on either side of an artery wall. By clamping the artery to a certain volume, inside pressure—intra-arterial pressure—balances outside pressure—finger cuff pressure. Peñáz
885:
dilution using the Stewart-Hamilton principle. Lithium chloride dilution uses a peripheral vein and a peripheral arterial line. Like PiCCO, frequent calibration is recommended when there is a change in Q. Calibration events are limited in frequency because they involve the injection of lithium
801:
The availability of a continuous, high-fidelity, calibrated blood pressure waveform opened up the perspective of beat-to-beat computation of integrated haemodynamics, based on two notions: pressure and flow are inter-related at each site in the arterial system by their so-called characteristic
1097:
Both invasive and non-invasive approaches are used. The reliability and validity of the non-invasive approach has gained some acceptance, although there is not complete agreement on this point. The clinical use of this approach in the diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of a variety of diseases
806:
model of this impedance can be modelled with sufficient accuracy in an individual patient with known age, gender, height and weight. According to comparisons of non-invasive peripheral vascular monitors, modest clinical utility is restricted to patients with normal and invariant circulation.
702:
of physiologically rational haemodynamic protocols. USCOM is the only method of cardiac output measurement to have achieved equivalent accuracy to the implantable flow probe. This accuracy has ensured high levels of clinical use in conditions including sepsis, heart failure and hypertension.
480:
There are a number of clinical methods to measure cardiac output, ranging from direct intracardiac catheterization to non-invasive measurement of the arterial pulse. Each method has advantages and drawbacks. Relative comparison is limited by the absence of a widely accepted "gold standard"
4792:
Pillai P, McEleavy I, Gaughan M, Snowden C, Nesbitt I, Durkan G, Johnson M, Cosgrove J, Thorpe A (December 2011). "A double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial to assess the effect of Doppler optimized intraoperative fluid management on outcome following radical cystectomy".
2002:
activity can also increase cardiac output. HR can vary by a factor of approximately 3—between 60 and 180 beats per minute—while stroke volume (SV) can vary between 70 and 120 mL (2.5 and 4.2 imp fl oz; 2.4 and 4.1 US fl oz), a factor of only 1.7.
6013:
Tessitore N, Bedogna V, Poli A, Mantovani W, Lipari G, Baggio E, Mansueto G, Lupo A (November 2008). "Adding access blood flow surveillance to clinical monitoring reduces thrombosis rates and costs, and improves fistula patency in the short term: a controlled cohort study".
1793:, the heart is a demand pump that does not regulate its own output. When the body has a high metabolic oxygen demand, the metabolically controlled flow through the tissues is increased, leading to a greater flow of blood back to the heart, leading to higher cardiac output.
696:
measurements. In comparison to the echocardiographic method, USCOM significantly improves reproducibility and increases sensitivity of the detection of changes in flow. Real-time, automatic tracing of the Doppler flow profile allows beat-to-beat right-sided and left-sided
509:
to measure cardiac output. The blood velocity through the heart causes a Doppler shift in the frequency of the returning ultrasound waves. This shift can then be used to calculate flow velocity and volume, and effectively cardiac output, using the following equations:
902:) using a standard arterial catheter with a manometer located in the femoral or radial artery. The device consists of a high-fidelity pressure transducer, which, when used with a supporting monitor (Vigileo or EV1000 monitor), derives left-sided cardiac output (
3676:, provides direct access to the right heart for thermodilution measurements. Continuous, invasive, cardiac monitoring in intensive care units has been mostly phased out. The PAC remains useful in right-heart study done in cardiac catheterisation laboratories.
789:, invented and patented a series of additional key elements that make the volume clamp work in clinical practice. These methods include the use of modulated infrared light in the optical system inside the sensor, the lightweight, easy-to-wrap finger cuff with
4081:
Finegold JA, Manisty CH, Cecaro F, Sutaria N, Mayet J, Francis DP (August 2013). "Choosing between velocity-time-integral ratio and peak velocity ratio for calculation of the dimensionless index (or aortic valve area) in serial follow-up of aortic stenosis".
854:
In PiCCO, transpulmonary thermodilution, which uses the Stewart-Hamilton principle but measures temperatures changes from central venous line to a central arterial line, i.e., the femoral or axillary arterial line, is used as the calibrating technique. The
309:, the study of the flow of blood. The factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure at the right margin illustrates this dependency and lists some of these factors. A detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in
1800:
From this formula, it is clear the factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure to the right illustrates this dependency and lists a few of these factors. A more detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in
867:
as described by Wesseling and colleagues. Transpulmonary thermodilution spans right heart, pulmonary circulation and left heart, allowing further mathematical analysis of the thermodilution curve and giving measurements of cardiac filling volumes
742:, therefore relies on a nomogram based on patient age, height and weight to convert the measured velocity into stroke volume and cardiac output. This method generally requires patient sedation and is accepted for use in both adults and children.
2596:
1063:. As the waveform is sampled at 1000 Hz, the detected pressure curve can be measured to calculate the actual beat-to-beat stroke volume. Unlike FloTrac, neither constant values of impedance from external calibration, nor form pre-estimated
201:
Values for cardiac output are usually denoted as L/min. For a healthy individual weighing 70 kg, the cardiac output at rest averages about 5 L/min; assuming a heart rate of 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be approximately 70 mL.
3667:
The indicator method was further developed by replacing the indicator dye with heated or cooled fluid. Temperature changes rather than dye concentration are measured at sites in the circulation; this method is known as thermodilution. The
2484:"normal" value of SV and CO for adults cannot exist. All blood flow parameters have to be indexed. It is accepted convention to index them by the body surface area, BSA , by DuBois & DuBois Formula, a function of height and weight:
2251:
1206:, into the right atrium of the heart. The dye flows with the blood into the aorta. A probe is inserted into the aorta to measure the concentration of the dye leaving the heart at equal time intervals until the dye has cleared. Let
3445:
molecules in the red blood cells. Measuring the content of hæmoglobin in the blood and the percentage of saturation of hæmoglobin—the oxygen saturation of the blood—is a simple process and is readily available to physicians. Each
6260:
Arheden H, Holmqvist C, Thilen U, Hanséus K, Björkhem G, Pahlm O, Laurin S, Ståhlberg F (May 1999). "Left-to-right cardiac shunts: comparison of measurements obtained with MR velocity mapping and with radionuclide angiography".
1571:
6296:
Razavi R, Hill DL, Keevil SF, Miquel ME, Muthurangu V, Hegde S, Rhode K, Barnett M, van Vaals J, Hawkes DJ, Baker E (December 2003). "Cardiac catheterisation guided by MRI in children and adults with congenital heart disease".
778:
decided the finger was the optimal site to apply this volume clamp method. The use of finger cuffs excludes the device from application in patients without vasoconstriction, such as in sepsis or in patients on vasopressors.
205:
Because cardiac output is related to the quantity of blood delivered to various parts of the body, it is an important component of how efficiently the heart can meet the body's demands for the maintenance of adequate tissue
3078:
5140:
Su BC, Tsai YF, Chen CY, Yu HP, Yang MW, Lee WC, Lin CC (March 2012). "Cardiac output derived from arterial pressure waveform analysis in patients undergoing liver transplantation: validity of a third-generation device".
2891:
2741:
484:
Invasive methods are well accepted, but there is increasing evidence that these methods are neither accurate nor effective in guiding therapy. Consequently, the focus on development of non-invasive methods is growing.
5625:
Moshkovitz Y, Kaluski E, Milo O, Vered Z, Cotter G (May 2004). "Recent developments in cardiac output determination by bioimpedance: comparison with invasive cardiac output and potential cardiovascular applications".
850:
analysis because arterial PP analysis cannot account for unmeasured variables such as the changing compliance of the vascular bed. Recalibration is recommended after changes in patient position, therapy or condition.
7007:
Iberti TJ, Fischer EP, Leibowitz AB, Panacek EA, Silverstein JH, Albertson TE (December 1990). "A multicenter study of physicians' knowledge of the pulmonary artery catheter. Pulmonary Artery Catheter Study Group".
1822:
control. Environmental factors, such as electrolytes, metabolic products, and temperature are not shown. The determinants of SV during the cardiac cycle are the contractility of the heart muscle, the degree of
1814:) reveals HR and SV to be the primary determinants of cardiac output Q. A detailed representation of these factors is illustrated in the figure to the right. The primary factors that influence HR are autonomic
1194:, it is currently not clinically used for haemodynamic monitoring in emergency or intensive care settings. As of 2015, cardiac output measurement by MRI is routinely used in clinical cardiac MRI examinations.
659:
Being non-invasive, accurate and inexpensive, Doppler ultrasound is a routine part of clinical ultrasound; it has high levels of reliability and reproducibility, and has been in clinical use since the 1960s.
3680:
known temperature into the pulmonary artery and measuring the temperature a known distance away 6–10 cm (2.4–3.9 in) using the same catheter with temperature sensors set apart at a known distance.
4617:
Gan TJ, Soppitt A, Maroof M, el-Moalem H, Robertson KM, Moretti E, Dwane P, Glass PS (October 2002). "Goal-directed intraoperative fluid administration reduces length of hospital stay after major surgery".
3392:
3280:
434:
1417:
886:
chloride and can be subject to errors in the presence of certain muscle relaxants. The PulseCO algorithm used by LiDCO is based on pulse power derivation and is not dependent on waveform morphology.
1074:
PRAM has been validated against the considered gold standard methods in stable condition and in various haemodynamic states. It can be used to monitor pediatric and mechanically supported patients.
1187:). MRI is typically used to quantify the flow over one cardiac cycle as the average of several heart beats. It is also possible to quantify the stroke volume in real-time on a beat-for-beat basis.
4209:
Cattermole GN, Leung PY, Mak PS, Chan SS, Graham CA, Rainer TH (September 2010). "The normal ranges of cardiovascular parameters in children measured using the Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitor".
3468:
2256:
1729:
6960:
302:, actual CO may be insufficient to support even simple activities of daily living; nor can it increase sufficiently to meet the higher metabolic demands stemming from even moderate exercise.
3683:
The historically significant Swan-Ganz multi-lumen catheter allows reproducible calculation of cardiac output from a measured time-temperature curve, also known as the thermodilution curve.
2489:
1027:
963:
4252:
Jain S, Allins A, Salim A, Vafa A, Wilson MT, Margulies DR (December 2008). "Noninvasive Doppler ultrasonography for assessing cardiac function: can it replace the Swan-Ganz catheter?".
6342:"Magnetic resonance imaging guided catheterisation for assessment of pulmonary vascular resistance: in vivo validation and clinical application in patients with pulmonary hypertension"
765:
measurement method then monitoring the PP waveform. Ideally, the PP waveform should be calibrated on a beat-to-beat basis. There are invasive and non-invasive methods of measuring PP.
1110:
number of other haemodynamic variables, such as total end-diastole volume (TEDV), central blood volume (CBV) and active circulation volume (ACVI) can be calculated using this method.
1827:
of myocardial distention prior to shortening and the afterload during ejection. Other factors such as electrolytes may be classified as either positive or negative inotropic agents.
285:
1660:
1599:
6800:"Reference right ventricular systolic and diastolic function normalized to age, gender and body surface area from steady-state free precession cardiovascular magnetic resonance"
3853:
1047:
monitoring is limited in patients off-ventilation, in atrial fibrillation, in patients on vasopressors, and in those with a dynamic autonomic system such as those with sepsis.
597:
4392:
Phillips R, Lichtenthal P, Sloniger J, Burstow D, West M, Copeland J (March 2009). "Noninvasive cardiac output measurement in heart failure subjects on circulatory support".
2457:
Cardiac input (CI) is the inverse operation of cardiac output. As cardiac output implies the volumetric expression of ejection fraction, cardiac input implies the volumetric
452:
In standardizing what CO values are considered to be within normal range independent of the size of the subject's body, the accepted convention is to further index equation (
196:
128:
1078:
between heart performance and consumed energy, represented as CCE "stress index", can be of paramount importance in understanding the patient's present and future courses.
640:
549:
5360:
Scolletta S, Gregoric ID, Muzzi L, Radovancevic B, Frazier OH (January 2007). "Pulse wave analysis to assess systemic blood flow during mechanical biventricular support".
6750:
Dhingra VK, Fenwick JC, Walley KR, Chittock DR, Ronco JJ (September 2002). "Lack of agreement between thermodilution and fick cardiac output in critically ill patients".
5929:
Tanke RB, van Heijst AF, Klaessens JH, Daniels O, Festen C (January 2004). "Measurement of the ductal L-R shunt during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in the lamb".
5830:
356:
in a cycle that delivers oxygen, nutrients and chemicals to the body's cells and removes cellular waste. Because it pumps out whatever blood comes back into it from the
92:
1259:
5500:
Costa PD, Rodrigues PP, Reis AH, Costa-Pereira A (December 2010). "A review on remote monitoring technology applied to implantable electronic cardiovascular devices".
6123:"Theory and in vitro validation of a new extracorporeal arteriovenous loop approach for hemodynamic assessment in pediatric and neonatal intensive care unit patients"
2429:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}SV&=EDV-ESV\\EF&={\frac {SV}{EDV}}\times 100\%\\Q&=SV\times HR\\&={\frac {EF\times EDV\times HR}{100\%}}\end{aligned}}}
1292:
4663:"Randomized controlled trial to investigate influence of the fluid challenge on duration of hospital stay and perioperative morbidity in patients with hip fractures"
3692:
measurements. These instruments average measurements over 2–9 minutes depending on the stability of the circulation, and thus do not provide continuous monitoring.
3688:
averaged to improve accuracy. Modern catheters are fitted with heating filaments that intermittently heat up and measure the thermodilution curve, providing serial
2748:
2605:
2235:(EF) is a parameter related to SV. EF is the fraction of blood ejected by the left ventricle (LV) during the contraction or ejection phase of the cardiac cycle or
782:
730:. An ultrasound probe is inserted either orally or nasally into the oesophagus to mid-thoracic level, at which point the oesophagus lies alongside the descending
1751:
1439:
63:
5097:
McGee WT (2009). "A simple physiologic algorithm for managing hemodynamics using stroke volume and stroke volume variation: physiologic optimization program".
5054:
Manecke GR (September 2005). "Edwards FloTrac sensor and Vigileo monitor: easy, accurate, reliable cardiac output assessment using the arterial pulse wave".
3885:
863:
monitoring. The PiCCO algorithm is dependent on blood pressure waveform morphology (mathematical analysis of the PP waveform), and it calculates continuous
5964:
Casas F, Reeves A, Dudzinski D, Weber S, Lorenz M, Akiyama M, Kamohara K, Kopcak M, Ootaki Y, Zahr F, Sinkewich M, Foster R, Fukamachi K, Smith WA (2005).
4932:
Wesseling KH, Jansen JR, Settels JJ, Schreuder JJ (May 1993). "Computation of aortic flow from pressure in humans using a nonlinear, three-element model".
1446:
1059:
from the analysis of the pressure wave profile obtained from an arterial catheter—radial or femoral access. This PP waveform can then be used to determine
726:
monitoring—which is primarily used for the clinical monitoring of cardiac output. The latter uses continuous wave Doppler to measure blood velocity in the
7194:
6645:
3798:
1994:
increases in a healthy but untrained individual, most of the increase can be attributed to an increase in heart rate (HR). Change of posture, increased
4292:"Pulmonary Artery Catheter (PAC) Accuracy and Efficacy Compared with Flow Probe and Transcutaneous Doppler (USCOM): An Ovine Cardiac Output Validation"
3696:
ineffectiveness may relate to its poor accuracy and sensitivity, which have been demonstrated by comparison with flow probes across a sixfold range of
2075:
4521:"Intraoperative intravascular volume optimisation and length of hospital stay after repair of proximal femoral fracture: randomised controlled trial"
2909:
6956:
4484:
Mythen MG, Webb AR (April 1995). "Perioperative plasma volume expansion reduces the incidence of gut mucosal hypoperfusion during cardiac surgery".
6853:
Maceira A (2006). "Normalized Left Ventricular Systolic and Diastolic Function by Steady State Free Precession Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance".
290:
With a resting cardiac output of 5 L/min, a 'normal' oxygen delivery is around 1 L/min. The amount/percentage of the circulated oxygen consumed (VO
4570:"Randomised controlled trial investigating the influence of intravenous fluid titration using oesophageal Doppler monitoring during bowel surgery"
1113:
The UD method was firstly introduced in 1995. It was extensively used to measure flow and volumes with extracorporeal circuit conditions, such as
7163:
6093:
5486:
3441:
The calculation of the arterial and venous oxygen content of the blood is a straightforward process. Almost all oxygen in the blood is bound to
2044:
is important in clinical medicine because it provides for improved diagnosis of abnormalities and can be used to guide appropriate management.
5178:"Early non-invasive cardiac output monitoring in hemodynamically unstable intensive care patients: a multi-center randomized controlled trial"
3938:
878:
calibration but is less accurate than PA thermodilution and requires a central venous and arterial line with the accompanied infection risks.
331:
of variations in cardiac output. The three functions indicate the trend in physiological conditions (in the centre), in those of decreased
6513:
4855:
3096:
The normal range for these indexed blood flow parameters are between 35 and 65 mL/beat/m for SI and between 2.5 and 4 L/(min m) for CI.
6049:
van Loon M, van der Mark W, Beukers N, de Bruin C, Blankestijn PJ, Huisman RM, Zijlstra JJ, van der Sande FM, Tordoir JH (June 2007).
5757:"Hypertension as a hemodynamic disease: the role of impedance cardiography in diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic decision making"
5313:"Assessment of cardiac output in children: a comparison between the pressure recording analytical method and Doppler echocardiography"
5019:
Singh S, Taylor MA (August 2010). "Con: the FloTrac device should not be used to follow cardiac output in cardiac surgical patients".
360:, the quantity of blood returning to the heart effectively determines the quantity of blood the heart pumps out – its cardiac output,
7417:
4745:"Randomized clinical trial assessing the effect of Doppler-optimized fluid management on outcome after elective colorectal resection"
757:. PP methods measure the combined performance of the heart and the blood vessels, thus limiting their application for measurement of
3314:
298:. Physical exercise requires a higher than resting-level of oxygen consumption to support increased muscle activity. In the case of
6914:
3196:
774:
7689:
2600:
The resulting indexed parameters are stroke index (SI) and cardiac index (CI). Stroke index, measured in mL/beat/m, is defined as
380:
316:
There are many methods of measuring CO, both invasively and non-invasively; each has advantages and drawbacks as described below.
7187:
3955:
Binanay C, Califf RM, Hasselblad V, O'Connor CM, Shah MR, Sopko G, Stevenson LW, Francis GS, Leier CV, Miller LW (October 2005).
3700:
values. Use of PAC is in decline as clinicians move to less invasive and more accurate technologies for monitoring hæmodynamics.
1299:
226:). Mathematically this is calculated as follows: oxygen delivery = cardiac output × arterial oxygen content, giving the formula:
4856:"Oesophageal Doppler Monitor (ODM) guided individualised goal directed fluid management (iGDFM) in surgery – a technical review"
846:
by analysing the arterial PP waveform. In both cases, an independent technique is required to provide calibration of continuous
218:
of oxygenated blood at an adequate pressure from the left ventricle of the heart via the aorta and arteries. Oxygen delivery (DO
2068:
6238:
5822:
859:
value derived from cold-saline thermodilution is used to calibrate the arterial PP contour, which can then provide continuous
6991:
6734:
6705:
6680:
6546:
6507:
6232:
3839:
6552:
6430:
Pennell DJ, Sechtem UP, Higgins CB, Manning WJ, Pohost GM, Rademakers FE, van Rossum AC, Shaw LJ, Yucel EK (November 2004).
5465:"Impedance cardiography: Pulsatile blood flow and the biophysical and electrodynamic basis for the stroke volume equations"
4704:"Intraoperative oesophageal Doppler guided fluid management shortens postoperative hospital stay after major bowel surgery"
3104:
Combined cardiac output is the sum of the outputs of the right and left sides of the heart. It is a useful measurement in
907:
6391:"Hemodynamic effects of vacuum-assisted closure therapy in cardiac surgery: assessment using magnetic resonance imaging"
1669:
7786:
7180:
7155:
6639:
5796:
5403:
Scolletta S, Romano SM, Maglioni H (2005). "Left ventricular performance by PRAM during cardiac surgery". p. S157.
3792:
4046:
Hall JB (October 2005). "Searching for evidence to support pulmonary artery catheter use in critically ill patients".
672:
then multiplied by the VTI of the Doppler flow profile across the aortic valve to determine the flow volume per beat (
6944:
6480:
2061:
6389:
Petzina R, Ugander M, Gustafsson L, Engblom H, Sjögren J, Hetzer R, Ingemansson R, Arheden H, Malmsjö M (May 2007).
1797:
capacitance of thick-walled arteries because they are able to carry more blood by virtue of being more distensible.
4832:
3957:"Evaluation study of congestive heart failure and pulmonary artery catheterization effectiveness: the ESCAPE trial"
874:), intrathoracic blood volume and extravascular lung water. Transpulmonary thermodilution allows for less invasive
5272:"Pressure recording analytical method (PRAM) for measurement of cardiac output during various haemodynamic states"
968:
913:
3416:
5227:
Romano SM, Pistolesi M (August 2002). "Assessment of cardiac output from systemic arterial pressure in humans".
4972:"The reliability of pulse contour-derived cardiac output during hemorrhage and after vasopressor administration"
4437:"Measurement of cardiac output in normal pregnancy by a non-invasive two-dimensional independent Doppler device"
7141:
5856:
4341:
Horster S, Stemmler HJ, Strecker N, Brettner F, Hausmann A, Cnossen J, Parhofer KG, Nickel T, Geiger S (2012).
2034:, EDV may vary. An increase in EDV could counterbalance LV dilatation and impaired contraction. From equation (
1999:
719:
3877:
7330:
232:
4119:"Reliability of a new ultrasonic cardiac output monitor in recipients of living donor liver transplantation"
1606:
7707:
7462:
7440:
1129:
is 1533 m/s) into a unique AV loop decreases blood ultrasound velocity, and produces dilution curves.
7160:
3457:; the oxygen content of the blood—either arterial or venous—can be estimated using the following formula:
1578:
7702:
7447:
5586:"Individualizing hypertension treatment with impedance cardiography: a meta-analysis of published trials"
898:) is an uncalibrated, haemodynamic monitor based on pulse contour analysis. It estimates cardiac output (
294:) per minute through metabolism varies depending on the activity level but at rest is circa 25% of the DO
1789:
Cardiac output is primarily controlled by the oxygen requirement of tissues in the body. In contrast to
7528:
1995:
839:
6799:
2591:{\displaystyle BSA_{\mathrm {} }=W_{\mathrm {} }^{0.425}\times H_{\mathrm {} }^{0.725}\times 0.007184}
555:
214:
require continuous oxygen delivery which requires the sustained transport of oxygen to the tissues by
7732:
7679:
7555:
7535:
7499:
7422:
7382:
7203:
6090:
5464:
3669:
154:(SV), which is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat; thus giving the formula:
146:
of the heart, per unit time (usually measured per minute). Cardiac output (CO) is the product of the
6629:
6104:
3782:
2022:
can be associated with cardiovascular disease that can occur during infection and sepsis. Decreased
1165:
is directly proportional to the through-plane velocity. The average velocity in a vessel, i.e., the
160:
97:
25:
Major factors influencing cardiac output – heart rate and stroke volume, both of which are variable.
7550:
7540:
7430:
603:
516:
4893:"An evaluation of cardiac output by five arterial pulse contour techniques during cardiac surgery"
7737:
7669:
7614:
7515:
7435:
7319:
7297:
5966:"Performance and reliability of the CPB/ECMO Initiative Forward Lines Casualty Management System"
3724:
1913:
Table 4: Cardiac response to increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output
1840:
Table 3: Cardiac response to decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output
786:
685:
324:
215:
7315:
5669:
Parry MJ, McFetridge-Durdle J (2006). "Ambulatory impedance cardiography: a systematic review".
4702:
Wakeling HG, McFall MR, Jenkins CS, Woods WG, Miles WF, Barclay GR, Fleming SC (November 2005).
692:
to calculate aortic and pulmonary valve diameters and CSAs, allowing right-sided and left-sided
68:
7674:
7664:
7578:
7324:
7282:
7277:
4970:
Bein B, Meybohm P, Cavus E, Renner J, Tonner PH, Steinfath M, Scholz J, Doerges V (July 2007).
3186:
the oxygen content of blood from a cannula in a peripheral artery (representing arterial blood)
2031:
1225:
1141:
1086:
761:. This can be partially compensated for by intermittent calibration of the waveform to another
6497:
5712:
Wang DJ, Gottlieb SS (September 2006). "Impedance cardiography: more questions than answers".
5421:
4866:
4168:"Cardiac output measurement in preterm neonates: validation of USCOM against echocardiography"
222:
mL/min) is the resultant of blood flow (cardiac output CO) times the blood oxygen content (CaO
7523:
3719:
3183:
the oxygen content of blood taken from the pulmonary artery (representing mixed venous blood)
3109:
1264:
6723:
6340:
Kuehne T, Yilmaz S, Schulze-Neick I, Wellnhofer E, Ewert P, Nagel E, Lange P (August 2005).
5890:"Theory and validation of access flow measurement by dilution technique during hemodialysis"
5537:"Measuring impedance in congestive heart failure: current options and clinical applications"
1781:
1101:
Non-invasive ICG equipment includes the Bio-Z Dx, the Niccomo, and TEBCO products by BoMed.
7272:
7255:
3908:
3117:
2098:
1824:
1090:
895:
869:
332:
131:
7172:
6432:"Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report"
4343:"Cardiac Output Measurements in Septic Patients: Comparing the Accuracy of USCOM to PiCCO"
3434:
as tracers and measure the change in inspired and expired gas concentrations to calculate
1975:
Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1972:
Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1902:
Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1899:
Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1177:
is the stroke volume. The length of the cardiac cycle is known and determines heart rate;
1089:(often abbreviated as ICG, or Thoracic Electrical Bioimpedance (TEB)) measures changes in
8:
7619:
7457:
7452:
7287:
7260:
4497:
2122:
2040:), the resulting cardiac output Q may remain constant. The ability to accurately measure
1122:
7727:
7592:
7345:
7112:
7085:
6669:
6605:
6578:
6366:
6341:
6322:
6274:
6201:
6147:
6122:
5995:
5982:
5965:
5737:
5694:
5651:
5561:
5536:
5445:
5385:
5342:
5311:
Calamandrei M, Mirabile L, Muschetta S, Gensini GF, De Simone L, Romano SM (May 2008).
5252:
5204:
5177:
5154:
5122:
5079:
5001:
4988:
4971:
4774:
4643:
4599:
4545:
4520:
4466:
4417:
4369:
4342:
4318:
4291:
4234:
4194:
4167:
4148:
4025:
3831:
3673:
2458:
1736:
1424:
723:
353:
48:
30:
7045:"Survey of intensive care nurses' knowledge relating to the pulmonary artery catheter"
6310:
7363:
7335:
7117:
7066:
7025:
6987:
6940:
6822:
6767:
6730:
6701:
6676:
6635:
6610:
6542:
6503:
6476:
6453:
6412:
6371:
6314:
6278:
6228:
6193:
6152:
6072:
6051:"Implementation of a vascular access quality programme improves vascular access care"
6031:
5987:
5946:
5911:
5778:
5729:
5686:
5682:
5643:
5639:
5607:
5566:
5517:
5408:
5377:
5334:
5293:
5244:
5240:
5209:
5158:
5114:
5071:
5036:
4993:
4949:
4914:
4909:
4892:
4810:
4766:
4725:
4684:
4635:
4631:
4591:
4586:
4569:
4550:
4501:
4458:
4453:
4436:
4409:
4374:
4323:
4269:
4226:
4140:
4099:
4063:
4017:
3978:
3930:
3845:
3835:
3788:
3654:
3113:
3105:
2232:
2170:
2030:
and heart failure. Sometimes, in the presence of ventricular disease associated with
1774:
1566:{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}c(t_{i})(F\Delta t)=F\sum _{i=1}^{n}c(t_{i})(\Delta t)}
1203:
803:
459:
340:
143:
6326:
6205:
6138:
5741:
5698:
5655:
5449:
5389:
5346:
5256:
5126:
5083:
4778:
4647:
4603:
4470:
4421:
4238:
4152:
4029:
3659:
3108:, where cardiac outputs from both sides of the heart work partly in parallel by the
1222:, the amount of dye that flows past the measuring point during the subinterval from
7712:
7307:
7107:
7097:
7056:
7017:
6862:
6814:
6759:
6600:
6590:
6443:
6402:
6361:
6353:
6306:
6270:
6227:(2nd ed.). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 71–90.
6183:
6142:
6134:
6062:
6023:
5999:
5977:
5942:
5938:
5901:
5773:
5768:
5756:
5721:
5678:
5635:
5597:
5556:
5548:
5509:
5476:
5437:
5369:
5324:
5283:
5236:
5199:
5189:
5150:
5106:
5063:
5028:
5005:
4983:
4941:
4904:
4802:
4756:
4715:
4674:
4627:
4581:
4540:
4532:
4493:
4448:
4401:
4364:
4354:
4313:
4303:
4261:
4218:
4189:
4179:
4130:
4091:
4055:
4009:
3968:
3920:
3827:
3148:
2214:
2208:
2195:
2189:
1819:
1170:
882:
727:
668:
211:
4661:
Venn R, Steele A, Richardson P, Poloniecki J, Grounds M, Newman P (January 2002).
4265:
906:) from a sample of arterial pulsations. The device uses an algorithm based on the
842:
AG, Munich, Germany) and PulseCO (LiDCO Ltd, London, England) generate continuous
497:
Doppler signal in the left ventricular outflow tract: Velocity Time Integral (VTI)
7562:
7292:
7167:
7145:
6536:
6188:
6171:
6108:
6097:
5329:
5312:
4945:
4405:
4222:
4095:
3821:
1157:
Velocity-encoded MRI is based on the detection of changes in the phase of proton
1039:). Only perfused beats that generate an arterial waveform are counted for in HR.
21:
6407:
6390:
4568:
Conway DH, Mayall R, Abdul-Latif MS, Gilligan S, Tackaberry C (September 2002).
7722:
7647:
7639:
7061:
7044:
6818:
5032:
4806:
3174:
3134:
3073:{\displaystyle CI_{\mathrm {} }=(SI_{\mathrm {} }\times HR_{\mathrm {} })/1000}
2027:
1923:
Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
1850:
Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
1757:
output that is stable for approximately 10 s during exercise and 30 s at rest.
1753:
is known, and the integral can be determined using the concentration readings.
1121:, leading more than 150 peer reviewed publications. UD has now been adapted to
824:
750:
731:
506:
6866:
6448:
6431:
5725:
5552:
5441:
3849:
2886:{\displaystyle CI_{\mathrm {} }={\frac {CO_{\mathrm {} }}{BSA_{\mathrm {} }}}}
2736:{\displaystyle SI_{\mathrm {} }={\frac {SV_{\mathrm {} }}{BSA_{\mathrm {} }}}}
889:
738:). Oesophageal Doppler monitoring measures the velocity of blood and not true
7780:
7340:
7250:
7243:
7228:
7021:
5602:
5585:
5373:
5270:
Scolletta S, Romano SM, Biagioli B, Capannini G, Giomarelli P (August 2005).
5110:
5067:
4536:
4059:
4013:
3973:
3956:
3934:
3714:
3709:
2478:
2146:
2015:
1770:
1174:
820:
689:
673:
463:
365:
357:
299:
151:
6763:
6357:
5800:
4000:(October 2005). "Somatic acquisition and signaling of TGFBR1*6A in cancer".
7754:
7744:
7717:
7606:
7597:
7394:
7368:
7121:
7070:
6826:
6771:
6614:
6457:
6416:
6375:
6318:
6282:
6197:
6172:"Minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring in the perioperative setting"
6156:
6076:
6035:
5991:
5950:
5782:
5733:
5690:
5647:
5611:
5570:
5521:
5381:
5338:
5297:
5248:
5213:
5162:
5118:
5075:
5040:
4997:
4918:
4814:
4770:
4729:
4688:
4639:
4595:
4462:
4413:
4378:
4327:
4273:
4230:
4144:
4103:
4067:
4021:
3982:
3925:
3820:
Kenyon, Anna; Williams, David; Adamson, Dawn (10 June 2010). "Physiology".
2011:
2006:
Diseases of the cardiovascular system are often associated with changes in
1118:
1050:
655:
VTI is the velocity time integral of the trace of the Doppler flow profile.
306:
7029:
5915:
5513:
4953:
4679:
4662:
4554:
4505:
4359:
4308:
1441:
is the rate of flow that is being calculated. The total amount of dye is:
319:
7759:
7749:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7378:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6067:
6050:
6027:
5288:
5271:
4720:
4703:
4166:
Phillips R, Paradisis M, Evans N, Southwell D, Burstow D, West M (2006).
1815:
5906:
5889:
4441:
The Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
7697:
7482:
7372:
7355:
7238:
6220:
5584:
Ferrario CM, Flack JM, Strobeck JE, Smits G, Peters C (February 2010).
5176:
Takala J, Ruokonen E, Tenhunen JJ, Parviainen I, Jakob SM (June 2011).
3813:
3684:
3442:
3170:
2183:
1766:
1158:
502:
369:
336:
147:
7629:
7400:
7267:
4891:
de Wilde RB, Schreuder JJ, van den Berg PC, Jansen JR (August 2007).
4829:"CardioQ-ODM oesophageal doppler monitor | Guidance | NICE"
4761:
4744:
4135:
4118:
4117:
Su BC, Yu HP, Yang MW, Lin CC, Kao MC, Chang CH, Lee WC (July 2008).
3431:
816:
207:
7138:
7043:
Johnston IG, Jane R, Fraser JF, Kruger P, Hickling K (August 2004).
6885:
Normal ranges for heart rate are among the narrowest limits between
5194:
3882:
BC Open Textbooks – Open Textbooks Adapted and Created by BC Faculty
773:
In 1967, the Czech physiologist Jan Peňáz invented and patented the
7657:
7388:
7102:
6939:
BB Sramek: Systemic Hemodynamics and Hemodynamic Management, 2002,
6595:
6339:
6048:
5481:
5310:
4890:
4184:
3954:
2240:
1068:
5359:
4391:
4290:
Phillips RA, Hood SG, Jacobson BM, West MJ, Wan L, May CN (2012).
3655:
Pulmonary artery thermodilution (trans-right-heart thermodilution)
339:, bottom curve) and in those of increased preload (e.g. following
7652:
3672:(PAC) introduced to clinical practice in 1970, also known as the
3139:
2468:
Cardiac input is a readily imaged mathematical model of diastole.
2236:
1785:
Hierarchical summary of major factors influencing cardiac output.
1190:
While MRI is an important research tool for accurately measuring
1064:
5269:
5175:
4743:
Noblett SE, Snowden CP, Shenton BK, Horgan AF (September 2006).
1920:
Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria)
1847:
Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria)
7492:
7487:
6388:
5928:
5499:
4931:
4853:
4828:
4567:
4340:
4165:
3451:
3387:{\displaystyle Q\ ={\frac {{V}_{{\ce {O2}}}}{{C}_{A}-{C}_{V}}}}
790:
305:
Cardiac output is a global blood flow parameter of interest in
7150:
5852:
4660:
3275:{\displaystyle V_{{\ce {O2}}}=(Q\times C_{A})-(Q\times C_{V})}
150:(HR), i.e. the number of heartbeats per minute (bpm), and the
7624:
7211:
7006:
6259:
6101:
6012:
3907:
Dunn, J.-Oc; Mythen, M. G.; Grocott, M. P. (1 October 2016).
3422:
While considered to be the most accurate method of measuring
1166:
1162:
718:
The Transoesophageal Doppler includes two main technologies;
139:
135:
6749:
6429:
6120:
4791:
4080:
2464:
IF = end diastolic volume (EDV) / end systolic volume (ESV)
1202:
The dye dilution method is done by rapidly injecting a dye,
710:
429:{\displaystyle CO_{\text{}}=SV_{\text{}}\times HR_{\text{}}}
7202:
6957:"Cardiac Output and Cardiac Index – What's the difference?"
6798:
Maceira AM, Prasad SK, Khan M, Pennell DJ (December 2006).
4742:
3447:
2239:. Prior to the start of systole, during the filling phase (
1790:
1412:{\displaystyle (concentration)(volume)=c(t_{i})(F\Delta t)}
1114:
890:
Statistical analysis of arterial pressure – FloTrac/Vigileo
735:
493:
5823:"Niccomo – Non-Invasive Continuous Cardiac Output Monitor"
5624:
5583:
4854:
Lowe GD, Chamberlain BM, Philpot EJ, Willshire RJ (2010).
4701:
1218:. By dividing the time intervals from into subintervals Δ
5963:
4616:
3545:
3347:
3216:
7042:
6797:
4289:
1802:
1051:
Uncalibrated, pre-estimated demographic data-free – PRAM
783:
Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research
352:
The function of the heart is to drive blood through the
7086:"Cardiac output monitoring: an integrative perspective"
6634:. OpenStax College, Rice University. pp. 787–846.
6121:
Krivitski NM, Kislukhin VV, Thuramalla NV (July 2008).
5402:
3787:. OpenStax College, Rice University. pp. 787–846.
2901:) for indexed parameters then changes to the following.
1055:
Pressure Recording Analytical Method (PRAM), estimates
310:
6984:
Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch
6295:
5668:
4969:
4208:
971:
916:
802:
impedance. At the proximal aortic site, the 3-element
722:—which is primarily used for diagnostic purposes, and
7083:
6930:
WR Milnor: Hemodynamics, Williams & Wilkins, 1982
4285:
4283:
3998:
3819:
3466:
3317:
3199:
2912:
2751:
2608:
2492:
2254:
1760:
1739:
1672:
1609:
1581:
1449:
1427:
1302:
1267:
1228:
781:
In 1978, scientists at BMI-TNO, the research unit of
606:
558:
519:
383:
235:
163:
100:
71:
51:
6725:
Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine
5754:
835:
5755:Ventura HO, Taler SJ, Strobeck JE (February 2005).
4518:
4251:
2745:
Cardiac index, measured in L/(min m), is defined as
1964:Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume
1891:Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume
1888:Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume
881:In LiDCO, the independent calibration technique is
870:
6722:
6668:
6395:The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
4385:
4280:
4159:
3866:edited by Catherine E. Williamson, Phillip Bennett
3643:
3386:
3274:
3156:is calculated from these measurements as follows:
3072:
2885:
2735:
2590:
2428:
1961:Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume
1745:
1724:{\displaystyle F={\frac {A}{\int _{0}^{T}c(t)dt}}}
1723:
1654:
1593:
1565:
1433:
1411:
1286:
1253:
1021:
957:
634:
591:
543:
428:
364:. Cardiac output is classically defined alongside
279:
190:
122:
86:
57:
7156:The Determinants of Cardiac Output (online video)
7151:The Gross Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
6695:
5021:Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia
3906:
688:to measure the Doppler flow profile VTI. It uses
7778:
6218:
5797:"BioZ Dx Diagnostics System | Sonosite Inc"
2111:End-diastolic volume / body surface area (mL/m)
6572:
6570:
6541:. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. p. 4.
5226:
4434:
2135:End-systolic volume / body surface area (mL/m)
830:
684:Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitor (USCOM) uses
7139:Hemodynamics training for Junior Medical Staff
6169:
5590:Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease
4519:Sinclair S, James S, Singer M (October 1997).
649:CSA is the valve orifice cross sectional area,
7188:
6848:
6846:
6844:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6836:
6793:
6791:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6783:
6781:
3295:is the oxygen content of arterial blood, and,
2069:
1148:
1022:{\textstyle BP\cdot k\mathrm {\ (constant)} }
958:{\textstyle SV=\mathrm {std} (AP)\cdot \chi }
6855:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
6743:
6567:
5711:
5139:
4245:
3869:
815:Invasive PP monitoring involves inserting a
6881:
6879:
5018:
4435:Kager CC, Dekker GA, Stam MC (April 2009).
4116:
3950:
3948:
3823:Basic Science in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
819:pressure sensor into an artery—usually the
7195:
7181:
7084:Alhashemi JA, Cecconi M, Hofer CK (2011).
6909:
6907:
6833:
6778:
6489:
6170:Funk DJ, Moretti EW, Gan TJ (March 2009).
4483:
4202:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3663:Diagram of Pulmonary artery catheter (PAC)
3173:(with the subject re-breathing air) and a
3099:
2076:
2062:
138:'s pumping output: that is, the volume of
7111:
7101:
7060:
6975:
6720:
6666:
6604:
6594:
6528:
6447:
6406:
6365:
6187:
6146:
6066:
5981:
5905:
5887:
5772:
5601:
5560:
5480:
5462:
5328:
5287:
5203:
5193:
4987:
4925:
4908:
4760:
4719:
4678:
4585:
4544:
4452:
4368:
4358:
4317:
4307:
4193:
4183:
4134:
3972:
3924:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3143:An illustration of how spirometry is done
2159:Stroke volume / body surface area (mL/m)
1136:
1081:
745:
6876:
6729:(5th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
6621:
5534:
4965:
4963:
4884:
3945:
3875:
3658:
3138:
1985:
1780:
1214:be the concentration of the dye at time
714:A transoesophageal echocardiogram probe.
709:
492:
318:
20:
16:Measurement of blood pumped by the heart
7204:Physiology of the cardiovascular system
6933:
6915:"Normal Hemodynamic Parameters – Adult"
6904:
6852:
6576:
6470:
6225:MRI and CT of the Cardiovascular System
5053:
4334:
3147:The Fick principle, first described by
2222:
1877:Parasympathetic stimulation suppressed
768:
280:{\displaystyle D_{O2}=CO\times C_{a}O2}
7779:
7161:Basic Principles in Cardiac Physiology
6924:
6495:
4041:
4039:
3994:
3992:
3941:from the original on 23 February 2022.
3737:
3304:is the oxygen content of venous blood.
1664:Thus, the cardiac output is given by:
1655:{\displaystyle A=F\int _{0}^{T}c(t)dt}
1197:
1104:
7176:
6981:
6963:from the original on 16 December 2018
6648:from the original on 23 February 2022
6627:
6534:
6475:. Cengage Learning. pp. 565–66.
6241:from the original on 23 February 2022
6055:Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation
6016:Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation
5489:from the original on 17 October 2015.
5096:
4960:
4835:from the original on 23 February 2022
4428:
3801:from the original on 23 February 2022
3780:
3123:
2010:, particularly the pandemic diseases
1950:Parasympathetic stimulation increased
488:
5833:from the original on 17 October 2015
5133:
4498:10.1001/archsurg.1995.01430040085019
4045:
3888:from the original on 6 November 2021
3450:of haemoglobin can carry 1.34 mL of
3438:(Innocor, Innovision A/S, Denmark).
2903:
2245:
2227:
1594:{\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty }
466:(CI). This is detailed in equation (
374:
6986:. Elsevier/Saunders. p. 1197.
6700:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6223:. In de Roos A, Higgins CB (eds.).
4347:Critical Care Research and Practice
4296:Critical Care Research and Practice
4084:International Journal of Cardiology
4036:
3989:
1953:Sympathetic stimulation suppressed
1830:
705:
663:
13:
6901:articles for more detailed limits.
6675:(7th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
6275:10.1148/radiology.211.2.r99ma43453
5983:10.1097/01.mat.0000182472.63808.b9
5469:Journal of Electrical Bioimpedance
5155:10.1016/j.transproceed.2011.12.036
5099:Journal of Intensive Care Medicine
4989:10.1213/01.ane.0000268140.02147.ed
3832:10.1016/b978-0-443-10281-3.00014-2
3050:
3047:
3044:
3013:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2986:
2983:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2925:
2864:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2822:
2788:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2764:
2715:
2688:
2685:
2651:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2624:
2621:
2568:
2565:
2539:
2536:
2509:
2416:
2339:
1880:Sympathetic stimulation increased
1761:Factors influencing cardiac output
1588:
1554:
1496:
1400:
1181:can be calculated using equation (
1012:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
933:
930:
927:
794:be accurate, robust and reliable.
14:
7798:
7132:
6920:. Edwards Lifesciences LLC. 2009.
6555:from the original on 27 July 2020
6516:from the original on 27 July 2020
5502:Telemedicine Journal and e-Health
4110:
3856:from the original on 30 June 2022
3190:From these values, we know that:
3128:
2047:
1733:where the amount of dye injected
679:
45:and often denoted by the symbols
6499:Principles of Medical Physiology
6127:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine
5859:from the original on 24 May 2015
5761:American Journal of Hypertension
5683:10.1097/00006199-200607000-00009
5640:10.1097/00001573-200405000-00008
5317:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine
5241:10.1097/00003246-200208000-00027
5056:Expert Review of Medical Devices
4910:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05135.x
4632:10.1097/00000542-200210000-00012
4587:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2002.02708.x
4454:10.1111/j.1479-828X.2009.00948.x
4260:(6): 961–67, discussion 967–68.
3909:"Physiology of Oxygen Transport"
2472:
2452:
1033:is then derived using equation (
592:{\displaystyle SV=VTI\times CSA}
7077:
7036:
7000:
6949:
6714:
6689:
6660:
6473:Calculus: Early Transcententals
6464:
6423:
6382:
6333:
6289:
6253:
6219:Arheden H, Ståhlberg F (2006).
6212:
6163:
6139:10.1097/01.PCC.0b013e31816c71bc
6114:
6083:
6042:
6006:
5957:
5922:
5881:
5878:bomed.us/ext-teb.html EXT-TEBCO
5872:
5845:
5815:
5789:
5748:
5705:
5662:
5618:
5577:
5528:
5493:
5456:
5396:
5353:
5304:
5263:
5220:
5169:
5090:
5047:
5012:
4863:Deltex Medical Technical Review
4847:
4821:
4785:
4736:
4695:
4654:
4610:
4561:
4512:
4477:
3417:arteriovenous oxygen difference
3169:consumption per minute using a
1834:
908:Frank–Starling law of the heart
720:transoesophageal echocardiogram
7049:Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
6579:"Understanding cardiac output"
5943:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2003.09.017
5774:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.11.002
5535:Tang WH, Tong W (March 2009).
5276:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4749:The British Journal of Surgery
4708:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4667:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4074:
3900:
3826:. Elsevier. pp. 173–230.
3269:
3250:
3244:
3225:
3059:
3053:
3041:
3023:
2980:
2968:
2959:
2922:
2874:
2859:
2839:
2819:
2798:
2761:
2724:
2711:
2691:
2682:
2661:
2618:
2571:
2562:
2542:
2533:
2518:
2505:
2000:parasympathetic nervous system
1709:
1703:
1643:
1637:
1585:
1560:
1551:
1548:
1535:
1502:
1490:
1487:
1474:
1406:
1394:
1391:
1378:
1369:
1348:
1345:
1303:
1125:(ICU) as the COstatus device.
1015:
988:
946:
937:
475:
191:{\displaystyle CO=HR\times SV}
123:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{c}}
1:
7331:Aortic valve area calculation
6311:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14956-2
5714:Current Heart Failure Reports
5628:Current Opinion in Cardiology
4934:Journal of Applied Physiology
4266:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2008.07.039
3730:
635:{\displaystyle CSA=\pi r^{2}}
544:{\displaystyle Q=SV\times HR}
347:
6698:Human cardiovascular control
6189:10.1213/ane.0b013e31818ffd99
5931:Journal of Pediatric Surgery
5463:Bernstein, Donald P (2010).
5330:10.1097/PCC.0b013e31816c7151
4946:10.1152/jappl.1993.74.5.2566
4406:10.1213/ane.0b013e318193174b
4223:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181e8adee
4096:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.04.105
3116:, which directly supply the
831:Calibrated PP – PiCCO, LiDCO
7:
7448:Effective refractory period
7327:) / End-diastolic dimension
6408:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.01.011
5143:Transplantation Proceedings
4254:American Journal of Surgery
3703:
3086:
2897:
2442:
2036:
1911:
1838:
1810:
1183:
1035:
810:
652:r is the valve radius, and,
468:
454:
442:
10:
7803:
7062:10.1177/0310057X0403200415
6696:Rowell, Loring B. (1993).
6667:Levy MN, Berne RM (1997).
5888:Krivitski NM (July 1995).
5436:(Suppl 1): S148–58. 2005.
5033:10.1053/j.jvca.2010.04.023
4807:10.1016/j.juro.2011.07.093
3621:partial pressure of oxygen
3132:
2476:
1996:sympathetic nervous system
1764:
1149:Magnetic resonance imaging
462:(BSA), giving rise to the
87:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}}
7787:Cardiovascular physiology
7733:Tubuloglomerular feedback
7688:
7680:Critical closing pressure
7638:
7605:
7591:
7571:
7508:
7500:Hexaxial reference system
7423:Cardiac electrophysiology
7410:
7354:
7306:
7219:
7210:
6867:10.1080/10976640600572889
6671:Cardiovascular physiology
6538:Control of Cardiac Output
6449:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040
6221:"Blood flow measurements"
5726:10.1007/s11897-006-0009-7
5553:10.1016/j.ahj.2008.10.016
5442:10.1007/s00134-005-2781-3
3876:OpenStax (6 March 2013).
3670:pulmonary artery catheter
2056:
1254:{\displaystyle t=t_{i-1}}
728:descending thoracic aorta
142:being pumped by a single
7708:Renin–angiotensin system
7144:11 December 2022 at the
7022:10.1001/jama.264.22.2928
6819:10.1093/eurheartj/ehl336
6631:Anatomy & physiology
6176:Anesthesia and Analgesia
5603:10.1177/1753944709348236
5374:10.1177/0267659106074784
5111:10.1177/0885066609344908
5068:10.1586/17434440.2.5.523
4976:Anesthesia and Analgesia
4537:10.1136/bmj.315.7113.909
4394:Anesthesia and Analgesia
4060:10.1001/jama.294.13.1693
4014:10.1001/jama.294.13.1634
3974:10.1001/jama.294.13.1625
3784:Anatomy & physiology
3397:and therefore calculate
1998:activity, and decreased
1601:, the amount of dye is:
7738:Cerebral autoregulation
7703:Kinin–kallikrein system
7670:Jugular venous pressure
7320:End-diastolic dimension
7298:Pressure volume diagram
6872:(subscription required)
6764:10.1378/chest.122.3.990
6502:. Thieme. p. 237.
6358:10.1136/hrt.2004.038265
6107:29 October 2008 at the
5829:. medis. GmbH Ilmenau.
5430:Intensive Care Medicine
3725:Central venous pressure
3473:Oxygen content of blood
3430:. Other variations use
3415:) is also known as the
3100:Combined cardiac output
2026:can be associated with
1287:{\displaystyle t=t_{i}}
840:PULSION Medical Systems
787:University of Amsterdam
686:continuous wave Doppler
325:central venous pressure
7675:Portal venous pressure
7665:Mean arterial pressure
7579:Ventricular remodeling
7325:End-systolic dimension
7283:Cardiac function curve
6807:European Heart Journal
6436:European Heart Journal
5541:American Heart Journal
5229:Critical Care Medicine
4795:The Journal of Urology
4211:Critical Care Medicine
3664:
3645:
3388:
3308:This allows us to say
3276:
3144:
3074:
2887:
2737:
2592:
2430:
1786:
1747:
1725:
1656:
1595:
1567:
1531:
1470:
1435:
1413:
1288:
1255:
1142:Electrical cardiometry
1137:Electrical cardiometry
1087:Impedance cardiography
1082:Impedance cardiography
1023:
959:
746:Pulse pressure methods
715:
636:
593:
545:
498:
430:
344:
281:
192:
124:
88:
59:
26:
7316:Fractional shortening
6102:Transonic System Inc.
5514:10.1089/tmj.2010.0082
4123:Liver Transplantation
3720:Right atrial pressure
3662:
3646:
3389:
3277:
3142:
3075:
2888:
2738:
2593:
2431:
2165:52 mL/m (± 6.2 mL/m)
2141:26 mL/m (± 5.1 mL/m)
2117:78 mL/m (± 8.8 mL/m)
2057:Ventricular volumes
1986:Clinical significance
1942:, H, and lactic acid
1869:, H, and lactic acid
1784:
1748:
1726:
1657:
1596:
1568:
1511:
1450:
1436:
1414:
1289:
1256:
1024:
960:
713:
637:
594:
546:
496:
431:
322:
282:
193:
125:
89:
60:
24:
7256:End-diastolic volume
6959:. 13 December 2016.
6721:Braunwald E (1997).
5894:Kidney International
4872:on 23 September 2015
3926:10.1093/bjaed/mkw012
3878:"Cardiac Physiology"
3464:
3315:
3197:
3118:systemic circulation
2910:
2749:
2606:
2490:
2252:
2223:Related measurements
2114:78 mL/m (± 11 mL/m)
2099:End-diastolic volume
1737:
1670:
1607:
1579:
1447:
1425:
1300:
1265:
1226:
1154:and thermodilution.
1123:intensive care units
1091:electrical impedance
969:
914:
896:Edwards Lifesciences
769:Finapres methodology
604:
556:
517:
381:
233:
216:systemic circulation
161:
132:volumetric flow rate
98:
69:
49:
7620:Vascular resistance
7458:Electrocardiography
7453:Pacemaker potential
7383:Conduction velocity
7288:Venous return curve
7261:End-systolic volume
7166:4 June 2023 at the
6577:Vincent JL (2008).
6096:12 May 2015 at the
5907:10.1038/ki.1995.290
5767:(2 Pt 2): 26S–43S.
4680:10.1093/bja/88.1.65
4486:Archives of Surgery
4360:10.1155/2012/270631
4309:10.1155/2012/621496
3579:saturation of blood
3547:
3349:
3218:
2581:
2552:
2162:51 mL/m (± 7 mL/m)
2138:27 mL/m (± 7 mL/m)
2123:End-systolic volume
2053:
1914:
1841:
1803:a subsequent figure
1699:
1633:
1198:Dye dilution method
1105:Ultrasound dilution
775:volume clamp method
724:oesophageal Doppler
311:a subsequent figure
7728:Myogenic mechanism
7346:Left atrial volume
7278:Frank–Starling law
6471:Stewart J (2010).
6068:10.1093/ndt/gfm076
6028:10.1093/ndt/gfn275
5853:"OEM Module TEBCO"
5803:on 3 December 2010
5289:10.1093/bja/aei154
4721:10.1093/bja/aei223
3674:Swan-Ganz catheter
3665:
3641:
3639:
3535:
3384:
3337:
3272:
3206:
3145:
3124:Historical methods
3070:
2883:
2733:
2588:
2556:
2527:
2459:injection fraction
2426:
2424:
2052:
1958:Response of heart
1931:Increasing stretch
1912:
1885:Response of heart
1858:Decreasing stretch
1839:
1791:other pump systems
1787:
1743:
1721:
1685:
1652:
1619:
1591:
1563:
1431:
1409:
1284:
1251:
1071:data, are needed.
1019:
955:
716:
632:
589:
541:
499:
489:Doppler ultrasound
426:
354:circulatory system
345:
277:
188:
120:
84:
55:
31:cardiac physiology
27:
7774:
7773:
7770:
7769:
7587:
7586:
7427:Action potential
7418:Conduction system
7364:Cardiac pacemaker
7336:Ejection fraction
6993:978-1-4160-2328-9
6982:Boron WF (2003).
6736:978-0-7216-5666-3
6707:978-0-19-507362-1
6682:978-0-8151-0901-3
6628:Betts JG (2013).
6548:978-1-61504-021-6
6535:Young DB (2010).
6509:978-1-58890-572-7
6496:Sircar S (2008).
6305:(9399): 1877–82.
6234:978-0-7817-6271-7
5416:Missing or empty
4831:. 25 March 2011.
3841:978-0-443-10281-3
3781:Betts JG (2013).
3631:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3592:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3557:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3517:
3511:
3503:
3490:
3474:
3382:
3340:
3323:
3209:
3114:ductus arteriosus
3106:fetal circulation
3094:
3093:
2895:The CO equation (
2881:
2731:
2450:
2449:
2420:
2331:
2233:Ejection fraction
2228:Ejection fraction
2220:
2219:
2171:Ejection fraction
2106:142 mL (± 21 mL)
2103:144 mL (± 23 mL)
1983:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1938:and decreasing CO
1906:
1905:
1865:and increasing CO
1775:Ejection fraction
1746:{\displaystyle A}
1719:
1434:{\displaystyle F}
1204:indocyanine green
987:
894:FloTrac/Vigileo (
501:This method uses
460:body surface area
450:
449:
423:
408:
393:
111:
81:
58:{\displaystyle Q}
41:), also known as
7794:
7713:Vasoconstrictors
7690:Regulation of BP
7603:
7602:
7536:pulmonary artery
7509:Chamber pressure
7217:
7216:
7197:
7190:
7183:
7174:
7173:
7126:
7125:
7115:
7105:
7081:
7075:
7074:
7064:
7040:
7034:
7033:
7004:
6998:
6997:
6979:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6968:
6953:
6947:
6937:
6931:
6928:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6911:
6902:
6883:
6874:
6873:
6870:
6850:
6831:
6830:
6804:
6795:
6776:
6775:
6747:
6741:
6740:
6728:
6718:
6712:
6711:
6693:
6687:
6686:
6674:
6664:
6658:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6608:
6598:
6574:
6565:
6564:
6562:
6560:
6532:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6521:
6493:
6487:
6486:
6468:
6462:
6461:
6451:
6427:
6421:
6420:
6410:
6386:
6380:
6379:
6369:
6337:
6331:
6330:
6293:
6287:
6286:
6257:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6216:
6210:
6209:
6191:
6167:
6161:
6160:
6150:
6118:
6112:
6087:
6081:
6080:
6070:
6046:
6040:
6039:
6010:
6004:
6003:
5985:
5961:
5955:
5954:
5926:
5920:
5919:
5909:
5885:
5879:
5876:
5870:
5868:
5866:
5864:
5849:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5827:www.medis-de.com
5819:
5813:
5812:
5810:
5808:
5799:. Archived from
5793:
5787:
5786:
5776:
5752:
5746:
5745:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5671:Nursing Research
5666:
5660:
5659:
5622:
5616:
5615:
5605:
5581:
5575:
5574:
5564:
5532:
5526:
5525:
5497:
5491:
5490:
5484:
5460:
5454:
5453:
5425:
5419:
5414:
5412:
5404:
5400:
5394:
5393:
5357:
5351:
5350:
5332:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5291:
5267:
5261:
5260:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5207:
5197:
5173:
5167:
5166:
5137:
5131:
5130:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5051:
5045:
5044:
5016:
5010:
5009:
4991:
4967:
4958:
4957:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4912:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4877:
4871:
4865:. Archived from
4860:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4764:
4762:10.1002/bjs.5454
4740:
4734:
4733:
4723:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4682:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4589:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4548:
4531:(7113): 909–12.
4516:
4510:
4509:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4456:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4372:
4362:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4321:
4311:
4287:
4278:
4277:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4187:
4178:(Suppl 1): 343.
4163:
4157:
4156:
4138:
4136:10.1002/lt.21461
4114:
4108:
4107:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4043:
4034:
4033:
3996:
3987:
3986:
3976:
3952:
3943:
3942:
3928:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3873:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3778:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3582:
3581:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3556:g of haemoglobin
3555:
3553:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3527:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3495:
3491:
3488:
3475:
3472:
3393:
3391:
3390:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3338:
3334:
3328:
3321:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3267:
3243:
3242:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3207:
3149:Adolf Eugen Fick
3088:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3010:
2993:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2932:
2904:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2829:
2808:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2771:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2648:
2631:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2469:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2419:
2411:
2382:
2374:
2332:
2330:
2319:
2311:
2246:
2154:95 mL (± 14 mL)
2151:94 mL (± 15 mL)
2130:47 mL (± 10 mL)
2127:50 mL (± 14 mL)
2090:Right ventricle
2078:
2071:
2064:
2054:
2051:
1915:
1842:
1835:
1831:Cardiac response
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1698:
1693:
1680:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1632:
1627:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1547:
1546:
1530:
1525:
1486:
1485:
1469:
1464:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1410:
1390:
1389:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1171:pulmonary artery
1028:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1018:
985:
964:
962:
961:
956:
936:
883:lithium chloride
872:
837:
706:Transoesophageal
669:Echocardiography
664:Echocardiography
641:
639:
638:
633:
631:
630:
598:
596:
595:
590:
550:
548:
547:
542:
444:
435:
433:
432:
427:
425:
424:
422:
410:
409:
407:
395:
394:
392:
375:
286:
284:
283:
278:
270:
269:
248:
247:
197:
195:
194:
189:
129:
127:
126:
121:
119:
118:
113:
112:
104:
93:
91:
90:
85:
83:
82:
74:
64:
62:
61:
56:
7802:
7801:
7797:
7796:
7795:
7793:
7792:
7791:
7777:
7776:
7775:
7766:
7684:
7634:
7596:
7593:Vascular system
7583:
7567:
7504:
7406:
7391:(Contractility)
7350:
7302:
7293:Wiggers diagram
7206:
7201:
7168:Wayback Machine
7146:Wayback Machine
7135:
7130:
7129:
7082:
7078:
7041:
7037:
7016:(22): 2928–32.
7005:
7001:
6994:
6980:
6976:
6966:
6964:
6955:
6954:
6950:
6938:
6934:
6929:
6925:
6917:
6913:
6912:
6905:
6884:
6877:
6871:
6851:
6834:
6813:(23): 2879–88.
6802:
6796:
6779:
6748:
6744:
6737:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6694:
6690:
6683:
6665:
6661:
6651:
6649:
6642:
6626:
6622:
6575:
6568:
6558:
6556:
6549:
6533:
6529:
6519:
6517:
6510:
6494:
6490:
6483:
6469:
6465:
6442:(21): 1940–65.
6428:
6424:
6387:
6383:
6338:
6334:
6294:
6290:
6258:
6254:
6244:
6242:
6235:
6217:
6213:
6168:
6164:
6119:
6115:
6109:Wayback Machine
6098:Wayback Machine
6088:
6084:
6047:
6043:
6022:(11): 3578–84.
6011:
6007:
5962:
5958:
5927:
5923:
5886:
5882:
5877:
5873:
5862:
5860:
5851:
5850:
5846:
5836:
5834:
5821:
5820:
5816:
5806:
5804:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5753:
5749:
5710:
5706:
5667:
5663:
5623:
5619:
5582:
5578:
5533:
5529:
5508:(10): 1042–50.
5498:
5494:
5461:
5457:
5427:
5417:
5415:
5406:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5358:
5354:
5309:
5305:
5268:
5264:
5225:
5221:
5195:10.1186/cc10273
5174:
5170:
5138:
5134:
5095:
5091:
5052:
5048:
5017:
5013:
4968:
4961:
4930:
4926:
4889:
4885:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4858:
4852:
4848:
4838:
4836:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4790:
4786:
4741:
4737:
4700:
4696:
4659:
4655:
4615:
4611:
4566:
4562:
4517:
4513:
4482:
4478:
4433:
4429:
4390:
4386:
4339:
4335:
4288:
4281:
4250:
4246:
4207:
4203:
4164:
4160:
4115:
4111:
4079:
4075:
4054:(13): 1693–94.
4044:
4037:
4008:(13): 1634–46.
3997:
3990:
3967:(13): 1625–33.
3953:
3946:
3905:
3901:
3891:
3889:
3874:
3870:
3859:
3857:
3842:
3818:
3814:
3804:
3802:
3795:
3779:
3738:
3733:
3706:
3657:
3638:
3637:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3589:
3585:
3577:
3565:
3564:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3500:
3496:
3487:
3483:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3455:
3413:
3406:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3360:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3329:
3327:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3303:
3294:
3263:
3259:
3238:
3234:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3178:
3168:
3167:
3137:
3131:
3126:
3102:
3062:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3017:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2989:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2953:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2928:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2825:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2807:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2767:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2627:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2576:
2561:
2560:
2547:
2532:
2531:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2467:
2455:
2423:
2422:
2412:
2383:
2381:
2372:
2371:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2320:
2312:
2310:
2303:
2294:
2293:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2230:
2225:
2093:Left ventricle
2082:
2050:
1988:
1969:Overall effect
1941:
1937:
1896:Overall effect
1868:
1864:
1833:
1777:
1763:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1628:
1623:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1542:
1538:
1526:
1515:
1481:
1477:
1465:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1385:
1381:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1200:
1151:
1139:
1107:
1084:
1053:
984:
970:
967:
966:
926:
915:
912:
911:
892:
833:
813:
771:
748:
708:
682:
666:
626:
622:
605:
602:
601:
557:
554:
553:
518:
515:
514:
491:
478:
421:
417:
406:
402:
391:
387:
382:
379:
378:
350:
297:
293:
265:
261:
240:
236:
234:
231:
230:
225:
221:
162:
159:
158:
114:
103:
102:
101:
99:
96:
95:
73:
72:
70:
67:
66:
50:
47:
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7800:
7790:
7789:
7772:
7771:
7768:
7767:
7765:
7764:
7763:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7742:
7741:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7723:Autoregulation
7720:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7694:
7692:
7686:
7685:
7683:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7661:
7660:
7655:
7648:Pulse pressure
7644:
7642:
7640:Blood pressure
7636:
7635:
7633:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7611:
7609:
7600:
7589:
7588:
7585:
7584:
7582:
7581:
7575:
7573:
7569:
7568:
7566:
7565:
7560:
7559:
7558:
7553:
7545:
7544:
7543:
7533:
7532:
7531:
7526:
7518:
7516:Central venous
7512:
7510:
7506:
7505:
7503:
7502:
7497:
7496:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7465:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7444:
7443:
7438:
7433:
7425:
7420:
7414:
7412:
7408:
7407:
7405:
7404:
7398:
7397:(Excitability)
7392:
7386:
7376:
7366:
7360:
7358:
7352:
7351:
7349:
7348:
7343:
7338:
7333:
7328:
7322:
7312:
7310:
7304:
7303:
7301:
7300:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7264:
7263:
7258:
7248:
7247:
7246:
7241:
7234:Cardiac output
7231:
7225:
7223:
7221:Cardiac output
7214:
7208:
7207:
7200:
7199:
7192:
7185:
7177:
7171:
7170:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7134:
7133:External links
7131:
7128:
7127:
7103:10.1186/cc9996
7076:
7035:
6999:
6992:
6974:
6948:
6932:
6923:
6903:
6875:
6832:
6777:
6742:
6735:
6713:
6706:
6688:
6681:
6659:
6641:978-1938168130
6640:
6620:
6596:10.1186/cc6975
6566:
6547:
6527:
6508:
6488:
6481:
6463:
6422:
6401:(5): 1154–62.
6381:
6352:(8): 1064–69.
6332:
6288:
6252:
6233:
6211:
6162:
6113:
6082:
6061:(6): 1628–32.
6041:
6005:
5956:
5921:
5880:
5871:
5844:
5814:
5788:
5747:
5704:
5661:
5617:
5576:
5527:
5492:
5482:10.5617/jeb.51
5455:
5428:"OP 564–605".
5395:
5352:
5303:
5262:
5235:(8): 1834–41.
5219:
5168:
5132:
5089:
5046:
5011:
4959:
4940:(5): 2566–73.
4924:
4883:
4846:
4820:
4801:(6): 2201–06.
4784:
4755:(9): 1069–76.
4735:
4694:
4653:
4620:Anesthesiology
4609:
4560:
4511:
4476:
4427:
4384:
4333:
4279:
4244:
4217:(9): 1875–81.
4201:
4185:10.1186/cc4690
4158:
4129:(7): 1029–37.
4109:
4090:(4): 1524–31.
4073:
4035:
3988:
3944:
3919:(10): 341–48.
3899:
3868:
3840:
3812:
3794:978-1938168130
3793:
3735:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3705:
3702:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3635:
3627:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3596:
3588:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3552:
3542:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3494:
3486:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3470:
3469:
3453:
3411:
3404:
3395:
3394:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3344:
3333:
3326:
3320:
3306:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3283:
3282:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3213:
3203:
3188:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3176:
3165:
3163:
3135:Fick principle
3133:Main article:
3130:
3129:Fick principle
3127:
3125:
3122:
3101:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3082:
3080:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2587:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2474:
2471:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2438:
2436:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2318:
2315:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2203:Cardiac output
2199:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2073:
2066:
2058:
2049:
2048:Example values
2046:
2028:cardiomyopathy
1987:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1832:
1829:
1762:
1759:
1742:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1430:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1231:
1199:
1196:
1150:
1147:
1138:
1135:
1106:
1103:
1083:
1080:
1052:
1049:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
983:
980:
977:
974:
954:
951:
948:
945:
942:
939:
935:
932:
929:
925:
922:
919:
891:
888:
832:
829:
825:femoral artery
812:
809:
770:
767:
751:Pulse pressure
747:
744:
732:thoracic aorta
707:
704:
681:
680:Transcutaneous
678:
665:
662:
657:
656:
653:
650:
643:
642:
629:
625:
621:
618:
615:
612:
609:
599:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
551:
540:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
507:Doppler effect
490:
487:
477:
474:
448:
447:
438:
436:
420:
416:
413:
405:
401:
398:
390:
386:
349:
346:
295:
291:
288:
287:
276:
273:
268:
264:
260:
257:
254:
251:
246:
243:
239:
223:
219:
199:
198:
187:
184:
181:
178:
175:
172:
169:
166:
117:
110:
107:
80:
77:
54:
35:cardiac output
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7799:
7788:
7785:
7784:
7782:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7747:
7746:
7743:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7726:
7725:
7724:
7721:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7699:
7696:
7695:
7693:
7691:
7687:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7649:
7646:
7645:
7643:
7641:
7637:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7612:
7610:
7608:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7594:
7590:
7580:
7577:
7576:
7574:
7570:
7564:
7561:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7548:
7546:
7542:
7539:
7538:
7537:
7534:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7521:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7513:
7511:
7507:
7501:
7498:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7460:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7442:
7439:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7428:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7409:
7402:
7399:
7396:
7393:
7390:
7387:
7384:
7380:
7377:
7374:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7353:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7341:Cardiac index
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7311:
7309:
7305:
7299:
7296:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7252:
7251:Stroke volume
7249:
7245:
7244:Stroke volume
7242:
7240:
7237:
7236:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7229:Cardiac cycle
7227:
7226:
7224:
7222:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7209:
7205:
7198:
7193:
7191:
7186:
7184:
7179:
7178:
7175:
7169:
7165:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7137:
7136:
7123:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7090:Critical Care
7087:
7080:
7072:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7055:(4): 564–68.
7054:
7050:
7046:
7039:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7003:
6995:
6989:
6985:
6978:
6962:
6958:
6952:
6946:
6945:1-59196-046-0
6942:
6936:
6927:
6916:
6910:
6908:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6882:
6880:
6868:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6849:
6847:
6845:
6843:
6841:
6839:
6837:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6801:
6794:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6782:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6758:(3): 990–97.
6757:
6753:
6746:
6738:
6732:
6727:
6726:
6717:
6709:
6703:
6699:
6692:
6684:
6678:
6673:
6672:
6663:
6647:
6643:
6637:
6633:
6632:
6624:
6616:
6612:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6583:Critical Care
6580:
6573:
6571:
6554:
6550:
6544:
6540:
6539:
6531:
6515:
6511:
6505:
6501:
6500:
6492:
6484:
6482:9780538497909
6478:
6474:
6467:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6426:
6418:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6400:
6396:
6392:
6385:
6377:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6336:
6328:
6324:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6292:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6269:(2): 453–58.
6268:
6264:
6256:
6240:
6236:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6215:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6182:(3): 887–97.
6181:
6177:
6173:
6166:
6158:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6133:(4): 423–28.
6132:
6128:
6124:
6117:
6110:
6106:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6092:
6086:
6078:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6045:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6009:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5976:(6): 681–85.
5975:
5971:
5970:ASAIO Journal
5967:
5960:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5925:
5917:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5900:(1): 244–50.
5899:
5895:
5891:
5884:
5875:
5858:
5854:
5848:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5818:
5802:
5798:
5792:
5784:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5751:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5720:(3): 107–13.
5719:
5715:
5708:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5677:(4): 283–91.
5676:
5672:
5665:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5634:(3): 229–37.
5633:
5629:
5621:
5613:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5580:
5572:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5547:(3): 402–11.
5546:
5542:
5538:
5531:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5496:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5459:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5423:
5410:
5399:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5356:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5323:(3): 310–12.
5322:
5318:
5314:
5307:
5299:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5282:(2): 159–65.
5281:
5277:
5273:
5266:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5223:
5215:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5182:Critical Care
5179:
5172:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5149:(2): 424–28.
5148:
5144:
5136:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5105:(6): 352–60.
5104:
5100:
5093:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5062:(5): 523–27.
5061:
5057:
5050:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:(4): 709–11.
5026:
5022:
5015:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4982:(1): 107–13.
4981:
4977:
4973:
4966:
4964:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4920:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4903:(8): 760–68.
4902:
4898:
4894:
4887:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4850:
4834:
4830:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4788:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4739:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4714:(5): 634–42.
4713:
4709:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4657:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4626:(4): 820–26.
4625:
4621:
4613:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4580:(9): 845–49.
4579:
4575:
4571:
4564:
4556:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4515:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4492:(4): 423–29.
4491:
4487:
4480:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4447:(2): 142–44.
4446:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4400:(3): 881–86.
4399:
4395:
4388:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4329:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4284:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4248:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4205:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4172:Critical Care
4169:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4077:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4040:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3995:
3993:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3951:
3949:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3913:BJA Education
3910:
3903:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3872:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3824:
3816:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3786:
3785:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3736:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3715:Venous return
3713:
3711:
3710:Arthur Guyton
3708:
3707:
3701:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3661:
3633:
3625:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3594:
3586:
3571:
3569:
3560:
3550:
3540:
3522:
3518:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3492:
3484:
3480:
3478:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3342:
3331:
3324:
3318:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3300:
3297:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3247:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3228:
3222:
3211:
3201:
3193:
3192:
3191:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3172:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3150:
3141:
3136:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3110:foramen ovale
3107:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3081:
3067:
3063:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3018:
3007:
2990:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2954:
2943:
2929:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2893:
2869:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2826:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2793:
2782:
2768:
2756:
2752:
2743:
2719:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2656:
2645:
2628:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2598:
2585:
2582:
2577:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2528:
2524:
2513:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2485:
2480:
2479:Cardiac index
2473:Cardiac index
2470:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2453:Cardiac input
2446:
2439:
2437:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2378:
2376:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2346:
2336:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2316:
2313:
2307:
2305:
2300:
2297:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2259:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2216:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2178:67% (± 4.6%)
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2147:Stroke volume
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2079:
2074:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:heart failure
2013:
2009:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1933:
1930:
1928:Sensitive to
1927:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1860:
1857:
1855:Sensitive to
1854:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1828:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1806:
1804:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1771:Stroke volume
1768:
1758:
1754:
1740:
1731:
1715:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1673:
1665:
1662:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1602:
1582:
1575:and, letting
1573:
1557:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1442:
1428:
1419:
1403:
1397:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1295:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1175:cardiac cycle
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1146:
1143:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1119:Haemodialysis
1116:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1037:
1032:
981:
978:
975:
972:
952:
949:
943:
940:
923:
920:
917:
909:
905:
901:
897:
887:
884:
879:
877:
873:
866:
862:
858:
852:
849:
845:
841:
828:
826:
822:
818:
808:
805:
799:
795:
792:
788:
784:
779:
776:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
743:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
712:
703:
700:
695:
691:
690:anthropometry
687:
677:
675:
674:stroke volume
670:
661:
654:
651:
648:
647:
646:
627:
623:
619:
616:
613:
610:
607:
600:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
552:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
513:
512:
511:
508:
504:
495:
486:
482:
473:
471:
470:
465:
464:Cardiac index
461:
457:
456:
446:
439:
437:
418:
414:
411:
403:
399:
396:
388:
384:
377:
376:
373:
371:
368:(SV) and the
367:
366:stroke volume
363:
359:
358:venous system
355:
343:, top curve).
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
317:
314:
312:
308:
303:
301:
300:heart failure
274:
271:
266:
262:
258:
255:
252:
249:
244:
241:
237:
229:
228:
227:
217:
213:
209:
203:
185:
182:
179:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
157:
156:
155:
153:
152:stroke volume
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
115:
108:
105:
78:
75:
52:
44:
40:
36:
32:
23:
19:
7755:Carotid body
7718:Vasodilators
7598:hemodynamics
7403:(Relaxation)
7395:Bathmotropic
7369:Chronotropic
7233:
7220:
7093:
7089:
7079:
7052:
7048:
7038:
7013:
7009:
7002:
6983:
6977:
6965:. Retrieved
6951:
6935:
6926:
6858:
6854:
6810:
6806:
6755:
6751:
6745:
6724:
6716:
6697:
6691:
6670:
6662:
6650:. Retrieved
6630:
6623:
6586:
6582:
6557:. Retrieved
6537:
6530:
6518:. Retrieved
6498:
6491:
6472:
6466:
6439:
6435:
6425:
6398:
6394:
6384:
6349:
6345:
6335:
6302:
6298:
6291:
6266:
6262:
6255:
6243:. Retrieved
6224:
6214:
6179:
6175:
6165:
6130:
6126:
6116:
6085:
6058:
6054:
6044:
6019:
6015:
6008:
5973:
5969:
5959:
5937:(1): 43–47.
5934:
5930:
5924:
5897:
5893:
5883:
5874:
5861:. Retrieved
5847:
5835:. Retrieved
5826:
5817:
5805:. Retrieved
5801:the original
5791:
5764:
5760:
5750:
5717:
5713:
5707:
5674:
5670:
5664:
5631:
5627:
5620:
5593:
5589:
5579:
5544:
5540:
5530:
5505:
5501:
5495:
5472:
5468:
5458:
5433:
5429:
5398:
5368:(1): 63–66.
5365:
5361:
5355:
5320:
5316:
5306:
5279:
5275:
5265:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5185:
5181:
5171:
5146:
5142:
5135:
5102:
5098:
5092:
5059:
5055:
5049:
5024:
5020:
5014:
4979:
4975:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4900:
4896:
4886:
4874:. Retrieved
4867:the original
4862:
4849:
4837:. Retrieved
4823:
4798:
4794:
4787:
4752:
4748:
4738:
4711:
4707:
4697:
4673:(1): 65–71.
4670:
4666:
4656:
4623:
4619:
4612:
4577:
4573:
4563:
4528:
4524:
4514:
4489:
4485:
4479:
4444:
4440:
4430:
4397:
4393:
4387:
4350:
4346:
4336:
4299:
4295:
4257:
4253:
4247:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4175:
4171:
4161:
4126:
4122:
4112:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4051:
4047:
4005:
4001:
3964:
3960:
3916:
3912:
3902:
3890:. Retrieved
3881:
3871:
3858:. Retrieved
3822:
3815:
3803:. Retrieved
3783:
3697:
3694:
3689:
3682:
3678:
3666:
3440:
3435:
3427:
3423:
3421:
3409:
3402:
3398:
3396:
3307:
3298:
3289:
3284:
3189:
3160:
3153:
3146:
3103:
3095:
3084:
2896:
2894:
2744:
2602:
2599:
2486:
2482:
2466:
2463:
2456:
2440:
2231:
2202:
2041:
2035:
2023:
2019:
2018:. Increased
2012:hypertension
2007:
2005:
1991:
1989:
1934:Increasing O
1861:Decreasing O
1809:
1807:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1778:
1755:
1732:
1666:
1663:
1603:
1574:
1443:
1420:
1296:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1191:
1189:
1182:
1178:
1156:
1152:
1140:
1131:
1127:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1085:
1076:
1073:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1030:
903:
899:
893:
880:
875:
864:
860:
856:
853:
847:
843:
834:
814:
800:
796:
780:
772:
762:
758:
754:
749:
739:
717:
698:
693:
683:
667:
658:
644:
500:
483:
479:
467:
453:
451:
440:
361:
351:
328:
315:
307:hemodynamics
304:
289:
212:Body tissues
204:
200:
43:heart output
42:
38:
34:
28:
18:
7760:Glomus cell
7750:Aortic body
7745:Paraganglia
7556:ventricular
7529:ventricular
7478:QT interval
7473:QRS complex
7468:PR interval
7441:ventricular
7379:Dromotropic
6967:14 December
6899:Tachycardia
6895:Bradycardia
6891:tachycardia
6887:bradycardia
6861:: 417–426.
6245:23 February
6111:Ithaca, NY)
5807:30 November
5596:(1): 5–16.
5188:(3): R148.
4897:Anaesthesia
4839:23 February
4574:Anaesthesia
3860:23 February
3489:haemoglobin
3432:inert gases
2175:66% (± 6%)
1816:innervation
1098:continues.
476:Measurement
341:transfusion
329:consequence
7698:Baroreflex
7615:Compliance
7607:Blood flow
7483:ST segment
7411:Conduction
7401:Lusitropic
7373:Heart rate
7356:Heart rate
7308:Ultrasound
7239:Heart rate
7096:(2): 214.
6893:. See the
6589:(4): 174.
5418:|url=
4876:13 October
3850:1023146175
3731:References
3685:Thermistor
3443:hæmoglobin
3171:spirometer
2477:See also:
2184:Heart rate
2032:dilatation
1808:Equation (
1767:Heart rate
1765:See also:
1159:precession
804:Windkessel
503:ultrasound
370:heart rate
348:Definition
337:hemorrhage
148:heart rate
7658:Diastolic
7630:Perfusion
7389:Inotropic
7268:Afterload
6652:11 August
6263:Radiology
5869:TEBCO OEM
5362:Perfusion
3935:2058-5349
3805:11 August
3614:×
3572:×
3513:×
3367:−
3257:×
3248:−
3232:×
3030:×
2583:×
2554:×
2417:%
2403:×
2391:×
2363:×
2340:%
2334:×
2282:−
1820:endocrine
1687:∫
1621:∫
1589:∞
1586:→
1555:Δ
1513:∑
1497:Δ
1452:∑
1401:Δ
1244:−
979:⋅
953:χ
950:⋅
817:manometer
620:π
578:×
533:×
472:) below.
412:×
372:(HR) as:
335:(e.g. in
323:Trend of
259:×
208:perfusion
180:×
144:ventricle
130:, is the
109:˙
79:˙
7781:Category
7653:Systolic
7431:cardiac
7164:Archived
7142:Archived
7122:21457508
7071:15675218
6961:Archived
6827:17088316
6772:12226045
6646:Archived
6615:18771592
6559:13 March
6553:Archived
6520:13 March
6514:Archived
6458:15522474
6417:17467423
6376:16020598
6327:25380774
6319:14667742
6283:10228528
6239:Archived
6206:15891210
6198:19224798
6157:18496416
6105:Archived
6094:Archived
6091:COstatus
6077:17400567
6036:18511608
5992:16340350
5951:14694369
5857:Archived
5831:Archived
5783:15752931
5742:31094943
5734:16914102
5699:28726590
5691:16849981
5656:28996732
5648:15096956
5612:20042450
5571:19249408
5522:21070132
5487:Archived
5475:: 2–17.
5450:30752685
5409:cite web
5390:32129645
5382:17633137
5347:25815656
5339:18446106
5298:15894561
5257:12100251
5249:12163802
5214:21676229
5163:22410034
5127:12806349
5119:19736180
5084:31049402
5076:16293062
5041:20673749
4998:17578965
4919:17635422
4833:Archived
4815:22014804
4779:25469534
4771:16888706
4730:16155038
4689:11881887
4648:10471164
4640:12357146
4604:43755776
4596:12190747
4471:25371483
4463:19441163
4422:35618846
4414:19224797
4379:22191019
4328:22649718
4274:19095116
4239:24949904
4231:20562697
4153:37185399
4145:18581505
4104:22575631
4068:16204671
4030:25937172
4022:16204663
3983:16204662
3939:Archived
3886:Archived
3854:Archived
3799:Archived
3704:See also
3180:absorber
2586:0.007184
2241:diastole
2215:L/minute
2213:4.0–8.0
2209:L/minute
2207:4.0–8.0
2087:Measure
1069:in vitro
811:Invasive
505:and the
458:) using
7273:Preload
7113:3219410
7030:2232089
6606:2575587
6367:1769055
6148:2574659
6000:1897392
5916:7564085
5562:3058607
5205:3219022
5006:5549744
4954:8335593
4555:9361539
4546:2127619
4506:7535996
4370:3235433
4353:: 1–5.
4319:3357512
4302:: 1–9.
4195:4092718
3892:7 April
3591:percent
3152:blood.
2237:systole
2194:60–100
2188:60–100
1947:Target
1874:Target
1825:preload
1169:or the
1065:in vivo
785:at the
645:where:
333:preload
134:of the
7563:Aortic
7551:atrial
7524:atrial
7520:Right
7493:U wave
7488:T wave
7463:P wave
7436:atrial
7120:
7110:
7069:
7028:
6990:
6943:
6825:
6770:
6733:
6704:
6679:
6638:
6613:
6603:
6545:
6506:
6479:
6456:
6415:
6374:
6364:
6325:
6317:
6299:Lancet
6281:
6231:
6204:
6196:
6155:
6145:
6075:
6034:
5998:
5990:
5949:
5914:
5863:22 May
5837:1 June
5781:
5740:
5732:
5697:
5689:
5654:
5646:
5610:
5569:
5559:
5520:
5448:
5388:
5380:
5345:
5337:
5296:
5255:
5247:
5212:
5202:
5161:
5125:
5117:
5082:
5074:
5039:
5004:
4996:
4952:
4917:
4813:
4777:
4769:
4728:
4687:
4646:
4638:
4602:
4594:
4553:
4543:
4504:
4469:
4461:
4420:
4412:
4377:
4367:
4326:
4316:
4272:
4237:
4229:
4192:
4151:
4143:
4102:
4066:
4028:
4020:
3981:
3933:
3848:
3838:
3791:
3617:
3611:
3608:0.0032
3605:
3599:
3583:
3575:
3532:
3516:
3510:
3322:
3285:where
2461:(IF).
1773:, and
1421:where
986:
965:, or,
821:radial
791:velcro
7625:Pulse
7572:Other
7547:Left
7541:wedge
7212:Heart
6918:(PDF)
6803:(PDF)
6752:Chest
6346:Heart
6323:S2CID
6202:S2CID
5996:S2CID
5738:S2CID
5695:S2CID
5652:S2CID
5446:S2CID
5386:S2CID
5343:S2CID
5253:S2CID
5123:S2CID
5080:S2CID
5002:S2CID
4870:(PDF)
4859:(PDF)
4775:S2CID
4644:S2CID
4600:S2CID
4467:S2CID
4418:S2CID
4235:S2CID
4149:S2CID
4026:S2CID
2578:0.725
2549:0.425
1990:When
1818:plus
1167:aorta
1163:pixel
836:PiCCO
327:as a
140:blood
136:heart
94:, or
7118:PMID
7067:PMID
7026:PMID
7010:JAMA
6988:ISBN
6969:2018
6941:ISBN
6897:and
6889:and
6823:PMID
6768:PMID
6731:ISBN
6702:ISBN
6677:ISBN
6654:2014
6636:ISBN
6611:PMID
6561:2016
6543:ISBN
6522:2016
6504:ISBN
6477:ISBN
6454:PMID
6413:PMID
6372:PMID
6315:PMID
6279:PMID
6247:2022
6229:ISBN
6194:PMID
6153:PMID
6073:PMID
6032:PMID
5988:PMID
5947:PMID
5912:PMID
5865:2015
5839:2015
5809:2010
5779:PMID
5730:PMID
5687:PMID
5644:PMID
5608:PMID
5567:PMID
5518:PMID
5422:help
5378:PMID
5335:PMID
5294:PMID
5245:PMID
5210:PMID
5159:PMID
5115:PMID
5072:PMID
5037:PMID
4994:PMID
4950:PMID
4915:PMID
4878:2014
4841:2022
4811:PMID
4767:PMID
4726:PMID
4685:PMID
4636:PMID
4592:PMID
4551:PMID
4502:PMID
4459:PMID
4410:PMID
4375:PMID
4351:2012
4324:PMID
4300:2012
4270:PMID
4227:PMID
4141:PMID
4100:PMID
4064:PMID
4048:JAMA
4018:PMID
4002:JAMA
3979:PMID
3961:JAMA
3931:ISSN
3894:2020
3862:2022
3846:OCLC
3836:ISBN
3807:2014
3789:ISBN
3630:torr
3519:1.34
3502:g/dL
3448:gram
3112:and
3068:1000
2077:edit
2070:talk
2063:view
2014:and
1294:is:
1117:and
1115:ECMO
871:GEDV
736:NICE
7318:= (
7108:PMC
7098:doi
7057:doi
7018:doi
7014:264
6863:doi
6815:doi
6760:doi
6756:122
6601:PMC
6591:doi
6444:doi
6403:doi
6399:133
6362:PMC
6354:doi
6307:doi
6303:362
6271:doi
6267:211
6184:doi
6180:108
6143:PMC
6135:doi
6063:doi
6024:doi
5978:doi
5939:doi
5902:doi
5769:doi
5722:doi
5679:doi
5636:doi
5598:doi
5557:PMC
5549:doi
5545:157
5510:doi
5477:doi
5438:doi
5426:in
5370:doi
5325:doi
5284:doi
5237:doi
5200:PMC
5190:doi
5151:doi
5107:doi
5064:doi
5029:doi
4984:doi
4980:105
4942:doi
4905:doi
4803:doi
4799:186
4757:doi
4716:doi
4675:doi
4628:doi
4582:doi
4541:PMC
4533:doi
4529:315
4525:BMJ
4494:doi
4490:130
4449:doi
4402:doi
4398:108
4365:PMC
4355:doi
4314:PMC
4304:doi
4262:doi
4258:196
4219:doi
4190:PMC
4180:doi
4131:doi
4092:doi
4088:167
4056:doi
4052:294
4010:doi
4006:294
3969:doi
3965:294
3921:doi
3828:doi
3401:. (
2414:100
2337:100
2196:bpm
2190:bpm
1261:to
1067:or
823:or
29:In
7783::
7116:.
7106:.
7094:15
7092:.
7088:.
7065:.
7053:32
7051:.
7047:.
7024:.
7012:.
6906:^
6878:^
6857:.
6835:^
6821:.
6811:27
6809:.
6805:.
6780:^
6766:.
6754:.
6644:.
6609:.
6599:.
6587:12
6585:.
6581:.
6569:^
6551:.
6512:.
6452:.
6440:25
6438:.
6434:.
6411:.
6397:.
6393:.
6370:.
6360:.
6350:91
6348:.
6344:.
6321:.
6313:.
6301:.
6277:.
6265:.
6237:.
6200:.
6192:.
6178:.
6174:.
6151:.
6141:.
6129:.
6125:.
6100:,
6071:.
6059:22
6057:.
6053:.
6030:.
6020:23
6018:.
5994:.
5986:.
5974:51
5972:.
5968:.
5945:.
5935:39
5933:.
5910:.
5898:48
5896:.
5892:.
5855:.
5825:.
5777:.
5765:18
5763:.
5759:.
5736:.
5728:.
5716:.
5693:.
5685:.
5675:55
5673:.
5650:.
5642:.
5632:19
5630:.
5606:.
5592:.
5588:.
5565:.
5555:.
5543:.
5539:.
5516:.
5506:16
5504:.
5485:.
5471:.
5467:.
5444:.
5434:31
5432:.
5413::
5411:}}
5407:{{
5384:.
5376:.
5366:22
5364:.
5341:.
5333:.
5319:.
5315:.
5292:.
5280:95
5278:.
5274:.
5251:.
5243:.
5233:30
5231:.
5208:.
5198:.
5186:15
5184:.
5180:.
5157:.
5147:44
5145:.
5121:.
5113:.
5103:24
5101:.
5078:.
5070:.
5058:.
5035:.
5025:24
5023:.
5000:.
4992:.
4978:.
4974:.
4962:^
4948:.
4938:74
4936:.
4913:.
4901:62
4899:.
4895:.
4861:.
4809:.
4797:.
4773:.
4765:.
4753:93
4751:.
4747:.
4724:.
4712:95
4710:.
4706:.
4683:.
4671:88
4669:.
4665:.
4642:.
4634:.
4624:97
4622:.
4598:.
4590:.
4578:57
4576:.
4572:.
4549:.
4539:.
4527:.
4523:.
4500:.
4488:.
4465:.
4457:.
4445:49
4443:.
4439:.
4416:.
4408:.
4396:.
4373:.
4363:.
4349:.
4345:.
4322:.
4312:.
4298:.
4294:.
4282:^
4268:.
4256:.
4233:.
4225:.
4215:38
4213:.
4188:.
4176:10
4174:.
4170:.
4147:.
4139:.
4127:14
4125:.
4121:.
4098:.
4086:.
4062:.
4050:.
4038:^
4024:.
4016:.
4004:.
3991:^
3977:.
3963:.
3959:.
3947:^
3937:.
3929:.
3917:16
3915:.
3911:.
3884:.
3880:.
3852:.
3844:.
3834:.
3797:.
3739:^
3528:mL
3419:.
3408:–
3175:CO
3120:.
1805:.
1769:,
1212:t)
313:.
210:.
65:,
39:CO
33:,
7595:/
7385:)
7381:(
7375:)
7371:(
7196:e
7189:t
7182:v
7124:.
7100::
7073:.
7059::
7032:.
7020::
6996:.
6971:.
6869:.
6865::
6859:8
6829:.
6817::
6774:.
6762::
6739:.
6710:.
6685:.
6656:.
6617:.
6593::
6563:.
6524:.
6485:.
6460:.
6446::
6419:.
6405::
6378:.
6356::
6329:.
6309::
6285:.
6273::
6249:.
6208:.
6186::
6159:.
6137::
6131:9
6089:(
6079:.
6065::
6038:.
6026::
6002:.
5980::
5953:.
5941::
5918:.
5904::
5867:.
5841:.
5811:.
5785:.
5771::
5744:.
5724::
5718:3
5701:.
5681::
5658:.
5638::
5614:.
5600::
5594:4
5573:.
5551::
5524:.
5512::
5479::
5473:1
5452:.
5440::
5424:)
5420:(
5392:.
5372::
5349:.
5327::
5321:9
5300:.
5286::
5259:.
5239::
5216:.
5192::
5165:.
5153::
5129:.
5109::
5086:.
5066::
5060:2
5043:.
5031::
5008:.
4986::
4956:.
4944::
4921:.
4907::
4880:.
4843:.
4817:.
4805::
4781:.
4759::
4732:.
4718::
4691:.
4677::
4650:.
4630::
4606:.
4584::
4557:.
4535::
4508:.
4496::
4473:.
4451::
4424:.
4404::
4381:.
4357::
4330:.
4306::
4276:.
4264::
4241:.
4221::
4198:.
4182::
4155:.
4133::
4106:.
4094::
4070:.
4058::
4032:.
4012::
3985:.
3971::
3923::
3896:.
3864:.
3830::
3809:.
3698:Q
3690:Q
3634:)
3626:(
3602:+
3595:)
3587:(
3561:)
3551:/
3541:2
3537:O
3523:(
3506:)
3498:(
3493:]
3485:[
3481:=
3454:2
3452:O
3436:Q
3428:Q
3424:Q
3412:V
3410:C
3405:A
3403:C
3399:Q
3377:V
3372:C
3362:A
3357:C
3343:2
3339:O
3332:V
3325:=
3319:Q
3302:V
3299:C
3293:A
3290:C
3270:)
3265:V
3261:C
3254:Q
3251:(
3245:)
3240:A
3236:C
3229:Q
3226:(
3223:=
3212:2
3208:O
3202:V
3177:2
3166:2
3164:O
3161:V
3154:Q
3089:)
3087:2
3085:(
3064:/
3060:)
3054:]
3051:m
3048:p
3045:b
3042:[
3037:R
3033:H
3024:]
3019:2
3014:m
3008:/
3004:t
3001:a
2998:e
2995:b
2991:/
2987:L
2984:m
2981:[
2976:I
2972:S
2969:(
2966:=
2960:]
2955:2
2950:m
2944:/
2940:n
2937:i
2934:m
2930:/
2926:L
2923:[
2918:I
2914:C
2898:1
2875:]
2870:2
2865:m
2860:[
2855:A
2851:S
2848:B
2840:]
2837:n
2834:i
2831:m
2827:/
2823:L
2820:[
2815:O
2811:C
2805:=
2799:]
2794:2
2789:m
2783:/
2779:n
2776:i
2773:m
2769:/
2765:L
2762:[
2757:I
2753:C
2725:]
2720:2
2716:m
2712:[
2707:A
2703:S
2700:B
2692:]
2689:L
2686:m
2683:[
2678:V
2674:S
2668:=
2662:]
2657:2
2652:m
2646:/
2642:t
2639:a
2636:e
2633:b
2629:/
2625:L
2622:m
2619:[
2614:I
2610:S
2572:]
2569:m
2566:c
2563:[
2558:H
2543:]
2540:g
2537:k
2534:[
2529:W
2525:=
2519:]
2514:2
2510:m
2506:[
2501:A
2497:S
2494:B
2445:)
2443:3
2441:(
2409:R
2406:H
2400:V
2397:D
2394:E
2388:F
2385:E
2379:=
2369:R
2366:H
2360:V
2357:S
2354:=
2347:Q
2328:V
2325:D
2322:E
2317:V
2314:S
2308:=
2301:F
2298:E
2291:V
2288:S
2285:E
2279:V
2276:D
2273:E
2270:=
2263:V
2260:S
2042:Q
2037:3
2024:Q
2020:Q
2008:Q
1992:Q
1940:2
1936:2
1867:2
1863:2
1811:1
1741:A
1716:t
1713:d
1710:)
1707:t
1704:(
1701:c
1696:T
1691:0
1682:A
1677:=
1674:F
1650:t
1647:d
1644:)
1641:t
1638:(
1635:c
1630:T
1625:0
1617:F
1614:=
1611:A
1583:n
1561:)
1558:t
1552:(
1549:)
1544:i
1540:t
1536:(
1533:c
1528:n
1523:1
1520:=
1517:i
1509:F
1506:=
1503:)
1500:t
1494:F
1491:(
1488:)
1483:i
1479:t
1475:(
1472:c
1467:n
1462:1
1459:=
1456:i
1429:F
1407:)
1404:t
1398:F
1395:(
1392:)
1387:i
1383:t
1379:(
1376:c
1373:=
1370:)
1367:e
1364:m
1361:u
1358:l
1355:o
1352:v
1349:(
1346:)
1343:n
1340:o
1337:i
1334:t
1331:a
1328:r
1325:t
1322:n
1319:e
1316:c
1313:n
1310:o
1307:c
1304:(
1280:i
1276:t
1272:=
1269:t
1247:1
1241:i
1237:t
1233:=
1230:t
1220:t
1216:t
1210:(
1208:c
1192:Q
1184:1
1179:Q
1061:Q
1057:Q
1036:1
1031:Q
1016:)
1013:t
1010:n
1007:a
1004:t
1001:s
998:n
995:o
992:c
989:(
982:k
976:P
973:B
947:)
944:P
941:A
938:(
934:d
931:t
928:s
924:=
921:V
918:S
904:Q
900:Q
876:Q
868:(
865:Q
861:Q
857:Q
848:Q
844:Q
838:(
763:Q
759:Q
755:Q
740:Q
699:Q
694:Q
628:2
624:r
617:=
614:A
611:S
608:C
587:A
584:S
581:C
575:I
572:T
569:V
566:=
563:V
560:S
539:R
536:H
530:V
527:S
524:=
521:Q
469:2
455:1
445:)
443:1
441:(
419:R
415:H
404:V
400:S
397:=
389:O
385:C
362:Q
296:2
292:2
275:2
272:O
267:a
263:C
256:O
253:C
250:=
245:2
242:O
238:D
224:2
220:2
186:V
183:S
177:R
174:H
171:=
168:O
165:C
116:c
106:Q
76:Q
53:Q
37:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
