687:, SV). The result is then multiplied by the heart rate (HR) to obtain cardiac output. Although used in clinical medicine, it has a wide test-retest variability. It is said to require extensive training and skill, but the exact steps needed to achieve clinically adequate precision have never been disclosed. 2D measurement of the aortic valve diameter is one source of noise; others are beat-to-beat variation in stroke volume and subtle differences in probe position. An alternative that is not necessarily more reproducible is the measurement of the pulmonary valve to calculate right-sided CO. Although it is in wide general use, the technique is time-consuming and is limited by the reproducibility of its component elements. In the manner used in clinical practice, precision of SV and CO is of the order of ±20%.
1793:
3671:
1054:
and data acquisition times are benefits of this technology. Disadvantages include its inability to provide data regarding right-sided heart pressures or mixed venous oxygen saturation. The measurement of Stroke Volume
Variation (SVV), which predicts volume responsiveness is intrinsic to all arterial waveform technologies. It is used for managing fluid optimisation in high-risk surgical or critically ill patients. A physiologic optimization program based on haemodynamic principles that incorporates the data pairs SV and SVV has been published.
1144:
patient's heart's right atrium. After the indicator traverses the heart and lung, the concentration curve in the arterial line is recorded and displayed on the COstatus HCM101 Monitor. Cardiac output is calculated from the area of the concentration curve using the
Stewart-Hamilton equation. UD is a non-invasive procedure, requiring only a connection to the AV loop and two lines from a patient. UD has been specialised for application in pediatric ICU patients and has been demonstrated to be relatively safe although invasive and reproducible.
33:
1040:. Khi is designed to reflect arterial resistance; compliance is a multivariate polynomial equation that continuously quantifies arterial compliance and vascular resistance. Khi does this by analyzing the morphological changes of arterial pressure waveforms on a bit-by-bit basis, based on the principle that changes in compliance or resistance affect the shape of the arterial pressure waveform. By analyzing the shape of said waveforms, the effect of vascular tone is assessed, allowing the calculation of SV.
3660:
3151:
722:
492:
measurement. Cardiac output can also be affected significantly by the phase of respiration – intra-thoracic pressure changes influence diastolic filling and therefore cardiac output. This is especially important during mechanical ventilation, in which cardiac output can vary by up to 50% across a single respiratory cycle. Cardiac output should therefore be measured at evenly spaced points over a single cycle or averaged over several cycles.
838:—and continuously measuring the PP waveform. This is generally done by connecting the catheter to a signal processing device with a display. The PP waveform can then be analysed to provide measurements of cardiovascular performance. Changes in vascular function, the position of the catheter tip or damping of the pressure waveform signal will affect the accuracy of the readings. Invasive PP measurements can be calibrated or uncalibrated.
331:
1156:
standard ECG electrodes are required for measurement of cardiac output. Electrical
Cardiometry is a method trademarked by Cardiotronic, Inc., and shows promising results in a wide range of patients. It is currently approved in the US for use in adults, children and babies. Electrical cardiometry monitors have shown promise in postoperative cardiac surgical patients, in both haemodynamically stable and unstable cases.
3474:
505:
764:(PP) methods measure the pressure in an artery over time to derive a waveform and use this information to calculate cardiac performance. However, any measure from the artery includes changes in pressure associated with changes in arterial function, for example compliance and impedance. Physiological or therapeutic changes in vessel diameter are assumed to reflect changes in
3437:, the Fick method is invasive and requires time for sample analysis, and accurate oxygen consumption samples are difficult to acquire. There have been modifications to the Fick method where respiratory oxygen content is measured as part of a closed system and the consumed oxygen is calculated using an assumed oxygen consumption index, which is then used to calculate
745:. Because the transducer is close to the blood flow, the signal is clear. The probe may require re-focussing to ensure an optimal signal. This method has good validation, is widely used for fluid management during surgery with evidence for improved patient outcome, and has been recommended by the UK's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (
3655:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{Oxygen content of blood}}&=\left\left({\text{g/dL}}\right)\ \times \ 1.34\left({\text{mL}}\ {\ce {O2}}/{\text{g of haemoglobin}}\right)\\&\times \ {\text{saturation of blood}}\ \left({\text{percent}}\right)\ +\ 0.0032\ \times \ {\text{partial pressure of oxygen}}\left({\text{torr}}\right)\end{aligned}}}
1184:, is quantified by measuring the average signal intensity of the pixels in the cross-section of the vessel then multiplying by a known constant. The flow is calculated by multiplying the mean velocity by the cross-sectional area of the vessel. This flow data can be used in a flow-versus-time graph. The area under the flow-versus-time curve for one
2254:), the LV is filled with blood to the capacity known as end diastolic volume (EDV). During systole, the LV contracts and ejects blood until it reaches its minimum capacity known as end systolic volume (ESV). It does not completely empty. The following equations help translate the effect of EF and EDV on cardiac output Q, via SV.
1172:. These changes are proportional to the velocity of the protons' movement through a magnetic field with a known gradient. When using velocity-encoded MRI, the result is two sets of images, one for each time point in the cardiac cycle. One is an anatomical image and the other is an image in which the signal intensity in each
921:, which states pulse pressure (PP) is proportional to stroke volume (SV). The algorithm calculates the product of the standard deviation of the arterial pressure (AP) wave over a sampled period of 20 seconds and a vascular tone factor (Khi, or χ) to generate stroke volume. The equation in simplified form is:
2445:
2494:
In all resting mammals of normal mass, CO value is a linear function of body mass with a slope of 0.1 L/(min kg). Fat has about 65% of oxygen demand per mass in comparison to other lean body tissues. As a result, the calculation of normal CO value in an obese subject is more complex; a single, common
1155:
is a non-invasive method similar to
Impedance cardiography; both methods measure thoracic electrical bioimpedance (TEB). The underlying model differs between the two methods; Electrical cardiometry attributes the steep increase of TEB beat-to-beat to the change in orientation of red blood cells. Four
1057:
Arterial monitoring systems are unable to predict changes in vascular tone; they estimate changes in vascular compliance. The measurement of pressure in the artery to calculate the flow in the heart is physiologically irrational and of questionable accuracy, and of unproven benefit. Arterial pressure
1053:
This system estimates Q using an existing arterial catheter with variable accuracy. These arterial monitors do not require intracardiac catheterisation from a pulmonary artery catheter. They require an arterial line and are therefore invasive. As with other arterial waveform systems, the short set-up
804:
fixation, a new pneumatic proportional control valve principle, and a set point strategy for the determining and tracking the correct volume at which to clamp the finger arteries—the
Physiocal system. An acronym for physiological calibration of the finger arteries, this Physiocal tracker was found to
712:
measurements, simplifying operation and reducing the time of acquisition compared to conventional echocardiography. USCOM has been validated from 0.12 L/min to 18.7 L/min in new-born babies, children and adults. The method can be applied with equal accuracy to patients of all ages for the development
682:
is a non-invasive method of quantifying cardiac output using ultrasound. Two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound and
Doppler measurements are used together to calculate cardiac output. 2D measurement of the diameter (d) of the aortic annulus allows calculation of the flow cross-sectional area (CSA), which is
1164:
Velocity-encoded phase contrast
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most accurate technique for measuring flow in large vessels in mammals. MRI flow measurements have been shown to be highly accurate compared to measurements made with a beaker and timer, and less variable than the Fick principle
1139:
The UD method is based on ultrasound indicator dilution. Blood ultrasound velocity (1560–1585 m/s) is a function of total blood protein concentration—sums of proteins in plasma and in red blood red cells—and temperature. Injection of body-temperature normal saline (ultrasound velocity of saline
1807:
The capacitance, also known as compliance, of the arterio-vascular channels that carry the blood also controls cardiac output. As the body's blood vessels actively expand and contract, the resistance to blood flow decreases and increases respectively. Thin-walled veins have about eighteen times the
1767:
The dye dilution method is one of the most accurate methods of determining cardiac output during exercise. The error of a single calculation of cardiac output values at rest and during exercise is less than 5%. This method does not allow measurement of 'beat to beat' changes, and requires a cardiac
808:
The
Finapres methodology was developed to use this information to calculate arterial pressure from finger cuff pressure data. A generalised algorithm to correct for the pressure level difference between the finger and brachial sites in patients was developed. This correction worked under all of the
3690:
The PAC is balloon tipped and is inflated, which helps "sail" the catheter balloon through the right ventricle to occlude a small branch of the pulmonary artery system. The balloon is then deflated. The PAC thermodilution method involves the injection of a small amount (10 mL) of cold glucose at a
1120:
Ultrasound dilution (UD) uses body-temperature normal saline (NS) as an indicator introduced into an extracorporeal loop to create an atrioventricular (AV) circulation with an ultrasound sensor, which is used to measure the dilution then to calculate cardiac output using a proprietary algorithm. A
1104:
across the thoracic region over the cardiac cycle. Lower impedance indicates greater intrathoracic fluid volume and blood flow. By synchronizing fluid volume changes with the heartbeat, the change in impedance can be used to calculate stroke volume, cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance.
809:
circumstances it was tested in—even when it was not designed for it—because it applied general physiological principles. This innovative brachial pressure waveform reconstruction method was first implemented in the
Finometer, the successor of Finapres that BMI-TNO introduced to the market in 2000.
3706:
PAC use can be complicated by arrhythmias, infection, pulmonary artery rupture and damage to the right heart valve. Recent studies in patients with critical illnesses, sepsis, acute respiratory failure and heart failure suggest that use of the PAC does not improve patient outcomes. This clinical
3162:
in 1870, assumes the rate of oxygen consumption is a function of the rate of blood flow and the rate of oxygen picked up by the red blood cells. Application of the Fick principle involves calculating the oxygen consumed over time by measuring the oxygen concentration of venous blood and arterial
1143:
UD requires the establishment of an extracorporeal circulation through its unique AV loop with two pre-existing arterial and central venous lines in ICU patients. When the saline indicator is injected into the AV loop, it is detected by the venous clamp-on sensor on the loop before it enters the
4010:
Pasche B, Knobloch TJ, Bian Y, Liu J, Phukan S, Rosman D, Kaklamani V, Baddi L, Siddiqui FS, Frankel W, Prior TW, Schuller DE, Agrawal A, Lang J, Dolan ME, Vokes EE, Lane WS, Huang CC, Caldes T, Di
Cristofano A, Hampel H, Nilsson I, von Heijne G, Fodde R, Murty VV, de la Chapelle A, Weghorst CM
3698:
technology enabled the observations that low CO registers temperature change slowly and high CO registers temperature change rapidly. The degree of temperature change is directly proportional to the cardiac output. In this unique method, three or four repeated measurements or passes are usually
1088:
Generally monitored haemodynamic values, fluid responsiveness parameters and an exclusive reference are provided by PRAM: Cardiac Cycle Efficiency (CCE). It is expressed by a pure number ranging from 1 (best) to -1 (worst) and it indicates the overall heart-vascular response coupling. The ratio
788:
of measuring continuous blood pressure. The principle of the volume clamp method is to dynamically provide equal pressures, on either side of an artery wall. By clamping the artery to a certain volume, inside pressure—intra-arterial pressure—balances outside pressure—finger cuff pressure. Peñáz
896:
dilution using the Stewart-Hamilton principle. Lithium chloride dilution uses a peripheral vein and a peripheral arterial line. Like PiCCO, frequent calibration is recommended when there is a change in Q. Calibration events are limited in frequency because they involve the injection of lithium
812:
The availability of a continuous, high-fidelity, calibrated blood pressure waveform opened up the perspective of beat-to-beat computation of integrated haemodynamics, based on two notions: pressure and flow are inter-related at each site in the arterial system by their so-called characteristic
1108:
Both invasive and non-invasive approaches are used. The reliability and validity of the non-invasive approach has gained some acceptance, although there is not complete agreement on this point. The clinical use of this approach in the diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of a variety of diseases
817:
model of this impedance can be modelled with sufficient accuracy in an individual patient with known age, gender, height and weight. According to comparisons of non-invasive peripheral vascular monitors, modest clinical utility is restricted to patients with normal and invariant circulation.
713:
of physiologically rational haemodynamic protocols. USCOM is the only method of cardiac output measurement to have achieved equivalent accuracy to the implantable flow probe. This accuracy has ensured high levels of clinical use in conditions including sepsis, heart failure and hypertension.
491:
There are a number of clinical methods to measure cardiac output, ranging from direct intracardiac catheterization to non-invasive measurement of the arterial pulse. Each method has advantages and drawbacks. Relative comparison is limited by the absence of a widely accepted "gold standard"
4803:
Pillai P, McEleavy I, Gaughan M, Snowden C, Nesbitt I, Durkan G, Johnson M, Cosgrove J, Thorpe A (December 2011). "A double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial to assess the effect of Doppler optimized intraoperative fluid management on outcome following radical cystectomy".
2013:
activity can also increase cardiac output. HR can vary by a factor of approximately 3—between 60 and 180 beats per minute—while stroke volume (SV) can vary between 70 and 120 mL (2.5 and 4.2 imp fl oz; 2.4 and 4.1 US fl oz), a factor of only 1.7.
6024:
Tessitore N, Bedogna V, Poli A, Mantovani W, Lipari G, Baggio E, Mansueto G, Lupo A (November 2008). "Adding access blood flow surveillance to clinical monitoring reduces thrombosis rates and costs, and improves fistula patency in the short term: a controlled cohort study".
1804:, the heart is a demand pump that does not regulate its own output. When the body has a high metabolic oxygen demand, the metabolically controlled flow through the tissues is increased, leading to a greater flow of blood back to the heart, leading to higher cardiac output.
707:
measurements. In comparison to the echocardiographic method, USCOM significantly improves reproducibility and increases sensitivity of the detection of changes in flow. Real-time, automatic tracing of the Doppler flow profile allows beat-to-beat right-sided and left-sided
520:
to measure cardiac output. The blood velocity through the heart causes a Doppler shift in the frequency of the returning ultrasound waves. This shift can then be used to calculate flow velocity and volume, and effectively cardiac output, using the following equations:
913:) using a standard arterial catheter with a manometer located in the femoral or radial artery. The device consists of a high-fidelity pressure transducer, which, when used with a supporting monitor (Vigileo or EV1000 monitor), derives left-sided cardiac output (
3687:, provides direct access to the right heart for thermodilution measurements. Continuous, invasive, cardiac monitoring in intensive care units has been mostly phased out. The PAC remains useful in right-heart study done in cardiac catheterisation laboratories.
800:, invented and patented a series of additional key elements that make the volume clamp work in clinical practice. These methods include the use of modulated infrared light in the optical system inside the sensor, the lightweight, easy-to-wrap finger cuff with
4092:
Finegold JA, Manisty CH, Cecaro F, Sutaria N, Mayet J, Francis DP (August 2013). "Choosing between velocity-time-integral ratio and peak velocity ratio for calculation of the dimensionless index (or aortic valve area) in serial follow-up of aortic stenosis".
865:
In PiCCO, transpulmonary thermodilution, which uses the Stewart-Hamilton principle but measures temperatures changes from central venous line to a central arterial line, i.e., the femoral or axillary arterial line, is used as the calibrating technique. The
320:, the study of the flow of blood. The factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure at the right margin illustrates this dependency and lists some of these factors. A detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in
1811:
From this formula, it is clear the factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate also affect cardiac output. The figure to the right illustrates this dependency and lists a few of these factors. A more detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in
878:
as described by Wesseling and colleagues. Transpulmonary thermodilution spans right heart, pulmonary circulation and left heart, allowing further mathematical analysis of the thermodilution curve and giving measurements of cardiac filling volumes
753:, therefore relies on a nomogram based on patient age, height and weight to convert the measured velocity into stroke volume and cardiac output. This method generally requires patient sedation and is accepted for use in both adults and children.
2607:
1074:. As the waveform is sampled at 1000 Hz, the detected pressure curve can be measured to calculate the actual beat-to-beat stroke volume. Unlike FloTrac, neither constant values of impedance from external calibration, nor form pre-estimated
212:
Values for cardiac output are usually denoted as L/min. For a healthy individual weighing 70 kg, the cardiac output at rest averages about 5 L/min; assuming a heart rate of 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be approximately 70 mL.
3678:
The indicator method was further developed by replacing the indicator dye with heated or cooled fluid. Temperature changes rather than dye concentration are measured at sites in the circulation; this method is known as thermodilution. The
2495:"normal" value of SV and CO for adults cannot exist. All blood flow parameters have to be indexed. It is accepted convention to index them by the body surface area, BSA , by DuBois & DuBois Formula, a function of height and weight:
2262:
1217:, into the right atrium of the heart. The dye flows with the blood into the aorta. A probe is inserted into the aorta to measure the concentration of the dye leaving the heart at equal time intervals until the dye has cleared. Let
3456:
molecules in the red blood cells. Measuring the content of hæmoglobin in the blood and the percentage of saturation of hæmoglobin—the oxygen saturation of the blood—is a simple process and is readily available to physicians. Each
6271:
Arheden H, Holmqvist C, Thilen U, Hanséus K, Björkhem G, Pahlm O, Laurin S, Ståhlberg F (May 1999). "Left-to-right cardiac shunts: comparison of measurements obtained with MR velocity mapping and with radionuclide angiography".
1582:
6307:
Razavi R, Hill DL, Keevil SF, Miquel ME, Muthurangu V, Hegde S, Rhode K, Barnett M, van Vaals J, Hawkes DJ, Baker E (December 2003). "Cardiac catheterisation guided by MRI in children and adults with congenital heart disease".
789:
decided the finger was the optimal site to apply this volume clamp method. The use of finger cuffs excludes the device from application in patients without vasoconstriction, such as in sepsis or in patients on vasopressors.
216:
Because cardiac output is related to the quantity of blood delivered to various parts of the body, it is an important component of how efficiently the heart can meet the body's demands for the maintenance of adequate tissue
3089:
5151:
Su BC, Tsai YF, Chen CY, Yu HP, Yang MW, Lee WC, Lin CC (March 2012). "Cardiac output derived from arterial pressure waveform analysis in patients undergoing liver transplantation: validity of a third-generation device".
2902:
2752:
495:
Invasive methods are well accepted, but there is increasing evidence that these methods are neither accurate nor effective in guiding therapy. Consequently, the focus on development of non-invasive methods is growing.
5636:
Moshkovitz Y, Kaluski E, Milo O, Vered Z, Cotter G (May 2004). "Recent developments in cardiac output determination by bioimpedance: comparison with invasive cardiac output and potential cardiovascular applications".
861:
analysis because arterial PP analysis cannot account for unmeasured variables such as the changing compliance of the vascular bed. Recalibration is recommended after changes in patient position, therapy or condition.
7018:
Iberti TJ, Fischer EP, Leibowitz AB, Panacek EA, Silverstein JH, Albertson TE (December 1990). "A multicenter study of physicians' knowledge of the pulmonary artery catheter. Pulmonary Artery Catheter Study Group".
1833:
control. Environmental factors, such as electrolytes, metabolic products, and temperature are not shown. The determinants of SV during the cardiac cycle are the contractility of the heart muscle, the degree of
1825:) reveals HR and SV to be the primary determinants of cardiac output Q. A detailed representation of these factors is illustrated in the figure to the right. The primary factors that influence HR are autonomic
1205:, it is currently not clinically used for haemodynamic monitoring in emergency or intensive care settings. As of 2015, cardiac output measurement by MRI is routinely used in clinical cardiac MRI examinations.
670:
Being non-invasive, accurate and inexpensive, Doppler ultrasound is a routine part of clinical ultrasound; it has high levels of reliability and reproducibility, and has been in clinical use since the 1960s.
3691:
known temperature into the pulmonary artery and measuring the temperature a known distance away 6–10 cm (2.4–3.9 in) using the same catheter with temperature sensors set apart at a known distance.
4628:
Gan TJ, Soppitt A, Maroof M, el-Moalem H, Robertson KM, Moretti E, Dwane P, Glass PS (October 2002). "Goal-directed intraoperative fluid administration reduces length of hospital stay after major surgery".
3403:
3291:
445:
1428:
897:
chloride and can be subject to errors in the presence of certain muscle relaxants. The PulseCO algorithm used by LiDCO is based on pulse power derivation and is not dependent on waveform morphology.
1085:
PRAM has been validated against the considered gold standard methods in stable condition and in various haemodynamic states. It can be used to monitor pediatric and mechanically supported patients.
1198:). MRI is typically used to quantify the flow over one cardiac cycle as the average of several heart beats. It is also possible to quantify the stroke volume in real-time on a beat-for-beat basis.
4220:
Cattermole GN, Leung PY, Mak PS, Chan SS, Graham CA, Rainer TH (September 2010). "The normal ranges of cardiovascular parameters in children measured using the Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitor".
3479:
2267:
1740:
6971:
313:, actual CO may be insufficient to support even simple activities of daily living; nor can it increase sufficiently to meet the higher metabolic demands stemming from even moderate exercise.
3694:
The historically significant Swan-Ganz multi-lumen catheter allows reproducible calculation of cardiac output from a measured time-temperature curve, also known as the thermodilution curve.
2500:
1038:
974:
4263:
Jain S, Allins A, Salim A, Vafa A, Wilson MT, Margulies DR (December 2008). "Noninvasive Doppler ultrasonography for assessing cardiac function: can it replace the Swan-Ganz catheter?".
6353:"Magnetic resonance imaging guided catheterisation for assessment of pulmonary vascular resistance: in vivo validation and clinical application in patients with pulmonary hypertension"
776:
measurement method then monitoring the PP waveform. Ideally, the PP waveform should be calibrated on a beat-to-beat basis. There are invasive and non-invasive methods of measuring PP.
1121:
number of other haemodynamic variables, such as total end-diastole volume (TEDV), central blood volume (CBV) and active circulation volume (ACVI) can be calculated using this method.
1838:
of myocardial distention prior to shortening and the afterload during ejection. Other factors such as electrolytes may be classified as either positive or negative inotropic agents.
296:
1671:
1610:
6811:"Reference right ventricular systolic and diastolic function normalized to age, gender and body surface area from steady-state free precession cardiovascular magnetic resonance"
3864:
1058:
monitoring is limited in patients off-ventilation, in atrial fibrillation, in patients on vasopressors, and in those with a dynamic autonomic system such as those with sepsis.
608:
4403:
Phillips R, Lichtenthal P, Sloniger J, Burstow D, West M, Copeland J (March 2009). "Noninvasive cardiac output measurement in heart failure subjects on circulatory support".
2468:
Cardiac input (CI) is the inverse operation of cardiac output. As cardiac output implies the volumetric expression of ejection fraction, cardiac input implies the volumetric
463:
In standardizing what CO values are considered to be within normal range independent of the size of the subject's body, the accepted convention is to further index equation (
207:
139:
1089:
between heart performance and consumed energy, represented as CCE "stress index", can be of paramount importance in understanding the patient's present and future courses.
651:
560:
5371:
Scolletta S, Gregoric ID, Muzzi L, Radovancevic B, Frazier OH (January 2007). "Pulse wave analysis to assess systemic blood flow during mechanical biventricular support".
6761:
Dhingra VK, Fenwick JC, Walley KR, Chittock DR, Ronco JJ (September 2002). "Lack of agreement between thermodilution and fick cardiac output in critically ill patients".
5940:
Tanke RB, van Heijst AF, Klaessens JH, Daniels O, Festen C (January 2004). "Measurement of the ductal L-R shunt during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in the lamb".
5841:
367:
in a cycle that delivers oxygen, nutrients and chemicals to the body's cells and removes cellular waste. Because it pumps out whatever blood comes back into it from the
103:
1270:
5511:
Costa PD, Rodrigues PP, Reis AH, Costa-Pereira A (December 2010). "A review on remote monitoring technology applied to implantable electronic cardiovascular devices".
6134:"Theory and in vitro validation of a new extracorporeal arteriovenous loop approach for hemodynamic assessment in pediatric and neonatal intensive care unit patients"
2440:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}SV&=EDV-ESV\\EF&={\frac {SV}{EDV}}\times 100\%\\Q&=SV\times HR\\&={\frac {EF\times EDV\times HR}{100\%}}\end{aligned}}}
1303:
4674:"Randomized controlled trial to investigate influence of the fluid challenge on duration of hospital stay and perioperative morbidity in patients with hip fractures"
3703:
measurements. These instruments average measurements over 2–9 minutes depending on the stability of the circulation, and thus do not provide continuous monitoring.
3699:
averaged to improve accuracy. Modern catheters are fitted with heating filaments that intermittently heat up and measure the thermodilution curve, providing serial
2759:
2616:
2246:(EF) is a parameter related to SV. EF is the fraction of blood ejected by the left ventricle (LV) during the contraction or ejection phase of the cardiac cycle or
793:
741:. An ultrasound probe is inserted either orally or nasally into the oesophagus to mid-thoracic level, at which point the oesophagus lies alongside the descending
1762:
1450:
74:
5108:
McGee WT (2009). "A simple physiologic algorithm for managing hemodynamics using stroke volume and stroke volume variation: physiologic optimization program".
5065:
Manecke GR (September 2005). "Edwards FloTrac sensor and Vigileo monitor: easy, accurate, reliable cardiac output assessment using the arterial pulse wave".
3896:
874:
monitoring. The PiCCO algorithm is dependent on blood pressure waveform morphology (mathematical analysis of the PP waveform), and it calculates continuous
5975:
Casas F, Reeves A, Dudzinski D, Weber S, Lorenz M, Akiyama M, Kamohara K, Kopcak M, Ootaki Y, Zahr F, Sinkewich M, Foster R, Fukamachi K, Smith WA (2005).
4943:
Wesseling KH, Jansen JR, Settels JJ, Schreuder JJ (May 1993). "Computation of aortic flow from pressure in humans using a nonlinear, three-element model".
1457:
1070:
from the analysis of the pressure wave profile obtained from an arterial catheter—radial or femoral access. This PP waveform can then be used to determine
737:
monitoring—which is primarily used for the clinical monitoring of cardiac output. The latter uses continuous wave Doppler to measure blood velocity in the
7205:
6656:
3809:
2005:
increases in a healthy but untrained individual, most of the increase can be attributed to an increase in heart rate (HR). Change of posture, increased
4303:"Pulmonary Artery Catheter (PAC) Accuracy and Efficacy Compared with Flow Probe and Transcutaneous Doppler (USCOM): An Ovine Cardiac Output Validation"
3707:
ineffectiveness may relate to its poor accuracy and sensitivity, which have been demonstrated by comparison with flow probes across a sixfold range of
2086:
4532:"Intraoperative intravascular volume optimisation and length of hospital stay after repair of proximal femoral fracture: randomised controlled trial"
2920:
6967:
4495:
Mythen MG, Webb AR (April 1995). "Perioperative plasma volume expansion reduces the incidence of gut mucosal hypoperfusion during cardiac surgery".
6864:
Maceira A (2006). "Normalized Left Ventricular Systolic and Diastolic Function by Steady State Free Precession Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance".
301:
With a resting cardiac output of 5 L/min, a 'normal' oxygen delivery is around 1 L/min. The amount/percentage of the circulated oxygen consumed (VO
4581:"Randomised controlled trial investigating the influence of intravenous fluid titration using oesophageal Doppler monitoring during bowel surgery"
1124:
The UD method was firstly introduced in 1995. It was extensively used to measure flow and volumes with extracorporeal circuit conditions, such as
7174:
6104:
5497:
3452:
The calculation of the arterial and venous oxygen content of the blood is a straightforward process. Almost all oxygen in the blood is bound to
2055:
is important in clinical medicine because it provides for improved diagnosis of abnormalities and can be used to guide appropriate management.
5189:"Early non-invasive cardiac output monitoring in hemodynamically unstable intensive care patients: a multi-center randomized controlled trial"
3949:
889:
calibration but is less accurate than PA thermodilution and requires a central venous and arterial line with the accompanied infection risks.
342:
of variations in cardiac output. The three functions indicate the trend in physiological conditions (in the centre), in those of decreased
6524:
4866:
3107:
The normal range for these indexed blood flow parameters are between 35 and 65 mL/beat/m for SI and between 2.5 and 4 L/(min m) for CI.
6060:
van Loon M, van der Mark W, Beukers N, de Bruin C, Blankestijn PJ, Huisman RM, Zijlstra JJ, van der Sande FM, Tordoir JH (June 2007).
5768:"Hypertension as a hemodynamic disease: the role of impedance cardiography in diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic decision making"
5324:"Assessment of cardiac output in children: a comparison between the pressure recording analytical method and Doppler echocardiography"
5030:
Singh S, Taylor MA (August 2010). "Con: the FloTrac device should not be used to follow cardiac output in cardiac surgical patients".
371:, the quantity of blood returning to the heart effectively determines the quantity of blood the heart pumps out – its cardiac output,
7428:
4756:"Randomized clinical trial assessing the effect of Doppler-optimized fluid management on outcome after elective colorectal resection"
768:. PP methods measure the combined performance of the heart and the blood vessels, thus limiting their application for measurement of
3325:
309:. Physical exercise requires a higher than resting-level of oxygen consumption to support increased muscle activity. In the case of
6925:
3207:
785:
7700:
2611:
The resulting indexed parameters are stroke index (SI) and cardiac index (CI). Stroke index, measured in mL/beat/m, is defined as
391:
327:
There are many methods of measuring CO, both invasively and non-invasively; each has advantages and drawbacks as described below.
7198:
3966:
Binanay C, Califf RM, Hasselblad V, O'Connor CM, Shah MR, Sopko G, Stevenson LW, Francis GS, Leier CV, Miller LW (October 2005).
3711:
values. Use of PAC is in decline as clinicians move to less invasive and more accurate technologies for monitoring hæmodynamics.
1310:
237:). Mathematically this is calculated as follows: oxygen delivery = cardiac output × arterial oxygen content, giving the formula:
4867:"Oesophageal Doppler Monitor (ODM) guided individualised goal directed fluid management (iGDFM) in surgery – a technical review"
857:
by analysing the arterial PP waveform. In both cases, an independent technique is required to provide calibration of continuous
229:
of oxygenated blood at an adequate pressure from the left ventricle of the heart via the aorta and arteries. Oxygen delivery (DO
2079:
6249:
5833:
870:
value derived from cold-saline thermodilution is used to calibrate the arterial PP contour, which can then provide continuous
7002:
6745:
6716:
6691:
6557:
6518:
6243:
3850:
6563:
6441:
Pennell DJ, Sechtem UP, Higgins CB, Manning WJ, Pohost GM, Rademakers FE, van Rossum AC, Shaw LJ, Yucel EK (November 2004).
5476:"Impedance cardiography: Pulsatile blood flow and the biophysical and electrodynamic basis for the stroke volume equations"
4715:"Intraoperative oesophageal Doppler guided fluid management shortens postoperative hospital stay after major bowel surgery"
3115:
Combined cardiac output is the sum of the outputs of the right and left sides of the heart. It is a useful measurement in
918:
6402:"Hemodynamic effects of vacuum-assisted closure therapy in cardiac surgery: assessment using magnetic resonance imaging"
1680:
7797:
7191:
7166:
6650:
5807:
5414:
Scolletta S, Romano SM, Maglioni H (2005). "Left ventricular performance by PRAM during cardiac surgery". p. S157.
3803:
4057:
Hall JB (October 2005). "Searching for evidence to support pulmonary artery catheter use in critically ill patients".
683:
then multiplied by the VTI of the Doppler flow profile across the aortic valve to determine the flow volume per beat (
6955:
6491:
2072:
6400:
Petzina R, Ugander M, Gustafsson L, Engblom H, Sjögren J, Hetzer R, Ingemansson R, Arheden H, Malmsjö M (May 2007).
1808:
capacitance of thick-walled arteries because they are able to carry more blood by virtue of being more distensible.
4843:
3968:"Evaluation study of congestive heart failure and pulmonary artery catheterization effectiveness: the ESCAPE trial"
885:), intrathoracic blood volume and extravascular lung water. Transpulmonary thermodilution allows for less invasive
5283:"Pressure recording analytical method (PRAM) for measurement of cardiac output during various haemodynamic states"
979:
924:
3427:
5238:
Romano SM, Pistolesi M (August 2002). "Assessment of cardiac output from systemic arterial pressure in humans".
4983:"The reliability of pulse contour-derived cardiac output during hemorrhage and after vasopressor administration"
4448:"Measurement of cardiac output in normal pregnancy by a non-invasive two-dimensional independent Doppler device"
7152:
5867:
4352:
Horster S, Stemmler HJ, Strecker N, Brettner F, Hausmann A, Cnossen J, Parhofer KG, Nickel T, Geiger S (2012).
2045:, EDV may vary. An increase in EDV could counterbalance LV dilatation and impaired contraction. From equation (
2010:
730:
3888:
7341:
243:
17:
4130:"Reliability of a new ultrasonic cardiac output monitor in recipients of living donor liver transplantation"
1617:
7718:
7473:
7451:
1140:
is 1533 m/s) into a unique AV loop decreases blood ultrasound velocity, and produces dilution curves.
7171:
3468:; the oxygen content of the blood—either arterial or venous—can be estimated using the following formula:
1589:
7713:
7458:
5597:"Individualizing hypertension treatment with impedance cardiography: a meta-analysis of published trials"
909:) is an uncalibrated, haemodynamic monitor based on pulse contour analysis. It estimates cardiac output (
305:) per minute through metabolism varies depending on the activity level but at rest is circa 25% of the DO
1800:
Cardiac output is primarily controlled by the oxygen requirement of tissues in the body. In contrast to
7539:
2006:
850:
6810:
2602:{\displaystyle BSA_{\mathrm {} }=W_{\mathrm {} }^{0.425}\times H_{\mathrm {} }^{0.725}\times 0.007184}
566:
225:
require continuous oxygen delivery which requires the sustained transport of oxygen to the tissues by
7743:
7690:
7566:
7546:
7510:
7433:
7393:
7214:
6101:
5475:
3680:
165:(SV), which is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat; thus giving the formula:
157:
of the heart, per unit time (usually measured per minute). Cardiac output (CO) is the product of the
6640:
6115:
3793:
2033:
can be associated with cardiovascular disease that can occur during infection and sepsis. Decreased
1176:
is directly proportional to the through-plane velocity. The average velocity in a vessel, i.e., the
171:
108:
36:
Major factors influencing cardiac output – heart rate and stroke volume, both of which are variable.
7561:
7551:
7441:
614:
527:
4904:"An evaluation of cardiac output by five arterial pulse contour techniques during cardiac surgery"
7748:
7680:
7625:
7526:
7446:
7330:
7308:
5977:"Performance and reliability of the CPB/ECMO Initiative Forward Lines Casualty Management System"
3735:
1924:
Table 4: Cardiac response to increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output
1851:
Table 3: Cardiac response to decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output
797:
696:
335:
226:
7326:
5680:
Parry MJ, McFetridge-Durdle J (2006). "Ambulatory impedance cardiography: a systematic review".
4713:
Wakeling HG, McFall MR, Jenkins CS, Woods WG, Miles WF, Barclay GR, Fleming SC (November 2005).
703:
to calculate aortic and pulmonary valve diameters and CSAs, allowing right-sided and left-sided
79:
7685:
7675:
7589:
7335:
7293:
7288:
4981:
Bein B, Meybohm P, Cavus E, Renner J, Tonner PH, Steinfath M, Scholz J, Doerges V (July 2007).
3197:
the oxygen content of blood from a cannula in a peripheral artery (representing arterial blood)
2042:
1236:
1152:
1097:
772:. This can be partially compensated for by intermittent calibration of the waveform to another
6508:
5723:
Wang DJ, Gottlieb SS (September 2006). "Impedance cardiography: more questions than answers".
5432:
4877:
4179:"Cardiac output measurement in preterm neonates: validation of USCOM against echocardiography"
233:
mL/min) is the resultant of blood flow (cardiac output CO) times the blood oxygen content (CaO
7534:
3730:
3194:
the oxygen content of blood taken from the pulmonary artery (representing mixed venous blood)
3120:
1275:
6734:
6351:
Kuehne T, Yilmaz S, Schulze-Neick I, Wellnhofer E, Ewert P, Nagel E, Lange P (August 2005).
5901:"Theory and validation of access flow measurement by dilution technique during hemodialysis"
5548:"Measuring impedance in congestive heart failure: current options and clinical applications"
1792:
1112:
Non-invasive ICG equipment includes the Bio-Z Dx, the Niccomo, and TEBCO products by BoMed.
7283:
7266:
3919:
3128:
2109:
1835:
1101:
906:
880:
343:
142:
7183:
6443:"Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report"
4354:"Cardiac Output Measurements in Septic Patients: Comparing the Accuracy of USCOM to PiCCO"
3445:
as tracers and measure the change in inspired and expired gas concentrations to calculate
1986:
Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1983:
Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1913:
Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1910:
Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; haemostasis restored
1188:
is the stroke volume. The length of the cardiac cycle is known and determines heart rate;
1100:(often abbreviated as ICG, or Thoracic Electrical Bioimpedance (TEB)) measures changes in
8:
7630:
7468:
7463:
7298:
7271:
4508:
2133:
2051:), the resulting cardiac output Q may remain constant. The ability to accurately measure
1133:
7738:
7603:
7356:
7123:
7096:
6680:
6616:
6589:
6377:
6352:
6333:
6285:
6212:
6158:
6133:
6006:
5993:
5976:
5748:
5705:
5662:
5572:
5547:
5456:
5396:
5353:
5322:
Calamandrei M, Mirabile L, Muschetta S, Gensini GF, De Simone L, Romano SM (May 2008).
5263:
5215:
5188:
5165:
5133:
5090:
5012:
4999:
4982:
4785:
4654:
4610:
4556:
4531:
4477:
4428:
4380:
4353:
4329:
4302:
4245:
4205:
4178:
4159:
4036:
3842:
3684:
2469:
1747:
1435:
734:
364:
59:
41:
7056:"Survey of intensive care nurses' knowledge relating to the pulmonary artery catheter"
6321:
7374:
7346:
7128:
7077:
7036:
6998:
6951:
6833:
6778:
6741:
6712:
6687:
6646:
6621:
6553:
6514:
6487:
6464:
6423:
6382:
6325:
6289:
6239:
6204:
6163:
6083:
6062:"Implementation of a vascular access quality programme improves vascular access care"
6042:
5998:
5957:
5922:
5789:
5740:
5697:
5693:
5654:
5650:
5618:
5577:
5528:
5419:
5388:
5345:
5304:
5255:
5251:
5220:
5169:
5125:
5082:
5047:
5004:
4960:
4925:
4920:
4903:
4821:
4777:
4736:
4695:
4646:
4642:
4602:
4597:
4580:
4561:
4512:
4469:
4464:
4447:
4420:
4385:
4334:
4280:
4237:
4151:
4110:
4074:
4028:
3989:
3941:
3856:
3846:
3799:
3665:
3124:
3116:
2243:
2181:
2041:
and heart failure. Sometimes, in the presence of ventricular disease associated with
1785:
1577:{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}c(t_{i})(F\Delta t)=F\sum _{i=1}^{n}c(t_{i})(\Delta t)}
1214:
814:
470:
351:
154:
6337:
6216:
6149:
5752:
5709:
5666:
5460:
5400:
5357:
5267:
5137:
5094:
4789:
4658:
4614:
4481:
4432:
4249:
4163:
4040:
3670:
3119:, where cardiac outputs from both sides of the heart work partly in parallel by the
1233:, the amount of dye that flows past the measuring point during the subinterval from
7723:
7318:
7118:
7108:
7067:
7028:
6873:
6825:
6770:
6611:
6601:
6454:
6413:
6372:
6364:
6317:
6281:
6238:(2nd ed.). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 71–90.
6194:
6153:
6145:
6073:
6034:
6010:
5988:
5953:
5949:
5912:
5784:
5779:
5767:
5732:
5689:
5646:
5608:
5567:
5559:
5520:
5487:
5448:
5380:
5335:
5294:
5247:
5210:
5200:
5161:
5117:
5074:
5039:
5016:
4994:
4952:
4915:
4813:
4767:
4726:
4685:
4638:
4592:
4551:
4543:
4504:
4459:
4412:
4375:
4365:
4324:
4314:
4272:
4229:
4200:
4190:
4141:
4102:
4066:
4020:
3979:
3931:
3838:
3159:
2225:
2219:
2206:
2200:
1830:
1181:
893:
738:
679:
222:
4672:
Venn R, Steele A, Richardson P, Poloniecki J, Grounds M, Newman P (January 2002).
4276:
917:) from a sample of arterial pulsations. The device uses an algorithm based on the
853:
AG, Munich, Germany) and PulseCO (LiDCO Ltd, London, England) generate continuous
508:
Doppler signal in the left ventricular outflow tract: Velocity Time Integral (VTI)
7573:
7303:
7178:
7156:
6547:
6199:
6182:
6119:
6108:
5340:
5323:
4956:
4416:
4233:
4106:
3832:
1168:
Velocity-encoded MRI is based on the detection of changes in the phase of proton
1050:). Only perfused beats that generate an arterial waveform are counted for in HR.
32:
6418:
6401:
4579:
Conway DH, Mayall R, Abdul-Latif MS, Gilligan S, Tackaberry C (September 2002).
7733:
7658:
7650:
7072:
7055:
6829:
5043:
4817:
3185:
3145:
3084:{\displaystyle CI_{\mathrm {} }=(SI_{\mathrm {} }\times HR_{\mathrm {} })/1000}
2038:
1934:
Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
1861:
Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
1768:
output that is stable for approximately 10 s during exercise and 30 s at rest.
1764:
is known, and the integral can be determined using the concentration readings.
1132:, leading more than 150 peer reviewed publications. UD has now been adapted to
835:
761:
742:
517:
6877:
6459:
6442:
5736:
5563:
5452:
3860:
2897:{\displaystyle CI_{\mathrm {} }={\frac {CO_{\mathrm {} }}{BSA_{\mathrm {} }}}}
2747:{\displaystyle SI_{\mathrm {} }={\frac {SV_{\mathrm {} }}{BSA_{\mathrm {} }}}}
900:
749:). Oesophageal Doppler monitoring measures the velocity of blood and not true
7791:
7351:
7261:
7254:
7239:
7032:
5613:
5596:
5384:
5281:
Scolletta S, Romano SM, Biagioli B, Capannini G, Giomarelli P (August 2005).
5121:
5078:
4547:
4070:
4024:
3984:
3967:
3945:
3725:
3720:
2489:
2157:
2026:
1781:
1185:
831:
700:
684:
474:
376:
368:
310:
162:
6774:
6368:
5811:
4011:(October 2005). "Somatic acquisition and signaling of TGFBR1*6A in cancer".
7765:
7755:
7728:
7617:
7608:
7405:
7379:
7132:
7081:
6837:
6782:
6625:
6468:
6427:
6386:
6329:
6293:
6208:
6183:"Minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring in the perioperative setting"
6167:
6087:
6046:
6002:
5961:
5793:
5744:
5701:
5658:
5622:
5581:
5532:
5392:
5349:
5308:
5259:
5224:
5173:
5129:
5086:
5051:
5008:
4929:
4825:
4781:
4740:
4699:
4650:
4606:
4473:
4424:
4389:
4338:
4284:
4241:
4155:
4114:
4078:
4032:
3993:
3936:
3831:
Kenyon, Anna; Williams, David; Adamson, Dawn (10 June 2010). "Physiology".
2022:
2017:
Diseases of the cardiovascular system are often associated with changes in
1129:
1061:
666:
VTI is the velocity time integral of the trace of the Doppler flow profile.
317:
7040:
5926:
5524:
4964:
4690:
4673:
4565:
4516:
4370:
4319:
1452:
is the rate of flow that is being calculated. The total amount of dye is:
330:
7770:
7760:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7389:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6078:
6061:
6038:
5299:
5282:
4731:
4714:
4177:
Phillips R, Paradisis M, Evans N, Southwell D, Burstow D, West M (2006).
1826:
5917:
5900:
4452:
The Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
7708:
7493:
7383:
7366:
7249:
6231:
5595:
Ferrario CM, Flack JM, Strobeck JE, Smits G, Peters C (February 2010).
5187:
Takala J, Ruokonen E, Tenhunen JJ, Parviainen I, Jakob SM (June 2011).
3824:
3695:
3453:
3181:
2194:
1777:
1169:
513:
380:
347:
158:
7640:
7411:
7278:
4902:
de Wilde RB, Schreuder JJ, van den Berg PC, Jansen JR (August 2007).
4840:"CardioQ-ODM oesophageal doppler monitor | Guidance | NICE"
4772:
4755:
4146:
4129:
4128:
Su BC, Yu HP, Yang MW, Lin CC, Kao MC, Chang CH, Lee WC (July 2008).
3442:
827:
218:
7149:
7054:
Johnston IG, Jane R, Fraser JF, Kruger P, Hickling K (August 2004).
6896:
Normal ranges for heart rate are among the narrowest limits between
5205:
3893:
BC Open Textbooks – Open Textbooks Adapted and Created by BC Faculty
784:
In 1967, the Czech physiologist Jan Peňáz invented and patented the
7668:
7399:
7113:
6950:
BB Sramek: Systemic Hemodynamics and Hemodynamic Management, 2002,
6606:
6350:
6059:
5492:
5321:
4901:
4195:
3965:
2251:
1079:
5370:
4402:
4301:
Phillips RA, Hood SG, Jacobson BM, West MJ, Wan L, May CN (2012).
3666:
Pulmonary artery thermodilution (trans-right-heart thermodilution)
350:, bottom curve) and in those of increased preload (e.g. following
7663:
3683:(PAC) introduced to clinical practice in 1970, also known as the
3150:
2479:
Cardiac input is a readily imaged mathematical model of diastole.
2247:
1796:
Hierarchical summary of major factors influencing cardiac output.
1201:
While MRI is an important research tool for accurately measuring
1075:
5280:
5186:
4754:
Noblett SE, Snowden CP, Shenton BK, Horgan AF (September 2006).
1931:
Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria)
1858:
Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria)
7503:
7498:
6399:
5939:
5510:
4942:
4864:
4839:
4578:
4351:
4176:
3462:
3398:{\displaystyle Q\ ={\frac {{V}_{{\ce {O2}}}}{{C}_{A}-{C}_{V}}}}
801:
316:
Cardiac output is a global blood flow parameter of interest in
7161:
5863:
4671:
3286:{\displaystyle V_{{\ce {O2}}}=(Q\times C_{A})-(Q\times C_{V})}
161:(HR), i.e. the number of heartbeats per minute (bpm), and the
7635:
7222:
7017:
6270:
6112:
6023:
3918:
Dunn, J.-Oc; Mythen, M. G.; Grocott, M. P. (1 October 2016).
3433:
While considered to be the most accurate method of measuring
1177:
1173:
729:
The Transoesophageal Doppler includes two main technologies;
150:
146:
6760:
6440:
6131:
4802:
4091:
2475:
IF = end diastolic volume (EDV) / end systolic volume (ESV)
1213:
The dye dilution method is done by rapidly injecting a dye,
721:
440:{\displaystyle CO_{\text{}}=SV_{\text{}}\times HR_{\text{}}}
7213:
6968:"Cardiac Output and Cardiac Index – What's the difference?"
6809:
Maceira AM, Prasad SK, Khan M, Pennell DJ (December 2006).
4753:
3458:
2250:. Prior to the start of systole, during the filling phase (
1801:
1423:{\displaystyle (concentration)(volume)=c(t_{i})(F\Delta t)}
1125:
901:
Statistical analysis of arterial pressure – FloTrac/Vigileo
746:
504:
5834:"Niccomo – Non-Invasive Continuous Cardiac Output Monitor"
5635:
5594:
4865:
Lowe GD, Chamberlain BM, Philpot EJ, Willshire RJ (2010).
4712:
1229:. By dividing the time intervals from into subintervals Δ
5974:
4627:
3556:
3358:
3227:
7053:
6808:
4300:
1813:
1062:
Uncalibrated, pre-estimated demographic data-free – PRAM
794:
Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research
363:
The function of the heart is to drive blood through the
7097:"Cardiac output monitoring: an integrative perspective"
6645:. OpenStax College, Rice University. pp. 787–846.
6132:
Krivitski NM, Kislukhin VV, Thuramalla NV (July 2008).
5413:
3798:. OpenStax College, Rice University. pp. 787–846.
2912:) for indexed parameters then changes to the following.
1066:
Pressure Recording Analytical Method (PRAM), estimates
321:
6995:
Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch
6306:
5679:
4980:
4219:
982:
927:
813:
impedance. At the proximal aortic site, the 3-element
733:—which is primarily used for diagnostic purposes, and
7094:
6941:
WR Milnor: Hemodynamics, Williams & Wilkins, 1982
4296:
4294:
4009:
3830:
3477:
3328:
3210:
2923:
2762:
2619:
2503:
2265:
1771:
1750:
1683:
1620:
1592:
1460:
1438:
1313:
1278:
1239:
792:
In 1978, scientists at BMI-TNO, the research unit of
617:
569:
530:
394:
246:
174:
111:
82:
62:
6736:
Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine
5765:
846:
5766:Ventura HO, Taler SJ, Strobeck JE (February 2005).
4529:
4262:
2756:
Cardiac index, measured in L/(min m), is defined as
1975:Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume
1902:Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume
1899:Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume
892:In LiDCO, the independent calibration technique is
881:
6733:
6679:
6406:The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
4396:
4291:
4170:
3877:edited by Catherine E. Williamson, Phillip Bennett
3654:
3397:
3285:
3167:is calculated from these measurements as follows:
3083:
2896:
2746:
2601:
2439:
1972:Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume
1756:
1735:{\displaystyle F={\frac {A}{\int _{0}^{T}c(t)dt}}}
1734:
1665:
1604:
1576:
1444:
1422:
1297:
1264:
1032:
968:
645:
602:
554:
439:
375:. Cardiac output is classically defined alongside
290:
201:
133:
97:
68:
7167:The Determinants of Cardiac Output (online video)
7162:The Gross Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
6706:
5032:Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia
3917:
699:to measure the Doppler flow profile VTI. It uses
7789:
6229:
5808:"BioZ Dx Diagnostics System | Sonosite Inc"
2122:End-diastolic volume / body surface area (mL/m)
6583:
6581:
6552:. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. p. 4.
5237:
4445:
2146:End-systolic volume / body surface area (mL/m)
841:
695:Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitor (USCOM) uses
7150:Hemodynamics training for Junior Medical Staff
6180:
5601:Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease
4530:Sinclair S, James S, Singer M (October 1997).
660:CSA is the valve orifice cross sectional area,
7199:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6851:
6849:
6847:
6804:
6802:
6800:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6792:
3306:is the oxygen content of arterial blood, and,
2080:
1159:
1033:{\textstyle BP\cdot k\mathrm {\ (constant)} }
969:{\textstyle SV=\mathrm {std} (AP)\cdot \chi }
6866:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
6754:
6578:
5722:
5150:
4256:
3880:
826:Invasive PP monitoring involves inserting a
6892:
6890:
5029:
4446:Kager CC, Dekker GA, Stam MC (April 2009).
4127:
3961:
3959:
3834:Basic Science in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
830:pressure sensor into an artery—usually the
7206:
7192:
7095:Alhashemi JA, Cecconi M, Hofer CK (2011).
6920:
6918:
6844:
6789:
6500:
6181:Funk DJ, Moretti EW, Gan TJ (March 2009).
4494:
4213:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3674:Diagram of Pulmonary artery catheter (PAC)
3184:(with the subject re-breathing air) and a
3110:
2087:
2073:
149:'s pumping output: that is, the volume of
7122:
7112:
7071:
6986:
6731:
6677:
6615:
6605:
6539:
6458:
6417:
6376:
6198:
6157:
6077:
5992:
5916:
5898:
5783:
5612:
5571:
5491:
5473:
5339:
5298:
5214:
5204:
4998:
4936:
4919:
4771:
4730:
4689:
4596:
4555:
4463:
4379:
4369:
4328:
4318:
4204:
4194:
4145:
3983:
3935:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3154:An illustration of how spirometry is done
2170:Stroke volume / body surface area (mL/m)
1147:
1092:
756:
6887:
6740:(5th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
6632:
5545:
4976:
4974:
4895:
3956:
3886:
3669:
3149:
1996:
1791:
1225:be the concentration of the dye at time
725:A transoesophageal echocardiogram probe.
720:
503:
329:
31:
27:Measurement of blood pumped by the heart
7215:Physiology of the cardiovascular system
6944:
6926:"Normal Hemodynamic Parameters – Adult"
6915:
6863:
6587:
6481:
6236:MRI and CT of the Cardiovascular System
5064:
4345:
3158:The Fick principle, first described by
2233:
1888:Parasympathetic stimulation suppressed
779:
291:{\displaystyle D_{O2}=CO\times C_{a}O2}
14:
7790:
7172:Basic Principles in Cardiac Physiology
6935:
6506:
4052:
4050:
4005:
4003:
3952:from the original on 23 February 2022.
3748:
3315:is the oxygen content of venous blood.
1675:Thus, the cardiac output is given by:
1666:{\displaystyle A=F\int _{0}^{T}c(t)dt}
1208:
1115:
7187:
6992:
6974:from the original on 16 December 2018
6659:from the original on 23 February 2022
6638:
6545:
6486:. Cengage Learning. pp. 565–66.
6252:from the original on 23 February 2022
6066:Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation
6027:Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation
5500:from the original on 17 October 2015.
5107:
4971:
4846:from the original on 23 February 2022
4439:
3812:from the original on 23 February 2022
3791:
3134:
2021:, particularly the pandemic diseases
1961:Parasympathetic stimulation increased
499:
5844:from the original on 17 October 2015
5144:
4509:10.1001/archsurg.1995.01430040085019
4056:
3899:from the original on 6 November 2021
3461:of haemoglobin can carry 1.34 mL of
3449:(Innocor, Innovision A/S, Denmark).
2914:
2256:
2238:
1605:{\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty }
477:(CI). This is detailed in equation (
385:
6997:. Elsevier/Saunders. p. 1197.
6711:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6234:. In de Roos A, Higgins CB (eds.).
4358:Critical Care Research and Practice
4307:Critical Care Research and Practice
4095:International Journal of Cardiology
4047:
4000:
1964:Sympathetic stimulation suppressed
1841:
716:
674:
24:
6912:articles for more detailed limits.
6686:(7th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
6286:10.1148/radiology.211.2.r99ma43453
5994:10.1097/01.mat.0000182472.63808.b9
5480:Journal of Electrical Bioimpedance
5166:10.1016/j.transproceed.2011.12.036
5110:Journal of Intensive Care Medicine
5000:10.1213/01.ane.0000268140.02147.ed
3843:10.1016/b978-0-443-10281-3.00014-2
3061:
3058:
3055:
3024:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3005:
2997:
2994:
2960:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2936:
2875:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2833:
2799:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2775:
2726:
2699:
2696:
2662:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2635:
2632:
2579:
2576:
2550:
2547:
2520:
2427:
2350:
1891:Sympathetic stimulation increased
1772:Factors influencing cardiac output
1599:
1565:
1507:
1411:
1192:can be calculated using equation (
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
944:
941:
938:
805:be accurate, robust and reliable.
25:
7809:
7143:
6931:. Edwards Lifesciences LLC. 2009.
6566:from the original on 27 July 2020
6527:from the original on 27 July 2020
5513:Telemedicine Journal and e-Health
4121:
3867:from the original on 30 June 2022
3201:From these values, we know that:
3139:
2058:
1744:where the amount of dye injected
690:
56:and often denoted by the symbols
6510:Principles of Medical Physiology
6138:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine
5870:from the original on 24 May 2015
5772:American Journal of Hypertension
5694:10.1097/00006199-200607000-00009
5651:10.1097/00001573-200405000-00008
5328:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine
5252:10.1097/00003246-200208000-00027
5067:Expert Review of Medical Devices
4921:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05135.x
4643:10.1097/00000542-200210000-00012
4598:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2002.02708.x
4465:10.1111/j.1479-828X.2009.00948.x
4271:(6): 961–67, discussion 967–68.
3920:"Physiology of Oxygen Transport"
2483:
2463:
1044:is then derived using equation (
603:{\displaystyle SV=VTI\times CSA}
7088:
7047:
7011:
6960:
6725:
6700:
6671:
6484:Calculus: Early Transcententals
6475:
6434:
6393:
6344:
6300:
6264:
6230:Arheden H, Ståhlberg F (2006).
6223:
6174:
6150:10.1097/01.PCC.0b013e31816c71bc
6125:
6094:
6053:
6017:
5968:
5933:
5892:
5889:bomed.us/ext-teb.html EXT-TEBCO
5883:
5856:
5826:
5800:
5759:
5716:
5673:
5629:
5588:
5539:
5504:
5467:
5407:
5364:
5315:
5274:
5231:
5180:
5101:
5058:
5023:
4874:Deltex Medical Technical Review
4858:
4832:
4796:
4747:
4706:
4665:
4621:
4572:
4523:
4488:
3428:arteriovenous oxygen difference
3180:consumption per minute using a
1845:
919:Frank–Starling law of the heart
731:transoesophageal echocardiogram
7060:Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
6590:"Understanding cardiac output"
5954:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2003.09.017
5785:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.11.002
5546:Tang WH, Tong W (March 2009).
5287:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4760:The British Journal of Surgery
4719:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4678:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4085:
3911:
3837:. Elsevier. pp. 173–230.
3280:
3261:
3255:
3236:
3070:
3064:
3052:
3034:
2991:
2979:
2970:
2933:
2885:
2870:
2850:
2830:
2809:
2772:
2735:
2722:
2702:
2693:
2672:
2629:
2582:
2573:
2553:
2544:
2529:
2516:
2011:parasympathetic nervous system
1720:
1714:
1654:
1648:
1596:
1571:
1562:
1559:
1546:
1513:
1501:
1498:
1485:
1417:
1405:
1402:
1389:
1380:
1359:
1356:
1314:
1136:(ICU) as the COstatus device.
1026:
999:
957:
948:
486:
202:{\displaystyle CO=HR\times SV}
134:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{c}}
13:
1:
7342:Aortic valve area calculation
6322:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14956-2
5725:Current Heart Failure Reports
5639:Current Opinion in Cardiology
4945:Journal of Applied Physiology
4277:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2008.07.039
3741:
646:{\displaystyle CSA=\pi r^{2}}
555:{\displaystyle Q=SV\times HR}
358:
6709:Human cardiovascular control
6200:10.1213/ane.0b013e31818ffd99
5942:Journal of Pediatric Surgery
5474:Bernstein, Donald P (2010).
5341:10.1097/PCC.0b013e31816c7151
4957:10.1152/jappl.1993.74.5.2566
4417:10.1213/ane.0b013e318193174b
4234:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181e8adee
4107:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.04.105
3127:, which directly supply the
842:Calibrated PP – PiCCO, LiDCO
7:
7459:Effective refractory period
7338:) / End-diastolic dimension
6419:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.01.011
5154:Transplantation Proceedings
4265:American Journal of Surgery
3714:
3097:
2908:
2453:
2047:
1922:
1849:
1821:
1194:
1046:
821:
663:r is the valve radius, and,
479:
465:
453:
10:
7814:
7073:10.1177/0310057X0403200415
6707:Rowell, Loring B. (1993).
6678:Levy MN, Berne RM (1997).
5899:Krivitski NM (July 1995).
5447:(Suppl 1): S148–58. 2005.
5044:10.1053/j.jvca.2010.04.023
4818:10.1016/j.juro.2011.07.093
3632:partial pressure of oxygen
3143:
2487:
2007:sympathetic nervous system
1775:
1160:Magnetic resonance imaging
473:(BSA), giving rise to the
98:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}}
7798:Cardiovascular physiology
7744:Tubuloglomerular feedback
7699:
7691:Critical closing pressure
7649:
7616:
7602:
7582:
7519:
7511:Hexaxial reference system
7434:Cardiac electrophysiology
7421:
7365:
7317:
7230:
7221:
6878:10.1080/10976640600572889
6682:Cardiovascular physiology
6549:Control of Cardiac Output
6460:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040
6232:"Blood flow measurements"
5737:10.1007/s11897-006-0009-7
5564:10.1016/j.ahj.2008.10.016
5453:10.1007/s00134-005-2781-3
3887:OpenStax (6 March 2013).
3681:pulmonary artery catheter
2067:
1265:{\displaystyle t=t_{i-1}}
739:descending thoracic aorta
153:being pumped by a single
7719:Renin–angiotensin system
7155:11 December 2022 at the
7033:10.1001/jama.264.22.2928
6830:10.1093/eurheartj/ehl336
6642:Anatomy & physiology
6187:Anesthesia and Analgesia
5614:10.1177/1753944709348236
5385:10.1177/0267659106074784
5122:10.1177/0885066609344908
5079:10.1586/17434440.2.5.523
4987:Anesthesia and Analgesia
4548:10.1136/bmj.315.7113.909
4405:Anesthesia and Analgesia
4071:10.1001/jama.294.13.1693
4025:10.1001/jama.294.13.1634
3985:10.1001/jama.294.13.1625
3795:Anatomy & physiology
3408:and therefore calculate
2009:activity, and decreased
1612:, the amount of dye is:
7749:Cerebral autoregulation
7714:Kinin–kallikrein system
7681:Jugular venous pressure
7331:End-diastolic dimension
7309:Pressure volume diagram
6883:(subscription required)
6775:10.1378/chest.122.3.990
6513:. Thieme. p. 237.
6369:10.1136/hrt.2004.038265
6118:29 October 2008 at the
5840:. medis. GmbH Ilmenau.
5441:Intensive Care Medicine
3736:Central venous pressure
3484:Oxygen content of blood
3441:. Other variations use
3426:) is also known as the
3111:Combined cardiac output
2037:can be associated with
1298:{\displaystyle t=t_{i}}
851:PULSION Medical Systems
798:University of Amsterdam
697:continuous wave Doppler
336:central venous pressure
7686:Portal venous pressure
7676:Mean arterial pressure
7590:Ventricular remodeling
7336:End-systolic dimension
7294:Cardiac function curve
6818:European Heart Journal
6447:European Heart Journal
5552:American Heart Journal
5240:Critical Care Medicine
4806:The Journal of Urology
4222:Critical Care Medicine
3675:
3656:
3399:
3319:This allows us to say
3287:
3155:
3085:
2898:
2748:
2603:
2441:
1797:
1758:
1736:
1667:
1606:
1578:
1542:
1481:
1446:
1424:
1299:
1266:
1153:Electrical cardiometry
1148:Electrical cardiometry
1098:Impedance cardiography
1093:Impedance cardiography
1034:
970:
757:Pulse pressure methods
726:
647:
604:
556:
509:
441:
355:
292:
203:
135:
99:
70:
37:
7327:Fractional shortening
6113:Transonic System Inc.
5525:10.1089/tmj.2010.0082
4134:Liver Transplantation
3731:Right atrial pressure
3673:
3657:
3400:
3288:
3153:
3086:
2899:
2749:
2604:
2442:
2176:52 mL/m (± 6.2 mL/m)
2152:26 mL/m (± 5.1 mL/m)
2128:78 mL/m (± 8.8 mL/m)
2068:Ventricular volumes
1997:Clinical significance
1953:, H, and lactic acid
1880:, H, and lactic acid
1795:
1759:
1737:
1668:
1607:
1579:
1522:
1461:
1447:
1425:
1300:
1267:
1035:
971:
724:
648:
605:
557:
507:
442:
333:
293:
204:
136:
100:
71:
35:
7267:End-diastolic volume
6970:. 13 December 2016.
6732:Braunwald E (1997).
5905:Kidney International
4883:on 23 September 2015
3937:10.1093/bjaed/mkw012
3889:"Cardiac Physiology"
3475:
3326:
3208:
3129:systemic circulation
2921:
2760:
2617:
2501:
2263:
2234:Related measurements
2125:78 mL/m (± 11 mL/m)
2110:End-diastolic volume
1748:
1681:
1618:
1590:
1458:
1436:
1311:
1276:
1237:
1165:and thermodilution.
1134:intensive care units
1102:electrical impedance
980:
925:
907:Edwards Lifesciences
780:Finapres methodology
615:
567:
528:
392:
244:
227:systemic circulation
172:
143:volumetric flow rate
109:
80:
60:
7631:Vascular resistance
7469:Electrocardiography
7464:Pacemaker potential
7394:Conduction velocity
7299:Venous return curve
7272:End-systolic volume
7177:4 June 2023 at the
6588:Vincent JL (2008).
6107:12 May 2015 at the
5918:10.1038/ki.1995.290
5778:(2 Pt 2): 26S–43S.
4691:10.1093/bja/88.1.65
4497:Archives of Surgery
4371:10.1155/2012/270631
4320:10.1155/2012/621496
3590:saturation of blood
3558:
3360:
3229:
2592:
2563:
2173:51 mL/m (± 7 mL/m)
2149:27 mL/m (± 7 mL/m)
2134:End-systolic volume
2064:
1925:
1852:
1814:a subsequent figure
1710:
1644:
1209:Dye dilution method
1116:Ultrasound dilution
786:volume clamp method
735:oesophageal Doppler
322:a subsequent figure
7739:Myogenic mechanism
7357:Left atrial volume
7289:Frank–Starling law
6482:Stewart J (2010).
6079:10.1093/ndt/gfm076
6039:10.1093/ndt/gfn275
5864:"OEM Module TEBCO"
5814:on 3 December 2010
5300:10.1093/bja/aei154
4732:10.1093/bja/aei223
3685:Swan-Ganz catheter
3676:
3652:
3650:
3546:
3395:
3348:
3283:
3217:
3156:
3135:Historical methods
3081:
2894:
2744:
2599:
2567:
2538:
2470:injection fraction
2437:
2435:
2063:
1969:Response of heart
1942:Increasing stretch
1923:
1896:Response of heart
1869:Decreasing stretch
1850:
1802:other pump systems
1798:
1754:
1732:
1696:
1663:
1630:
1602:
1574:
1442:
1420:
1295:
1262:
1082:data, are needed.
1030:
966:
727:
643:
600:
552:
510:
500:Doppler ultrasound
437:
365:circulatory system
356:
288:
199:
131:
95:
66:
42:cardiac physiology
38:
7785:
7784:
7781:
7780:
7598:
7597:
7438:Action potential
7429:Conduction system
7375:Cardiac pacemaker
7347:Ejection fraction
7004:978-1-4160-2328-9
6993:Boron WF (2003).
6747:978-0-7216-5666-3
6718:978-0-19-507362-1
6693:978-0-8151-0901-3
6639:Betts JG (2013).
6559:978-1-61504-021-6
6546:Young DB (2010).
6520:978-1-58890-572-7
6507:Sircar S (2008).
6316:(9399): 1877–82.
6245:978-0-7817-6271-7
5427:Missing or empty
4842:. 25 March 2011.
3852:978-0-443-10281-3
3792:Betts JG (2013).
3642:
3633:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3611:
3603:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3568:
3549:
3544:
3540:
3528:
3522:
3514:
3501:
3485:
3393:
3351:
3334:
3220:
3125:ductus arteriosus
3117:fetal circulation
3105:
3104:
2906:The CO equation (
2892:
2742:
2461:
2460:
2431:
2342:
2244:Ejection fraction
2239:Ejection fraction
2231:
2230:
2182:Ejection fraction
2117:142 mL (± 21 mL)
2114:144 mL (± 23 mL)
1994:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1949:and decreasing CO
1917:
1916:
1876:and increasing CO
1786:Ejection fraction
1757:{\displaystyle A}
1730:
1445:{\displaystyle F}
1215:indocyanine green
998:
905:FloTrac/Vigileo (
512:This method uses
471:body surface area
461:
460:
434:
419:
404:
122:
92:
69:{\displaystyle Q}
52:), also known as
16:(Redirected from
7805:
7724:Vasoconstrictors
7701:Regulation of BP
7614:
7613:
7547:pulmonary artery
7520:Chamber pressure
7228:
7227:
7208:
7201:
7194:
7185:
7184:
7137:
7136:
7126:
7116:
7092:
7086:
7085:
7075:
7051:
7045:
7044:
7015:
7009:
7008:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6981:
6979:
6964:
6958:
6948:
6942:
6939:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6922:
6913:
6894:
6885:
6884:
6881:
6861:
6842:
6841:
6815:
6806:
6787:
6786:
6758:
6752:
6751:
6739:
6729:
6723:
6722:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6685:
6675:
6669:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6636:
6630:
6629:
6619:
6609:
6585:
6576:
6575:
6573:
6571:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6534:
6532:
6504:
6498:
6497:
6479:
6473:
6472:
6462:
6438:
6432:
6431:
6421:
6397:
6391:
6390:
6380:
6348:
6342:
6341:
6304:
6298:
6297:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6257:
6227:
6221:
6220:
6202:
6178:
6172:
6171:
6161:
6129:
6123:
6098:
6092:
6091:
6081:
6057:
6051:
6050:
6021:
6015:
6014:
5996:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5937:
5931:
5930:
5920:
5896:
5890:
5887:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5875:
5860:
5854:
5853:
5851:
5849:
5838:www.medis-de.com
5830:
5824:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5810:. Archived from
5804:
5798:
5797:
5787:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5682:Nursing Research
5677:
5671:
5670:
5633:
5627:
5626:
5616:
5592:
5586:
5585:
5575:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5495:
5471:
5465:
5464:
5436:
5430:
5425:
5423:
5415:
5411:
5405:
5404:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5343:
5319:
5313:
5312:
5302:
5278:
5272:
5271:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5218:
5208:
5184:
5178:
5177:
5148:
5142:
5141:
5105:
5099:
5098:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5002:
4978:
4969:
4968:
4940:
4934:
4933:
4923:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4888:
4882:
4876:. Archived from
4871:
4862:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4775:
4773:10.1002/bjs.5454
4751:
4745:
4744:
4734:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4693:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4625:
4619:
4618:
4600:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4559:
4542:(7113): 909–12.
4527:
4521:
4520:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4467:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4383:
4373:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4332:
4322:
4298:
4289:
4288:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4198:
4189:(Suppl 1): 343.
4174:
4168:
4167:
4149:
4147:10.1002/lt.21461
4125:
4119:
4118:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4054:
4045:
4044:
4007:
3998:
3997:
3987:
3963:
3954:
3953:
3939:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3884:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3789:
3661:
3659:
3658:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3593:
3592:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3569:
3567:g of haemoglobin
3566:
3564:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3486:
3483:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3385:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3332:
3292:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3278:
3254:
3253:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3218:
3160:Adolf Eugen Fick
3099:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3021:
3004:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2957:
2943:
2915:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2840:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2782:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2682:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2642:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2591:
2586:
2585:
2562:
2557:
2556:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2480:
2455:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2422:
2393:
2385:
2343:
2341:
2330:
2322:
2257:
2165:95 mL (± 14 mL)
2162:94 mL (± 15 mL)
2141:47 mL (± 10 mL)
2138:50 mL (± 14 mL)
2101:Right ventricle
2089:
2082:
2075:
2065:
2062:
1926:
1853:
1846:
1842:Cardiac response
1763:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1709:
1704:
1691:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1643:
1638:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1558:
1557:
1541:
1536:
1497:
1496:
1480:
1475:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1401:
1400:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1182:pulmonary artery
1039:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1029:
996:
975:
973:
972:
967:
947:
894:lithium chloride
883:
848:
717:Transoesophageal
680:Echocardiography
675:Echocardiography
652:
650:
649:
644:
642:
641:
609:
607:
606:
601:
561:
559:
558:
553:
455:
446:
444:
443:
438:
436:
435:
433:
421:
420:
418:
406:
405:
403:
386:
297:
295:
294:
289:
281:
280:
259:
258:
208:
206:
205:
200:
140:
138:
137:
132:
130:
129:
124:
123:
115:
104:
102:
101:
96:
94:
93:
85:
75:
73:
72:
67:
21:
7813:
7812:
7808:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7802:
7788:
7787:
7786:
7777:
7695:
7645:
7607:
7604:Vascular system
7594:
7578:
7515:
7417:
7402:(Contractility)
7361:
7313:
7304:Wiggers diagram
7217:
7212:
7179:Wayback Machine
7157:Wayback Machine
7146:
7141:
7140:
7093:
7089:
7052:
7048:
7027:(22): 2928–32.
7016:
7012:
7005:
6991:
6987:
6977:
6975:
6966:
6965:
6961:
6949:
6945:
6940:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6923:
6916:
6895:
6888:
6882:
6862:
6845:
6824:(23): 2879–88.
6813:
6807:
6790:
6759:
6755:
6748:
6730:
6726:
6719:
6705:
6701:
6694:
6676:
6672:
6662:
6660:
6653:
6637:
6633:
6586:
6579:
6569:
6567:
6560:
6544:
6540:
6530:
6528:
6521:
6505:
6501:
6494:
6480:
6476:
6453:(21): 1940–65.
6439:
6435:
6398:
6394:
6349:
6345:
6305:
6301:
6269:
6265:
6255:
6253:
6246:
6228:
6224:
6179:
6175:
6130:
6126:
6120:Wayback Machine
6109:Wayback Machine
6099:
6095:
6058:
6054:
6033:(11): 3578–84.
6022:
6018:
5973:
5969:
5938:
5934:
5897:
5893:
5888:
5884:
5873:
5871:
5862:
5861:
5857:
5847:
5845:
5832:
5831:
5827:
5817:
5815:
5806:
5805:
5801:
5764:
5760:
5721:
5717:
5678:
5674:
5634:
5630:
5593:
5589:
5544:
5540:
5519:(10): 1042–50.
5509:
5505:
5472:
5468:
5438:
5428:
5426:
5417:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5369:
5365:
5320:
5316:
5279:
5275:
5236:
5232:
5206:10.1186/cc10273
5185:
5181:
5149:
5145:
5106:
5102:
5063:
5059:
5028:
5024:
4979:
4972:
4941:
4937:
4900:
4896:
4886:
4884:
4880:
4869:
4863:
4859:
4849:
4847:
4838:
4837:
4833:
4801:
4797:
4752:
4748:
4711:
4707:
4670:
4666:
4626:
4622:
4577:
4573:
4528:
4524:
4493:
4489:
4444:
4440:
4401:
4397:
4350:
4346:
4299:
4292:
4261:
4257:
4218:
4214:
4175:
4171:
4126:
4122:
4090:
4086:
4065:(13): 1693–94.
4055:
4048:
4019:(13): 1634–46.
4008:
4001:
3978:(13): 1625–33.
3964:
3957:
3916:
3912:
3902:
3900:
3885:
3881:
3870:
3868:
3853:
3829:
3825:
3815:
3813:
3806:
3790:
3749:
3744:
3717:
3668:
3649:
3648:
3639:
3635:
3630:
3600:
3596:
3588:
3576:
3575:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3511:
3507:
3498:
3494:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3466:
3424:
3417:
3386:
3381:
3380:
3371:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3314:
3305:
3274:
3270:
3249:
3245:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3189:
3179:
3178:
3148:
3142:
3137:
3113:
3073:
3051:
3050:
3046:
3028:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3000:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2939:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2879:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2836:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2818:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2778:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2681:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2638:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2587:
2572:
2571:
2558:
2543:
2542:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2478:
2466:
2434:
2433:
2423:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2331:
2323:
2321:
2314:
2305:
2304:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2241:
2236:
2104:Left ventricle
2093:
2061:
1999:
1980:Overall effect
1952:
1948:
1907:Overall effect
1879:
1875:
1844:
1788:
1774:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1639:
1634:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1553:
1549:
1537:
1526:
1492:
1488:
1476:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1396:
1392:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1250:
1246:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1211:
1162:
1150:
1118:
1095:
1064:
995:
981:
978:
977:
937:
926:
923:
922:
903:
844:
824:
782:
759:
719:
693:
677:
637:
633:
616:
613:
612:
568:
565:
564:
529:
526:
525:
502:
489:
432:
428:
417:
413:
402:
398:
393:
390:
389:
361:
308:
304:
276:
272:
251:
247:
245:
242:
241:
236:
232:
173:
170:
169:
125:
114:
113:
112:
110:
107:
106:
84:
83:
81:
78:
77:
61:
58:
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7811:
7801:
7800:
7783:
7782:
7779:
7778:
7776:
7775:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7753:
7752:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7734:Autoregulation
7731:
7726:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7705:
7703:
7697:
7696:
7694:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7672:
7671:
7666:
7659:Pulse pressure
7655:
7653:
7651:Blood pressure
7647:
7646:
7644:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7628:
7622:
7620:
7611:
7600:
7599:
7596:
7595:
7593:
7592:
7586:
7584:
7580:
7579:
7577:
7576:
7571:
7570:
7569:
7564:
7556:
7555:
7554:
7544:
7543:
7542:
7537:
7529:
7527:Central venous
7523:
7521:
7517:
7516:
7514:
7513:
7508:
7507:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7455:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7436:
7431:
7425:
7423:
7419:
7418:
7416:
7415:
7409:
7408:(Excitability)
7403:
7397:
7387:
7377:
7371:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7333:
7323:
7321:
7315:
7314:
7312:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7275:
7274:
7269:
7259:
7258:
7257:
7252:
7245:Cardiac output
7242:
7236:
7234:
7232:Cardiac output
7225:
7219:
7218:
7211:
7210:
7203:
7196:
7188:
7182:
7181:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7145:
7144:External links
7142:
7139:
7138:
7114:10.1186/cc9996
7087:
7046:
7010:
7003:
6985:
6959:
6943:
6934:
6914:
6886:
6843:
6788:
6753:
6746:
6724:
6717:
6699:
6692:
6670:
6652:978-1938168130
6651:
6631:
6607:10.1186/cc6975
6577:
6558:
6538:
6519:
6499:
6492:
6474:
6433:
6412:(5): 1154–62.
6392:
6363:(8): 1064–69.
6343:
6299:
6263:
6244:
6222:
6173:
6124:
6093:
6072:(6): 1628–32.
6052:
6016:
5967:
5932:
5891:
5882:
5855:
5825:
5799:
5758:
5715:
5672:
5628:
5587:
5538:
5503:
5493:10.5617/jeb.51
5466:
5439:"OP 564–605".
5406:
5363:
5314:
5273:
5246:(8): 1834–41.
5230:
5179:
5143:
5100:
5057:
5022:
4970:
4951:(5): 2566–73.
4935:
4894:
4857:
4831:
4812:(6): 2201–06.
4795:
4766:(9): 1069–76.
4746:
4705:
4664:
4631:Anesthesiology
4620:
4571:
4522:
4487:
4438:
4395:
4344:
4290:
4255:
4228:(9): 1875–81.
4212:
4196:10.1186/cc4690
4169:
4140:(7): 1029–37.
4120:
4101:(4): 1524–31.
4084:
4046:
3999:
3955:
3930:(10): 341–48.
3910:
3879:
3851:
3823:
3805:978-1938168130
3804:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3716:
3713:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3646:
3638:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3607:
3599:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3563:
3553:
3535:
3531:
3525:
3518:
3510:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3481:
3480:
3464:
3422:
3415:
3406:
3405:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3355:
3344:
3337:
3331:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3294:
3293:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3224:
3214:
3199:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3187:
3176:
3174:
3146:Fick principle
3144:Main article:
3141:
3140:Fick principle
3138:
3136:
3133:
3112:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3093:
3091:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2712:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2658:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2598:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2485:
2482:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2449:
2447:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2329:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2214:Cardiac output
2210:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2084:
2077:
2069:
2060:
2059:Example values
2057:
2039:cardiomyopathy
1998:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1843:
1840:
1773:
1770:
1753:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1441:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1210:
1207:
1161:
1158:
1149:
1146:
1117:
1114:
1094:
1091:
1063:
1060:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
994:
991:
988:
985:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
946:
943:
940:
936:
933:
930:
902:
899:
843:
840:
836:femoral artery
823:
820:
781:
778:
762:Pulse pressure
758:
755:
743:thoracic aorta
718:
715:
692:
691:Transcutaneous
689:
676:
673:
668:
667:
664:
661:
654:
653:
640:
636:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
610:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
562:
551:
548:
545:
542:
539:
536:
533:
518:Doppler effect
501:
498:
488:
485:
459:
458:
449:
447:
431:
427:
424:
416:
412:
409:
401:
397:
360:
357:
306:
302:
299:
298:
287:
284:
279:
275:
271:
268:
265:
262:
257:
254:
250:
234:
230:
210:
209:
198:
195:
192:
189:
186:
183:
180:
177:
128:
121:
118:
91:
88:
65:
46:cardiac output
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7810:
7799:
7796:
7795:
7793:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7758:
7757:
7754:
7750:
7747:
7745:
7742:
7740:
7737:
7736:
7735:
7732:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7706:
7704:
7702:
7698:
7692:
7689:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7670:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7661:
7660:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7652:
7648:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7623:
7621:
7619:
7615:
7612:
7610:
7605:
7601:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7585:
7581:
7575:
7572:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7559:
7557:
7553:
7550:
7549:
7548:
7545:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7532:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7524:
7522:
7518:
7512:
7509:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7471:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7439:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7426:
7424:
7420:
7413:
7410:
7407:
7404:
7401:
7398:
7395:
7391:
7388:
7385:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7368:
7364:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7352:Cardiac index
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7322:
7320:
7316:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7264:
7263:
7262:Stroke volume
7260:
7256:
7255:Stroke volume
7253:
7251:
7248:
7247:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7240:Cardiac cycle
7238:
7237:
7235:
7233:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7209:
7204:
7202:
7197:
7195:
7190:
7189:
7186:
7180:
7176:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7154:
7151:
7148:
7147:
7134:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7106:
7102:
7101:Critical Care
7098:
7091:
7083:
7079:
7074:
7069:
7066:(4): 564–68.
7065:
7061:
7057:
7050:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7014:
7006:
7000:
6996:
6989:
6973:
6969:
6963:
6957:
6956:1-59196-046-0
6953:
6947:
6938:
6927:
6921:
6919:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6899:
6893:
6891:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6860:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6852:
6850:
6848:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6812:
6805:
6803:
6801:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6793:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6769:(3): 990–97.
6768:
6764:
6757:
6749:
6743:
6738:
6737:
6728:
6720:
6714:
6710:
6703:
6695:
6689:
6684:
6683:
6674:
6658:
6654:
6648:
6644:
6643:
6635:
6627:
6623:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6594:Critical Care
6591:
6584:
6582:
6565:
6561:
6555:
6551:
6550:
6542:
6526:
6522:
6516:
6512:
6511:
6503:
6495:
6493:9780538497909
6489:
6485:
6478:
6470:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6437:
6429:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6396:
6388:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6347:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6303:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6280:(2): 453–58.
6279:
6275:
6267:
6251:
6247:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6226:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6193:(3): 887–97.
6192:
6188:
6184:
6177:
6169:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6144:(4): 423–28.
6143:
6139:
6135:
6128:
6121:
6117:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6103:
6097:
6089:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6056:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6020:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5987:(6): 681–85.
5986:
5982:
5981:ASAIO Journal
5978:
5971:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5943:
5936:
5928:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5911:(1): 244–50.
5910:
5906:
5902:
5895:
5886:
5869:
5865:
5859:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5829:
5813:
5809:
5803:
5795:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5731:(3): 107–13.
5730:
5726:
5719:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5688:(4): 283–91.
5687:
5683:
5676:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5645:(3): 229–37.
5644:
5640:
5632:
5624:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5591:
5583:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5558:(3): 402–11.
5557:
5553:
5549:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5507:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5470:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5434:
5421:
5410:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5374:
5367:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5334:(3): 310–12.
5333:
5329:
5325:
5318:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5293:(2): 159–65.
5292:
5288:
5284:
5277:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5234:
5226:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5193:Critical Care
5190:
5183:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5160:(2): 424–28.
5159:
5155:
5147:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5116:(6): 352–60.
5115:
5111:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5073:(5): 523–27.
5072:
5068:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5038:(4): 709–11.
5037:
5033:
5026:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4993:(1): 107–13.
4992:
4988:
4984:
4977:
4975:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4931:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4914:(8): 760–68.
4913:
4909:
4905:
4898:
4879:
4875:
4868:
4861:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4799:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4750:
4742:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4725:(5): 634–42.
4724:
4720:
4716:
4709:
4701:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4637:(4): 820–26.
4636:
4632:
4624:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4591:(9): 845–49.
4590:
4586:
4582:
4575:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4526:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4503:(4): 423–29.
4502:
4498:
4491:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4458:(2): 142–44.
4457:
4453:
4449:
4442:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4411:(3): 881–86.
4410:
4406:
4399:
4391:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4348:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4295:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4259:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4183:Critical Care
4180:
4173:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4124:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4088:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4053:
4051:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4006:
4004:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3960:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3924:BJA Education
3921:
3914:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3827:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3747:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3726:Venous return
3724:
3722:
3721:Arthur Guyton
3719:
3718:
3712:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3672:
3644:
3636:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3582:
3580:
3571:
3561:
3551:
3533:
3529:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3503:
3495:
3491:
3489:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3353:
3342:
3335:
3329:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3311:
3308:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3264:
3258:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3239:
3233:
3222:
3212:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3183:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3161:
3152:
3147:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3121:foramen ovale
3118:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3092:
3078:
3074:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3029:
3018:
3001:
2986:
2982:
2976:
2965:
2954:
2940:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2904:
2880:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2837:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2804:
2793:
2779:
2767:
2763:
2754:
2730:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2667:
2656:
2639:
2624:
2620:
2612:
2609:
2596:
2593:
2588:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2539:
2535:
2524:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2496:
2491:
2490:Cardiac index
2484:Cardiac index
2481:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2464:Cardiac input
2457:
2450:
2448:
2424:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2357:
2347:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2311:
2308:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2270:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2227:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2189:67% (± 4.6%)
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Stroke volume
2156:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2027:heart failure
2024:
2020:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1944:
1941:
1939:Sensitive to
1938:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1871:
1868:
1866:Sensitive to
1865:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1839:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1815:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1782:Stroke volume
1779:
1769:
1765:
1751:
1742:
1726:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1676:
1673:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1613:
1593:
1586:and, letting
1584:
1568:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1453:
1439:
1430:
1414:
1408:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1306:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1186:cardiac cycle
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1157:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1130:Haemodialysis
1127:
1122:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1048:
1043:
992:
989:
986:
983:
963:
960:
954:
951:
934:
931:
928:
920:
916:
912:
908:
898:
895:
890:
888:
884:
877:
873:
869:
863:
860:
856:
852:
839:
837:
833:
829:
819:
816:
810:
806:
803:
799:
795:
790:
787:
777:
775:
771:
767:
763:
754:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
723:
714:
711:
706:
702:
701:anthropometry
698:
688:
686:
685:stroke volume
681:
672:
665:
662:
659:
658:
657:
638:
634:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
611:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
563:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
524:
523:
522:
519:
515:
506:
497:
493:
484:
482:
481:
476:
475:Cardiac index
472:
468:
467:
457:
450:
448:
429:
425:
422:
414:
410:
407:
399:
395:
388:
387:
384:
382:
379:(SV) and the
378:
377:stroke volume
374:
370:
369:venous system
366:
354:, top curve).
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
328:
325:
323:
319:
314:
312:
311:heart failure
285:
282:
277:
273:
269:
266:
263:
260:
255:
252:
248:
240:
239:
238:
228:
224:
220:
214:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
181:
178:
175:
168:
167:
166:
164:
163:stroke volume
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
126:
119:
116:
89:
86:
63:
55:
51:
47:
43:
34:
30:
19:
18:Cardiac input
7766:Carotid body
7729:Vasodilators
7609:hemodynamics
7414:(Relaxation)
7406:Bathmotropic
7380:Chronotropic
7244:
7231:
7104:
7100:
7090:
7063:
7059:
7049:
7024:
7020:
7013:
6994:
6988:
6976:. Retrieved
6962:
6946:
6937:
6869:
6865:
6821:
6817:
6766:
6762:
6756:
6735:
6727:
6708:
6702:
6681:
6673:
6661:. Retrieved
6641:
6634:
6597:
6593:
6568:. Retrieved
6548:
6541:
6529:. Retrieved
6509:
6502:
6483:
6477:
6450:
6446:
6436:
6409:
6405:
6395:
6360:
6356:
6346:
6313:
6309:
6302:
6277:
6273:
6266:
6254:. Retrieved
6235:
6225:
6190:
6186:
6176:
6141:
6137:
6127:
6096:
6069:
6065:
6055:
6030:
6026:
6019:
5984:
5980:
5970:
5948:(1): 43–47.
5945:
5941:
5935:
5908:
5904:
5894:
5885:
5872:. Retrieved
5858:
5846:. Retrieved
5837:
5828:
5816:. Retrieved
5812:the original
5802:
5775:
5771:
5761:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5642:
5638:
5631:
5604:
5600:
5590:
5555:
5551:
5541:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5483:
5479:
5469:
5444:
5440:
5409:
5379:(1): 63–66.
5376:
5372:
5366:
5331:
5327:
5317:
5290:
5286:
5276:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5196:
5192:
5182:
5157:
5153:
5146:
5113:
5109:
5103:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5035:
5031:
5025:
4990:
4986:
4948:
4944:
4938:
4911:
4907:
4897:
4885:. Retrieved
4878:the original
4873:
4860:
4848:. Retrieved
4834:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4763:
4759:
4749:
4722:
4718:
4708:
4684:(1): 65–71.
4681:
4677:
4667:
4634:
4630:
4623:
4588:
4584:
4574:
4539:
4535:
4525:
4500:
4496:
4490:
4455:
4451:
4441:
4408:
4404:
4398:
4361:
4357:
4347:
4310:
4306:
4268:
4264:
4258:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4186:
4182:
4172:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4062:
4058:
4016:
4012:
3975:
3971:
3927:
3923:
3913:
3901:. Retrieved
3892:
3882:
3869:. Retrieved
3833:
3826:
3814:. Retrieved
3794:
3708:
3705:
3700:
3693:
3689:
3677:
3451:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3432:
3420:
3413:
3409:
3407:
3318:
3309:
3300:
3295:
3200:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3114:
3106:
3095:
2907:
2905:
2755:
2613:
2610:
2497:
2493:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2451:
2242:
2213:
2052:
2046:
2034:
2030:
2029:. Increased
2023:hypertension
2018:
2016:
2002:
2000:
1945:Increasing O
1872:Decreasing O
1820:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1789:
1766:
1743:
1677:
1674:
1614:
1585:
1454:
1431:
1307:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1202:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1167:
1163:
1151:
1142:
1138:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1096:
1087:
1084:
1071:
1067:
1065:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1041:
914:
910:
904:
891:
886:
875:
871:
867:
864:
858:
854:
845:
825:
811:
807:
791:
783:
773:
769:
765:
760:
750:
728:
709:
704:
694:
678:
669:
655:
511:
494:
490:
478:
464:
462:
451:
372:
362:
339:
326:
318:hemodynamics
315:
300:
223:Body tissues
215:
211:
54:heart output
53:
49:
45:
39:
29:
7771:Glomus cell
7761:Aortic body
7756:Paraganglia
7567:ventricular
7540:ventricular
7489:QT interval
7484:QRS complex
7479:PR interval
7452:ventricular
7390:Dromotropic
6978:14 December
6910:Tachycardia
6906:Bradycardia
6902:tachycardia
6898:bradycardia
6872:: 417–426.
6256:23 February
6122:Ithaca, NY)
5818:30 November
5607:(1): 5–16.
5199:(3): R148.
4908:Anaesthesia
4850:23 February
4585:Anaesthesia
3871:23 February
3500:haemoglobin
3443:inert gases
2186:66% (± 6%)
1827:innervation
1109:continues.
487:Measurement
352:transfusion
340:consequence
7709:Baroreflex
7626:Compliance
7618:Blood flow
7494:ST segment
7422:Conduction
7412:Lusitropic
7384:Heart rate
7367:Heart rate
7319:Ultrasound
7250:Heart rate
7107:(2): 214.
6904:. See the
6600:(4): 174.
5429:|url=
4887:13 October
3861:1023146175
3742:References
3696:Thermistor
3454:hæmoglobin
3182:spirometer
2488:See also:
2195:Heart rate
2043:dilatation
1819:Equation (
1778:Heart rate
1776:See also:
1170:precession
815:Windkessel
514:ultrasound
381:heart rate
359:Definition
348:hemorrhage
159:heart rate
7669:Diastolic
7641:Perfusion
7400:Inotropic
7279:Afterload
6663:11 August
6274:Radiology
5880:TEBCO OEM
5373:Perfusion
3946:2058-5349
3816:11 August
3625:×
3583:×
3524:×
3378:−
3268:×
3259:−
3243:×
3041:×
2594:×
2565:×
2428:%
2414:×
2402:×
2374:×
2351:%
2345:×
2293:−
1831:endocrine
1698:∫
1632:∫
1600:∞
1597:→
1566:Δ
1524:∑
1508:Δ
1463:∑
1412:Δ
1255:−
990:⋅
964:χ
961:⋅
828:manometer
631:π
589:×
544:×
483:) below.
423:×
383:(HR) as:
346:(e.g. in
334:Trend of
270:×
219:perfusion
191:×
155:ventricle
141:, is the
120:˙
90:˙
7792:Category
7664:Systolic
7442:cardiac
7175:Archived
7153:Archived
7133:21457508
7082:15675218
6972:Archived
6838:17088316
6783:12226045
6657:Archived
6626:18771592
6570:13 March
6564:Archived
6531:13 March
6525:Archived
6469:15522474
6428:17467423
6387:16020598
6338:25380774
6330:14667742
6294:10228528
6250:Archived
6217:15891210
6209:19224798
6168:18496416
6116:Archived
6105:Archived
6102:COstatus
6088:17400567
6047:18511608
6003:16340350
5962:14694369
5868:Archived
5842:Archived
5794:15752931
5753:31094943
5745:16914102
5710:28726590
5702:16849981
5667:28996732
5659:15096956
5623:20042450
5582:19249408
5533:21070132
5498:Archived
5486:: 2–17.
5461:30752685
5420:cite web
5401:32129645
5393:17633137
5358:25815656
5350:18446106
5309:15894561
5268:12100251
5260:12163802
5225:21676229
5174:22410034
5138:12806349
5130:19736180
5095:31049402
5087:16293062
5052:20673749
5009:17578965
4930:17635422
4844:Archived
4826:22014804
4790:25469534
4782:16888706
4741:16155038
4700:11881887
4659:10471164
4651:12357146
4615:43755776
4607:12190747
4482:25371483
4474:19441163
4433:35618846
4425:19224797
4390:22191019
4339:22649718
4285:19095116
4250:24949904
4242:20562697
4164:37185399
4156:18581505
4115:22575631
4079:16204671
4041:25937172
4033:16204663
3994:16204662
3950:Archived
3897:Archived
3865:Archived
3810:Archived
3715:See also
3191:absorber
2597:0.007184
2252:diastole
2226:L/minute
2224:4.0–8.0
2220:L/minute
2218:4.0–8.0
2098:Measure
1080:in vitro
822:Invasive
516:and the
469:) using
7284:Preload
7124:3219410
7041:2232089
6617:2575587
6378:1769055
6159:2574659
6011:1897392
5927:7564085
5573:3058607
5216:3219022
5017:5549744
4965:8335593
4566:9361539
4557:2127619
4517:7535996
4381:3235433
4364:: 1–5.
4330:3357512
4313:: 1–9.
4206:4092718
3903:7 April
3602:percent
3163:blood.
2248:systole
2205:60–100
2199:60–100
1958:Target
1885:Target
1836:preload
1180:or the
1076:in vivo
796:at the
656:where:
344:preload
145:of the
7574:Aortic
7562:atrial
7535:atrial
7531:Right
7504:U wave
7499:T wave
7474:P wave
7447:atrial
7131:
7121:
7080:
7039:
7001:
6954:
6836:
6781:
6744:
6715:
6690:
6649:
6624:
6614:
6556:
6517:
6490:
6467:
6426:
6385:
6375:
6336:
6328:
6310:Lancet
6292:
6242:
6215:
6207:
6166:
6156:
6086:
6045:
6009:
6001:
5960:
5925:
5874:22 May
5848:1 June
5792:
5751:
5743:
5708:
5700:
5665:
5657:
5621:
5580:
5570:
5531:
5459:
5399:
5391:
5356:
5348:
5307:
5266:
5258:
5223:
5213:
5172:
5136:
5128:
5093:
5085:
5050:
5015:
5007:
4963:
4928:
4824:
4788:
4780:
4739:
4698:
4657:
4649:
4613:
4605:
4564:
4554:
4515:
4480:
4472:
4431:
4423:
4388:
4378:
4337:
4327:
4283:
4248:
4240:
4203:
4162:
4154:
4113:
4077:
4039:
4031:
3992:
3944:
3859:
3849:
3802:
3628:
3622:
3619:0.0032
3616:
3610:
3594:
3586:
3543:
3527:
3521:
3333:
3296:where
2472:(IF).
1784:, and
1432:where
997:
976:, or,
832:radial
802:velcro
7636:Pulse
7583:Other
7558:Left
7552:wedge
7223:Heart
6929:(PDF)
6814:(PDF)
6763:Chest
6357:Heart
6334:S2CID
6213:S2CID
6007:S2CID
5749:S2CID
5706:S2CID
5663:S2CID
5457:S2CID
5397:S2CID
5354:S2CID
5264:S2CID
5134:S2CID
5091:S2CID
5013:S2CID
4881:(PDF)
4870:(PDF)
4786:S2CID
4655:S2CID
4611:S2CID
4478:S2CID
4429:S2CID
4246:S2CID
4160:S2CID
4037:S2CID
2589:0.725
2560:0.425
2001:When
1829:plus
1178:aorta
1174:pixel
847:PiCCO
338:as a
151:blood
147:heart
105:, or
7129:PMID
7078:PMID
7037:PMID
7021:JAMA
6999:ISBN
6980:2018
6952:ISBN
6908:and
6900:and
6834:PMID
6779:PMID
6742:ISBN
6713:ISBN
6688:ISBN
6665:2014
6647:ISBN
6622:PMID
6572:2016
6554:ISBN
6533:2016
6515:ISBN
6488:ISBN
6465:PMID
6424:PMID
6383:PMID
6326:PMID
6290:PMID
6258:2022
6240:ISBN
6205:PMID
6164:PMID
6084:PMID
6043:PMID
5999:PMID
5958:PMID
5923:PMID
5876:2015
5850:2015
5820:2010
5790:PMID
5741:PMID
5698:PMID
5655:PMID
5619:PMID
5578:PMID
5529:PMID
5433:help
5389:PMID
5346:PMID
5305:PMID
5256:PMID
5221:PMID
5170:PMID
5126:PMID
5083:PMID
5048:PMID
5005:PMID
4961:PMID
4926:PMID
4889:2014
4852:2022
4822:PMID
4778:PMID
4737:PMID
4696:PMID
4647:PMID
4603:PMID
4562:PMID
4513:PMID
4470:PMID
4421:PMID
4386:PMID
4362:2012
4335:PMID
4311:2012
4281:PMID
4238:PMID
4152:PMID
4111:PMID
4075:PMID
4059:JAMA
4029:PMID
4013:JAMA
3990:PMID
3972:JAMA
3942:ISSN
3905:2020
3873:2022
3857:OCLC
3847:ISBN
3818:2014
3800:ISBN
3641:torr
3530:1.34
3513:g/dL
3459:gram
3123:and
3079:1000
2088:edit
2081:talk
2074:view
2025:and
1305:is:
1128:and
1126:ECMO
882:GEDV
747:NICE
7329:= (
7119:PMC
7109:doi
7068:doi
7029:doi
7025:264
6874:doi
6826:doi
6771:doi
6767:122
6612:PMC
6602:doi
6455:doi
6414:doi
6410:133
6373:PMC
6365:doi
6318:doi
6314:362
6282:doi
6278:211
6195:doi
6191:108
6154:PMC
6146:doi
6074:doi
6035:doi
5989:doi
5950:doi
5913:doi
5780:doi
5733:doi
5690:doi
5647:doi
5609:doi
5568:PMC
5560:doi
5556:157
5521:doi
5488:doi
5449:doi
5437:in
5381:doi
5336:doi
5295:doi
5248:doi
5211:PMC
5201:doi
5162:doi
5118:doi
5075:doi
5040:doi
4995:doi
4991:105
4953:doi
4916:doi
4814:doi
4810:186
4768:doi
4727:doi
4686:doi
4639:doi
4593:doi
4552:PMC
4544:doi
4540:315
4536:BMJ
4505:doi
4501:130
4460:doi
4413:doi
4409:108
4376:PMC
4366:doi
4325:PMC
4315:doi
4273:doi
4269:196
4230:doi
4201:PMC
4191:doi
4142:doi
4103:doi
4099:167
4067:doi
4063:294
4021:doi
4017:294
3980:doi
3976:294
3932:doi
3839:doi
3412:. (
2425:100
2348:100
2207:bpm
2201:bpm
1272:to
1078:or
834:or
40:In
7794::
7127:.
7117:.
7105:15
7103:.
7099:.
7076:.
7064:32
7062:.
7058:.
7035:.
7023:.
6917:^
6889:^
6868:.
6846:^
6832:.
6822:27
6820:.
6816:.
6791:^
6777:.
6765:.
6655:.
6620:.
6610:.
6598:12
6596:.
6592:.
6580:^
6562:.
6523:.
6463:.
6451:25
6449:.
6445:.
6422:.
6408:.
6404:.
6381:.
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