Byzantine economy - Knowledge

274:

conditions were safe again. There was in principle a clear distinction between tenants who lived on the estates (and owed dues to the master of the place), and the village inhabitants, many of whom owned land, and consequently paid taxes to the state. Nevertheless, not all the cultivators on the estate lived there, and not all enjoyed a special status. Some of them were slaves and some were wage laborers; references to wage laborers occur continuously from the 7th century to the end of the Byzantine period. In the same way, the inhabitants of a village would not all be landholders, and of these, not all would be farmers; some village proprietors held the lowest rank of aristocrat status, and were wealthier than tenant farmers. The distinction between landholder and tenant farmer (

1478: 241: 871:) when he fled Constantinople. The presence of the crusading army not only culminated in a violent sack that dispersed and destroyed the accumulated wealth, and culture of centuries, but was accompanied by a series of fires that ravaged the northern and central sections of the city resulting in a steady exodus of the city's residents to the Greek centers of government in exile. The sack of Constantinople by Latin crusaders in 1204 was an economic catastrophe. Due to the financial crisis, the state could only pay 100,000 silver marks (65,000 pounds of pure silver) out of 200,000 silver marks (equivalent to 800,000 41: 1286: 1240: 831: 1355: 548:) whilst the smaller towns were subject to grain, wine and even biscuit requisitions by Imperial officers. Even though the soldiers' pay was minimal, large armies were a considerable strain on Byzantium. As gold coins were spent on soldiers to serve in the army, these would in time spend their money acquiring their own goods and much revenue would return to the state in the form of taxation. As a result, the Byzantine economy was self-sufficient, allowing it to thrive in the 914:. Constantinople became once more, as in the seventh and eighth centuries, a ruralized network of scattered nuclei; in the final decades before the fall, the population numbered 70,000 people. Gradually, the state also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins. By 1303, the empire's annual revenue dropped to less than 1,800,000 19: 5419: 1555:

the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins. Late Byzantine officials supposed to implement a regulatory policy used the state prerogatives placed into their hands to pursue their private businesses. Private commercial activity was also affected by the crises in foreign policy, and the internal erosion of Byzantium.

1436: 1511:. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt, and they also appear in Bulgaria and the West. The empire had also trading activity through Venice (as long as the latter was part of the empire): salt, wood, iron, and slaves, as well luxury products from the East, were the products exchanged. In 992, Basil II concluded a treaty with 362:

may have had: the Byzantine state could not function as a unifying force, and, in the 13th century, there was very little to replace it. The 13th century is the last period, during which one may speak of significant land clearance, that is, the act of bringing previously uncultivated land into cultivation. But the progressive impoverishment of the peasantry, entailed the decline of a certain

1267:. For this reason, the empire strictly controlled both the internal circulation of commodities, and the international trade (certainly in intent; to a considerable degree also in practice). Additionally, the state often collected part of the surplus in the form of tax, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials of the 1503:

Trade in slaves is attested, both on behalf of the state, and, possibly, by private individuals. International trade was practiced not only in Constantinople, which was until the late 12th century an important center of the eastern luxury trade, but also in other cities that functioned as centers of inter-regional and international trade, such as

299:

of a larger population was also amplified by the demand from a growing number of people who did not produce much or at all. Indeed, it is estimated that areas under cultivation must have almost doubled, and that the extension of crops might have affected a shift in the location of grazing lands, and pushed back the woodlands.

997:

signed an unfavorable peace treaty with the Ottoman Turks, whereby the Byzantine Empire was forced to pay 300,000 silver coins to the Sultan on annual basis. In 1453, the economy of the Genoan quarter in Constantinople had a revenue 7 times greater than that of the whole Empire — not even a shadow of

850:

After the demise of the Komnenoi, the Byzantine economy declined under the impact of several factors: the dismemberment of the Empire after 1204, the successive territorial losses to the Turks (although the strong economic interaction of Byzantine territories with those lost by the Empire continued),

377:

is established by modern research. The upper levels of the aristocracy lost their fortunes, and eventually there was a concentration of property on the hands of the larger, and more privileged monasteries, at least in Macedonia. The monasteries did not show great versatility or innovative spirit, and

298:

of 541/542 and its recurrences until 747) seem to have had greater effects on population volume than wars. From the 9th century on, the population of the empire increased, but it was unevenly distributed. A growing population would imply an increase in the area under cultivation. The automatic effect

269:

concentrated on stock raising) were relatively well-favored, and appear to have played an important role in the development of the Byzantine economy. The peasantry's tools changed little through the ages, and remained rudimentary, which resulted in a low ratio of productivity to labor. Nevertheless,

1554:

tried to revive the economy, and re-establish traditional forms of political supervision, and guidance of the economy. It was, however, apparent that the late Byzantine state was unable to gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. Gradually, the state lost its influence on

1546:

The Fourth Crusade and the Venetian domination of trade in the area created new conditions. In 1261, the Genoese were given generous customs privileges, and six years later the Venetians regained their original quarter in Constantinople. The two northern Italian trading powers created the conditions

1502:

The other commodities that were traded, in Constantinople and elsewhere, were numerous: oil, wine, salt, fish, meat, vegetables, other alimentary products, timber and wax. Ceramics, linen, and woven cloth were also items of trade. Luxury items, such as silks, perfumes and spices were also important.

1498:

the manufacturing and sale of silk had become an imperial monopoly, only processed in imperial factories, and sold to authorized buyers. The raw silk merchants could buy the raw silk from outside Constantinople but did not themselves have the authority to travel outside the city to get it — possibly

1314:

and Constantine, and were still in existence at the beginning of the 7th century. During Byzantine history, supervision of the mints belonged to the Emperor; thus the government controlled, to a certain degree, the money supply. Nevertheless, the Emperor and his government were not always capable of

1301:

Coinage was the basic form of money in Byzantium, although credit existed: archival documents indicate that both banking and bankers were not as primitive as has sometimes been implied. The Byzantine Empire was capable of making a durable monetary system function for more than a thousand years, from

1473:

harmed the Byzantium's trade, and affected the provisioning of the capital with grain. As the population increased in the 9th and 10th centuries, the demand for grain also increased. There was a functioning market for grain in Constantinople, but it was not entirely self-regulating: the state could

361:

The conquest of the empire by the Crusaders in 1204, and the subsequent division of the Byzantine territories affected the agrarian economy as it did other aspects of economic organization, and economic life. These territories split among small Greek and Latin states, lost much of the cohesion they

1340:

of good weight." Weight and fineness of the coinage were joined by another element: the authenticity of the stamp, which served to guarantee the other two. Alongside this "real"-value gold coinage, and a slightly overvalued silver coinage, there was also a bronze coinage of a fiduciary nature that

1493:

Silk was used by the state both as a means of payment, and of diplomacy. Raw silk was bought from China and made up into fine brocades and cloth-of-gold that commanded high prices through the world. Later, silk worms were smuggled into the empire and the overland silk trade became less important.

286:

achieved owner status. From the 10th century on, large estates assumed the leading role that had been held until then by villages, albeit in an economy that was henceforth orientated toward demand, with monetary exchanges taking a larger share. By the beginning of the 14th century, the Macedonian

201:'s reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury, and the travelers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital. All this changed with the arrival of the 782:

in 1157, Manuel gave her a dowry of 100,000 gold coins, 10,000 gold coins for marriage expenses, and presents (jewels and silk garments) which were worth 14,000 gold coins total. The expense of Manuel's involvement in Italy must have cost the treasury a great deal (probably more than 2,160,000

440:

for the imperial treasury. Warren Treadgold estimates that during the period from Diocletian to Marcian, the Eastern Empire's population and agriculture declined a bit, but not much. Actually, the few preserved figures show that the largest eastern cities grew somewhat between the 3rd and 5th

273:

From the 7th to the 12th century, the social organization of production was arranged round two poles: estate and village (a collection of free smallholders). The village social structure was the organizational form best adapted to insecure conditions, with the estate fulfilling this role once

1416:

soon penetrated the monetary circulation in Byzantium. This situation stands in contrast with the monopoly that Byzantine currency had enjoyed until the 12th century, within its own frontiers, and through its diffusion in the lands beyond — a measure of its political and economic influence.

2643:

there were only four mints in the empire, but Justinian's reconquests resulted in a significant increase in their number. As a result of an administrative reorganization and of the loss of much of the empire's territories, their number was again greatly reduced during the 7th century. See

1341:

made up the second specific feature of the monetary system. At the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries, money underwent a profound transformation, followed by a crisis; the denomination affected all metals at different dates, and according to different modalities. The reform of

1259:, and had the power to intervene in other important sectors of the economy. It exercised formal control over interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations in Constantinople, in which the state has a special interest (e.g. the sale of 543:

peninsula served to meet the military's constant demands. Since Byzantium was in a constant state of warfare with her neighbours (even if only by raiding) the military required weapons to be manufactured by the bigger cities (such as

1009:

The exact amount of annual income the Byzantine government received, is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates.

3194: 287:

countryside was made up of an almost unbroken network of estates that had replaced the former network of communes. Villages that are known to have possessed commune status in the 10th century became estates of the

1306:

to 1453, because of its relative flexibility. Money was both product and instrument of a complex and developed financial and fiscal organization that contributed to the economic integration of its territory.

1263:) or whose members exercised a profession that was of importance for trade. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital and to keep down the price of 3307: 3271: 3245: 3213: 3184: 3158: 3132: 378:

the rural economy had to wait, for its recovery, until the effects of epidemics had been reversed, security had been established, and communications restored: that is, until the firm establishment of the

827:) would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171. By the end of Manuel I's reign the amount of money used to maintain the Komnenian imperial family is said to be able to maintain an army of 100,000 men. 539:. From the 8th century onward the Empire's economy improved dramatically. This was a blessing for Byzantium in more than one way; the economy, the administration of gold coinage and the farming of the 3223: 3168: 1583:). This corresponds to a range of $ 1586 to $ 1796 in today's dollars. The Byzantine population size at the time is estimated to have been between 12 and 18 million. This would yield a total 766:

in 1180. When Manuel became emperor he ordered 2 gold coins to be given to every householder in Constantinople and 200 pounds of gold (including 200 silver coins annually) to be given to the

3588: 902:

strove to restore the capital's greatness, but the resources of the empire were inadequate. In 1282, Michael VIII was forced to drain the treasury to pay the enormous bribe of 60,000

261:, though certainly slow, was continuous from the 8th to the beginning of the 14th century. Areas close to the sea featuring cereal crops, vines, and olive groves (the interior of the 1531:

in times of war. During the 11th and 12th centuries Italian trade in the empire took place under privileged conditions, incorporated in treaties and privileges that were granted to

1455:

was an important port in the eastern trade. The exact routes varied over the years with wars and the political situation. Imports and exports were uniformly taxed at ten percent.

3317: 859:

became Emperor in 1185, a mob broke into the palace and carried off 1,200 pounds of gold, 3,000 pounds of silver, and 20,000 pounds of bronze coins. In 1195, Holy Roman Emperor

197:

had the most powerful economy in the world. The Arab conquests, however, would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of decline and stagnation.

4298: 1400:. By the end of the 12th century, especially from 1204 on, the political fragmentation of the empire resulted in the creation of coinages that were either "national" (e.g. in 3281: 212:

One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing

441:

centuries. By Marcian's reign the Eastern Empire's difficulties seem to have been easing, and the population had probably begun growing for the first time in centuries.

3142: 898:

By the time the Palaiologoi took power, Italian merchants had come to dominate the trade by sea whilst Turkic incursions prevented any success from trade across roads.

460:'s reign, the Emperor had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 from Anastasius I and Justin I. Before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 3255: 5503: 690:'s reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. The travelers who visited its capital were impressed by the wealth accumulated in 476:), as well as his wars of reconquest in Italy and North Africa, all of which greatly strained the royal treasury. In addition to these expenses, the rebuilding of 6088: 1482: 535:

reduced the territory of the Empire to a third in the 7th century and the economy slumped; in 780 the Byzantine Empire's revenues were reduced to only 1,800,000

3311: 3275: 3249: 3217: 3188: 3162: 3136: 698:

was sent as an ambassador to the Byzantine capital in the 940s, he was overwhelmed by the imperial residence, the luxurious meals, and acrobatic entertainment.

4531: 3333: 1430: 464:, which further increased after his reconquests in 550. Nevertheless, Justinian I had little money left towards the end of his reign partly because of the 5957: 3511: 618:

to the Caliph. The Byzantine economic recovery in the early 9th century can be seen by the fact that Emperor Theophilos was able to leave 7,000,000

694:; riches that also served the state's diplomatic purposes as a means of propaganda, and a way to impress foreigners as well its own citizens. When 1615:

Roberts, Neil; Labuhn, Inga; Guzowski, Piotr; Izdebski, Adam; Chase, Arlen F.; Newfield, Timothy P.; Mordechai, Lee; Haldon, John (2018-03-27).

875:) to the Crusaders in 1204. The official tally of plunder from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks, the equivalent of about 3,600,000 5925: 5407: 3761: 3662: 3481: 823:

annually. A Venetian embassy visited Constantinople in 1184 and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 pounds of gold (or 108,000

819:

in 1150. Under the Komnenian emperors, many exemptions of trade duties were given to the Italian traders, which meant the loss of about 50,000

6073: 5095: 3672: 3605: 1444: 867:

to pay him a tribute of 1,000 pounds of gold (originally 5,000 pounds of gold) and in 1204 Alexios III took 1,000 pounds of gold (or 72,000

6144: 3620: 3615: 807: 5940: 4696: 3682: 3657: 1451:

One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. Constantinople was located on important east-west and north-south trade routes.

209:

tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces.

168: 5972: 5885: 5458: 5047: 5030: 3687: 3667: 3044: 3020: 1990: 1934: 1547:

that allowed them to reach any point in Byzantium, and to put the entire economic region in the service of their commercial interests.

270:

according to certain scholars, the permanence of techniques, and tools are evidence of their successful adaptation to the environment.

6137: 6058: 4746: 4592: 4564: 4208: 4200: 3677: 3610: 509: 6230: 4942: 4303: 2022: 6149: 5619: 4791: 6204: 6194: 5997: 5900: 5271: 4796: 22: 1799:

Bryer, Anthony (1986). "Byzantine Agricultural Implements: The Evidence of Medieval Illustrations of Hesiod's Work and Days".

887:

exported their declining profits, along with choice relics and architecture spolia for their churches. In 1237, Latin Emperor

6154: 5699: 5195: 3955: 3948: 3504: 3099: 51: 739:

a ransom of 10,000,000 gold coins, but later reduced it to 1,500,000 gold coins with a further 360,000 gold coins annually.

373:, an erosion of the economic function of village by the role of the large estates, and a precipitous demographic decline in 4947: 4806: 4094: 3109:

Jakoby, David (2006). "The Economy of Late Byzantium - Some Considerations". In Elizabeth Jeffreys and F. K. Haarer (ed.).

771: 366:, and resulted in a concentration of resources in the hands of large landowners, who must have had considerable surpluses. 354:, but, even centuries later, neither the plough nor wheeled cart were widely in use, possibly because of the nature of the 369:

The demographic expansion came to an end in the course of the 14th century, during which a deterioration of the status of

6053: 5807: 5797: 3938: 1617:"History meets palaeoscience: Consilience and collaboration in studying past societal responses to environmental change" 5721: 5276: 4689: 137: 571:

annually. The expenditures of the period were quite large when compared to the annual revenues. Approximately 600,000

567:/7.2 tonnes of gold annually for the empire. Commerce during this period slumped, therefore only contributing 200,000 5377: 3943: 3456: 3437: 3418: 3399: 3118: 3080: 2995: 2971: 1413: 294:

The population was dense in the 6th century, but it diminished in the 7th and 8th centuries. Epidemics (such as the

6209: 6169: 6078: 5802: 5578: 4440: 3497: 1486: 3372: 6159: 6063: 6030: 5992: 5817: 5777: 5533: 5412: 5234: 3766: 3534: 310:

technologies in the West, but there is less evidence for similar Byzantine innovation. Western advances like the

161: 2982: 811:, a customs duty levied at Constantinople on all imports and exports, which was stated to have collected 20,000 318:

were not yet implemented for double-entry book-keeping. There are illustrations of agricultural implements from

6068: 5832: 5742: 5727: 5553: 5543: 5451: 5382: 5372: 5244: 5165: 4983: 4851: 4423: 4367: 4288: 4155: 843: 77: 6109: 6025: 5952: 5812: 5787: 5752: 5679: 5624: 5467: 5239: 5229: 5144: 4899: 4684: 640:

annually. The expenditures of the period were large, but manageable by the treasury. Approximately 1,400,000

4119: 636:

annually for the empire. Commerce during this period increased dramatically, therefore contributing 400,000

6184: 6002: 5977: 5967: 5890: 5837: 5792: 5782: 5772: 5732: 5689: 5649: 5629: 5603: 5513: 5498: 5313: 5281: 5185: 4894: 4866: 4674: 4213: 1477: 1390:

structures under the influence of western models. The system that began in 1367 was constructed around the

888: 860: 747: 1318:

Ever since the creation of the Byzantine monetary system by Constantine in 312, its pivot had been golden

815:

each day. This, combined with other sources of income, meant the empire's annual revenue was at 5,600,000

500:

gave away 7,200 pounds of gold each year for four years. The East Roman Empire's aristocratic language of

6132: 6127: 6083: 5935: 5930: 5920: 5910: 5905: 5895: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5847: 5704: 5669: 5659: 5588: 5573: 5568: 5558: 5548: 5518: 5488: 5037: 4679: 4526: 4283: 4034: 802: 622:/31.5 tonnes of gold in the imperial treasury for his successor in 842. After Theophilos' death his wife 480:

cost 20,000 pounds/9 tonnes of gold. Subsidies to enemy states were also paid by Justinian's successors:

614:

distributed 36,000 gold coins to the citizens of Baghdad, and in 838, he was forced to pay 100,000 gold

606:

to pay a ransom of 50,000 gold coins and a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold coins. In order to impress the

448:

used 3,700 pounds/1.66 tonnes of gold just for celebrating his own consulship. By the end of his reign,

412:

for the entire Roman Empire. These estimates can be compared to the AD 150 annual revenue of 14,500,000

6174: 6122: 6048: 5987: 5962: 5915: 5864: 5842: 5827: 5762: 5684: 5674: 5639: 5634: 5598: 5593: 5563: 5528: 5493: 5482: 5357: 5303: 5042: 4914: 4904: 4604: 4484: 4362: 4293: 4181: 4150: 3993: 3933: 3475: 1310:

The first features of the administrative organization of monetary production were first established by

549: 154: 193:

and North Africa. Some scholars argue that, up until the arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, the

6164: 6104: 6007: 5982: 5947: 5822: 5767: 5747: 5737: 5664: 5644: 5583: 5538: 5523: 5508: 5444: 5217: 4741: 4597: 4382: 4273: 4160: 919: 754:

was able to ransom some Latin prisoners from the Muslims for 100,000 dinars, then 150,000 dinars for

240: 5757: 5694: 5654: 4516: 4268: 3755: 3634: 899: 775: 6179: 5422: 4846: 4572: 4392: 4278: 2645: 1405: 767: 497: 319: 40: 759: 254:. The climate was opportune for farming. Even in marginal regions rural settlements flourished. 216:. Constantinople remained the single most important commercial centre of Europe for much of the 5347: 4937: 4779: 4223: 4029: 4003: 3998: 3771: 3747: 3743: 3710: 2640: 1244: 469: 449: 251: 67: 250:

From 4th to end of 6th century the eastern part of Roman Empire had demographic, economic and

5065: 4919: 4109: 4019: 3983: 3868: 3598: 3593: 1576: 1365: 994: 954: 591:

every year. All of these expenses meant that the Byzantine government had only about 100,000

580: 224:

slowly began to overtake Byzantine merchants in trade; first through tax exemption under the

3466:

Zakythinos, Dionysios (1945–1955). "The Character of the Economy". In Passas Ioannis (ed.).

1994: 552:. The success of the Byzantine army was in no small part due to the success of her economy. 5308: 5291: 5112: 4871: 4836: 4719: 4656: 4651: 4186: 4129: 3052: 3028: 1931: 1628: 779: 695: 611: 399: 122: 8: 4218: 4134: 4124: 3988: 3751: 3739: 3626: 1401: 978: 922:. In 1321, only with extreme effort was Andonikos II able to raise revenues to 1,000,000 907: 864: 732: 671:. However, under Basil I's prudent economic policies, the state quickly raised 4,300,000 644:

went to the payroll of the army annually while other military costs took another 800,000

575:

went to the payroll of the army annually while other military costs took another 600,000

532: 485: 465: 189:

was a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of

97: 2598: 2026: 1632: 1499:

in order not to jeopardize the activities of the provincial merchants selling the silk.

957:

attempted to rebuild the Byzantine navy, he was only able to raise an inadequate 50,000

656:

every year. All of these expenses meant that the Byzantine government had about 500,000

626:

continued his successful policies and even increased the imperial reserves to 7,848,000

5296: 5286: 5160: 4831: 4714: 4631: 4494: 3846: 3826: 3806: 3796: 3562: 3364: 3069: 1816: 1659: 1616: 1342: 1332:

became a highly priced and stable means of storing and transferring values Novel 16 of

1285: 970: 884: 835: 374: 221: 127: 72: 3298:(2006): "An Estimate of Average Income and Inequality in Byzantium around Year 1000", 1354: 1324:, a coinage whose nominal value was equal to its intrinsic value, as is proven by the 5418: 5352: 5257: 5190: 5170: 5138: 5070: 4978: 4973: 4724: 4489: 4339: 3858: 3811: 3801: 3791: 3452: 3433: 3414: 3395: 3368: 3356: 3114: 3095: 3076: 2991: 2967: 1820: 1664: 1646: 1512: 1280: 1256: 962: 911: 763: 751: 728: 607: 355: 335: 213: 142: 112: 87: 82: 1239: 830: 789:

or 30,000 pounds of gold). Then he also promised to pay 5,000 pounds of gold to the

5222: 5015: 4963: 4909: 4876: 4826: 4619: 4609: 4387: 4075: 3967: 3890: 3873: 3851: 3836: 3821: 3735: 3520: 3348: 3295: 1808: 1654: 1636: 1572: 856: 683: 473: 363: 295: 194: 32: 390:

The Eastern Roman economy suffered less from the Barbarian raids that plagued the

25:. Workers on the field (down) and pay time (up), Byzantine Gospel of 11th century. 5367: 5200: 5180: 5175: 5130: 5120: 5080: 5075: 5025: 5020: 4801: 4407: 4324: 4319: 4059: 4049: 3885: 3879: 3863: 3841: 3831: 3816: 3352: 1938: 1409: 1333: 1325: 892: 315: 307: 132: 102: 92: 5436: 1465:

were two of the most important commodities for the empire. The Arab invasion of

6189: 5205: 5085: 4818: 4577: 4471: 4457: 4256: 3960: 3715: 3241: 3128: 1564: 1528: 1426: 1383: 1319: 1268: 1113: 999: 974: 691: 505: 379: 327: 202: 186: 57: 1812: 993:

had so far been paid) for damage done to Venetian property. In February 1424,

6224: 6199: 5125: 5002: 4968: 4706: 4641: 4614: 4499: 4114: 4054: 3360: 1650: 1596: 1345:

put an end to this crisis by restoring a gold coinage of high fineness, the

1303: 930: 839: 705: 687: 198: 185:

was among the most robust economies in the Mediterranean for many centuries.

117: 62: 1641: 1271:, or in the form of investment in public works, buildings, or works of art. 4886: 4861: 4841: 4646: 4624: 4479: 3727: 3722: 3556: 2267:

A History of Greece: The Byzantine and Greek empires, pt. 2, A.D. 1057-1453

1668: 1504: 1396:, a heavy silver, equivalent to twice the weight of fine metal of the last 1351:, and by creating a new system destined to endure for about two centuries. 1294: 934: 880: 798: 755: 750:. The wealth of the empire under the Comnenians can be seen by how Emperor 701: 603: 560: 545: 477: 429: 391: 351: 229: 217: 3489: 1447:(in purple). Other trade routes of the 8th-11th centuries shown in orange. 5387: 5362: 4856: 4666: 4433: 4039: 4024: 1551: 1495: 1369: 1248: 664: 623: 457: 258: 206: 18: 4661: 4521: 4511: 4344: 4334: 4044: 1568: 1474:

play a role in the availability of grain, and the formation of prices.

1347: 1311: 797:. During his reign, Manuel bought a very rich jewel (for 62,000 silver 736: 727:

Nevertheless, the Byzantine economy went into a long decline until the

395: 266: 3092:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

1527:

in return for the Venetians agreeing to transport Byzantine troops to

724:(200,000 pounds/90 tonnes of gold) in the treasury for his successor. 5210: 5090: 4582: 4450: 4397: 4329: 3272:"Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries" 1440: 1392: 1378: 1360: 1203: 852: 785: 743: 493: 481: 3001: 805:. The main source of the state's wealth in the 12th century was the 4736: 4636: 4587: 4445: 4377: 4165: 3111:

Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies

1580: 1452: 1435: 1387: 713: 709: 632:

Around 850, the land and head taxes yielded an estimated 2,900,000

556: 540: 472:(Justinian spent large amounts of money in annual subsidies to the 445: 311: 225: 3246:"Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development" 3049:

Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades

3025:

Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades

3021:"Currency in the Isaurian, Amorian and Macedonian Ages (717-1092)" 682:

From the 10th century, however, until the end of the twelfth, the

424:'s reign, the annual revenue for the Eastern empire was 7,800,000 5102: 4988: 4929: 4428: 4402: 4080: 1508: 1264: 929:

The Byzantine economy had declined so much that by 1343, Empress

660:

in surplus revenue each year, much more than in the 8th century.

421: 262: 190: 1315:

conducting a monetary policy in the modern meaning of the term.

452:

had managed to collect for the treasury an amount of 23,000,000

291:, after which they might be ceded to a monastery or lay person. 4731: 4506: 4372: 1532: 1516: 1029: 982: 946: 937:

for 30,000 Venetian ducats, which was the equivalent of 60,000

716:'s death in 1025, the annual income had increased to 5,900,000 615: 599: 404: 343: 339: 323: 244: 1336:

punished with death anyone who dared "refuse or reduce a gold

842:

was plundered from Constantinople and placed on the façade of

675:, far more even than the empire's annual revenue of 3,300,000 648:

annually. Supporting the Byzantine bureaucracy needed 500,000

1614: 1536: 1470: 1466: 1458: 1033: 794: 595:

in surplus revenue each year for treaties, bribes, or gifts.

501: 433: 331: 2962:

Esler, Philip Francis (2000). "Constantine and the Empire".

1519:'s custom duties in Constantinople would be reduced from 30 801:) which was used during the coronation of the Latin Emperor 5010: 1540: 1462: 1260: 790: 720:, which allowed him to amass a large surplus of 14,400,000 347: 303: 288: 3334:"Sublime Diplomacy: Byzantine, Early Modern, Contemporary" 2558:

Writing the Economic History of Byzantium, 3; Zakythinos,

1587:

somewhere between $ 19 and $ 32 billion in today's terms.

941:. In 1348, Constantinople had an annual revenue of 30,000 1584: 731:

was able to revive the economy. In the aftermath of the

879:

or 50,000 pounds/22.5 tonnes of gold. The impoverished

851:

and the Italian expansion in the Mediterranean and the

3159:"The Agrarian Economy, Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries" 945:

while across the Golden Horn in the Genoese colony of

520:) would begin to also be known by its Greek name, the 504:

began to erode and give way to the native language of

456:

or 320,000 pounds/144 tonnes of gold. At the start of

314:

were adopted by the Byzantines, but, unlike the West,

1431:

Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire

1485:, a polychrome Byzantine silk, 9th century. Paris, 961:. The only success during this period was when the 652:. Also, imperial largess cost the treasury 100,000 587:. Also, imperial largess cost the treasury 100,000 3068: 977:in 1366, he was forced to pay a ransom of 180,000 5466: 3308:"Byzantine Money: Its Production and Circulation" 2254:The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople 6222: 1372:reads "Manuel in Christ God, faithful emperor." 444:The wealth of Constantinople can be seen by how 3465: 3133:"Exchange and Trade, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries" 2526: 2524: 2522: 2508: 2506: 2235: 2233: 2231: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1621:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3880:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 3214:"The Rural Economy, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries" 895:to a Venetian merchant for 13,134 gold coins. 385: 5452: 3505: 2092: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 1445:Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks 484:was forced to pay 80,000 silver coins to the 162: 3341:Millennium: Journal of International Studies 3313:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 3) 3277:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2) 3251:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2) 3219:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1) 3190:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1) 3164:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1) 3138:The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2) 2545:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2537: 2532:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2519: 2514:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2503: 2498:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2490: 2485:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2477: 2472:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2464: 2459:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2451: 2420:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2407:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2399: 2241:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2228: 2197:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2119:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2074:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 2066: 2061:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 1910:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 1897:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 1884:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 1869: 3519: 3185:"Writing the Economic History of Byzantium" 2388: 2386: 2320: 2318: 1255:The state retained the monopoly of issuing 735:, Alp Arslan at first suggested to Emperor 428:, thus allowing him to amass about 100,000 5459: 5445: 3512: 3498: 3480:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2008: 1801:The Annual of the British School at Athens 282:were considered hereditary, and once some 169: 155: 3392:Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium 3305: 3240: 2574:Writing the Economic History of Byzantium 2446:Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium 2259: 2100:Writing the Economic History of Byzantium 1658: 1640: 965:agreed to pay a war indemnity of 100,000 686:projected an image of wealth and luxury. 205:, which was an economic catastrophe. The 3269: 2980: 2762: 2412: 2383: 2326:A History of Byzantine State and Society 2315: 2189: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1476: 1434: 1353: 1284: 1238: 883:melted down statues for coin, while the 829: 602:army invaded the empire in 806, forcing 488:for peace; his wife Sophia paid 45,000 302:The 12th century saw the development of 239: 17: 4768: 3446: 3427: 3408: 3389: 3331: 3089: 2819: 2817: 2712: 2710: 2246: 2124: 2111: 1845: 1843: 1382:, a pure silver coinage modeled on the 667:the reserves dwindled to about 100,000 496:in return for a year's truce, and then 6223: 3211: 3108: 3066: 2869: 2550: 2053: 1602: 598:Expenses again soared, when a massive 23:Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard 5440: 5336: 4767: 4552: 4244: 3911: 3532: 3493: 3182: 3156: 3127: 2961: 2681: 2357: 2344: 2202: 1944: 1915: 1798: 1247:(491-518) regulating passage through 4553: 2899: 2886: 2856: 2843: 2830: 2814: 2801: 2788: 2775: 2749: 2736: 2723: 2707: 2655: 2620: 2592: 2425: 2298: 2215: 2163: 2150: 2137: 2079: 2040: 1983: 1840: 1827: 278:) was weakened once tenures held by 4255: 3051:. Tulane University. Archived from 3027:. Tulane University. Archived from 2920:Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money 2907:Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money 2633: 2579: 2438: 2394:Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money 2331: 2285: 2272: 2176: 1970: 1957: 1675: 746:sent 360,000 gold coins to Emperor 402:'s annual revenue was at 9,400,000 13: 3302:, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 449–470 2946:Income and Inequality in Byzantium 2933:Income and Inequality in Byzantium 1579:at its peak around 1000 (reign of 704:was paid 15,000 pounds of gold by 510:Roman-Persian Great War of 602-628 14: 6242: 5378:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 3332:Neumann, Iver. B. (August 2006). 2210:Crusades: The Illustrated History 949:, the annual revenue was 200,000 5504:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5417: 3316:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3280:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3254:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3222:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3193:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3167:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3141:. Dumbarton Oaks. Archived from 3042: 3018: 2339:Historical Atlas of The Crusades 1575:to range from $ 680 to $ 770 in 1376:In 1304 the introduction of the 39: 6231:Economy of the Byzantine Empire 3767:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 3589:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 3449:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 2938: 2925: 2912: 2694: 2668: 2607: 2566: 2433:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 2370: 2310:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 2293:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 2171:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 2145:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall 1902: 1889: 1856: 1792: 1779: 1234: 563:yielded an estimated 1,600,000 408:, out of a total of 18,000,000 4852:Great Palace of Constantinople 4593:Patriarchate of Constantinople 3912: 3310:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3274:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3270:Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2007). 3248:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3216:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3187:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3161:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 3135:. In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). 2048:Byzantium: The Early Centuries 1978:Byzantium: The Early Centuries 1952:Byzantium: The Early Centuries 1766: 1753: 1740: 1727: 1714: 1701: 1688: 1608: 1412:in 1228), colonial or feudal. 663:Unfortunately under their son 235: 1: 6145:Confederate States of America 5468:Economic histories by country 3447:Norwich, John Julius (1995). 3428:Norwich, John Julius (1998). 3409:Norwich, John Julius (1989). 2954: 2280:The Economy of Late Byzantium 1243:Law of the Byzantine Emperor 742:In exchange for an alliance, 416:and the AD 215 of 22,000,000 5314:University of Constantinople 4895:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 4245: 4045:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 3734:Byzantine successor states ( 3430:A Short History of Byzantium 3353:10.1177/03058298060340030201 2560:The Character of the Economy 2132:A Short History of Byzantium 1965:The Fall of the Roman Empire 758:in 1165, 120,000 dinars for 245:Constantinople apple quinces 7: 6205:Scotland in the Middle Ages 6074:Mongolian People's Republic 4984:Saint Catherine's Monastery 4040:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 4035:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 3533: 3300:Review of Income and Wealth 3183:Laiou, Angeliki E. (2007). 3157:Laiou, Angeliki E. (2007). 3094:. Oxford University Press. 1590: 1487:Musée National du Moyen Âge 1297:(4.42 g). Struck after 692. 1080:solidi/50.85 tonnes of gold 981:. In 1370, the empire owed 844:Saint Mark's Church, Venice 386:Economic and fiscal history 52:Aristocracy and bureaucracy 10: 6247: 6155:England in the Middle Ages 5373:Neo-Byzantine architecture 5337: 3994:Comes sacrarum largitionum 3306:Morrisson, Cécile (2007). 3113:. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 3071:Byzantium and the Crusades 3045:"Finances under Justinian" 2365:Byzantium and The Crusades 2352:Byzantium and The Crusades 2306:Byzantium and The Crusades 2223:Byzantium and The Crusades 2184:Byzantium and The Crusades 2158:Byzantium and The Crusades 1577:1990 International Dollars 1567:has been estimated by the 1424: 1386:marked the abandonment of 1278: 1274: 933:had to pawn the Byzantine 220:, which it held until the 6097: 6039: 6018: 5856: 5713: 5612: 5474: 5400: 5343: 5332: 5253: 5153: 5111: 5056: 5001: 4956: 4943:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 4928: 4885: 4817: 4787: 4778: 4774: 4763: 4705: 4563: 4559: 4548: 4470: 4416: 4355: 4312: 4264: 4251: 4240: 4199: 4174: 4143: 4102: 4093: 4068: 4012: 3976: 3929: 3922: 3918: 3907: 3780: 3696: 3643: 3574: 3545: 3541: 3528: 3468:Encyclopedia "The Helios" 3067:Harris, Jonathan (2003). 2981:Grierson, Philip (1999). 2964:The Early Christian World 2689:The Early Christian World 1813:10.1017/S0068245400020086 998:its former self. Emperor 920:Andronikos II Palaiologos 863:forced Byzantine Emperor 762:, and 150,000 dinars for 579:annually. Supporting the 4517:Droungarios of the Fleet 3470:. Vol. VII. Athens. 3212:Lefort, Jacques (2007). 3075:. Hambledon and London. 1932:Finances under Justinian 1420: 900:Michael VIII Palaiologos 470:Roman–Persian Wars 322:medieval manuscripts of 5031:Early Byzantine mosaics 4393:Domestic of the Schools 3390:Nicolle, David (2000). 3090:Heather, Peter (2007). 2646:List of Byzantine mints 2378:Medieval Constantinople 2087:Medieval Constantinople 1642:10.1073/pnas.1716912115 768:Eastern Orthodox Church 712:in 968. By the time of 498:Tiberius II Constantine 5886:Bosnia and Herzegovina 5348:Byzantine commonwealth 4110:Praetorian prefectures 4030:Logothetes tou genikou 4004:Quaestor sacri palatii 3999:Comes rerum privatarum 3772:Fall of Constantinople 3711:Sack of Constantinople 1558: 1490: 1448: 1443:trade routes, and the 1439:Map showing the major 1373: 1298: 1252: 1006:when he died in 1453. 969:in 1349. When Emperor 847: 252:agricultural expansion 247: 26: 6079:Serbia and Montenegro 6040:Former industrialized 5048:Komnenian renaissance 5043:Macedonian period art 4948:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 4920:Walls of Thessaloniki 4020:Logothetes tou dromou 3635:Twenty Years' Anarchy 3599:Valentinianic dynasty 3594:Constantinian dynasty 3394:. Osprey Publishing. 1483:Shroud of Charlemagne 1480: 1438: 1425:Further information: 1357: 1288: 1279:Further information: 1242: 995:Manuel II Palaiologos 989:(of which only 4,500 955:John VI Kantakouzenos 833: 581:Byzantine bureaucracy 436:of gold or 7,200,000 243: 21: 6098:Historical economies 5245:Units of measurement 4979:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 4872:Pammakaristos Church 4720:Corpus Juris Civilis 4671:Missionary activity 4130:Exarchate of Ravenna 3956:Imperial bureaucracy 2308:, 148-149; Norwich, 1864:The Agrarian Economy 1851:The Agrarian Economy 1835:The Agrarian Economy 760:Raynald of Châtillon 696:Liutprand of Cremona 508:starting during the 400:Eastern Roman Empire 392:Western Roman Empire 195:Eastern Roman Empire 5941:Republic of Ireland 5620:Antigua and Barbuda 4769:Culture and society 4632:Ecumenical councils 4135:Exarchate of Africa 4125:Quaestura exercitus 3989:Magister officiorum 3984:Praetorian prefects 3627:Byzantine Dark Ages 3411:A History of Venice 2881:A History of Venice 1633:2018PNAS..115.3210H 1603:Citations and notes 1002:owed Venice 17,163 908:Peter III of Aragon 865:Alexios III Angelos 733:Battle of Manzikert 533:Byzantine-Arab Wars 346:and some parts for 257:Development in the 5186:Flags and insignia 4832:Baths of Zeuxippus 4715:Codex Theodosianus 4605:Oriental Orthodoxy 3563:Later Roman Empire 3129:Laiou, Angeliki E. 2990:. Dumbarton Oaks. 2894:Exchange and Trade 2877:Exchange and Trade 2864:Exchange and Trade 2851:Exchange and Trade 2838:Exchange and Trade 2825:Exchange and Trade 2809:Exchange and Trade 1937:2008-03-09 at the 1515:by the terms that 1491: 1449: 1374: 1343:Alexios I Komnenos 1299: 1253: 971:John V Palaiologos 848: 248: 222:Republic of Venice 27: 6218: 6217: 6170:Habsburg monarchy 6138:Republic of China 5434: 5433: 5396: 5395: 5353:Byzantine studies 5328: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5139:Alexander Romance 4997: 4996: 4974:Nea Moni of Chios 4837:Blachernae Palace 4759: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4725:Code of Justinian 4573:Eastern Orthodoxy 4544: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4466: 4465: 4340:Scholae Palatinae 4236: 4235: 4232: 4231: 4201:Foreign relations 4195: 4194: 4089: 4088: 3903: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3702:(1204–1453) 3476:cite encyclopedia 3296:Milanovic, Branko 3101:978-0-19-532541-6 3043:Harl, Kenneth W. 3019:Harl, Kenneth W. 2984:Byzantine Coinage 2757:Byzantine Coinage 2650:Byzantine Coinage 2587:Byzantine Coinage 2106:Sublime Diplomacy 1787:The Rural Economy 1774:The Rural Economy 1761:The Rural Economy 1748:The Rural Economy 1735:The Rural Economy 1722:The Rural Economy 1709:The Rural Economy 1696:The Rural Economy 1683:The Rural Economy 1627:(13): 3210–3218. 1513:Pietro Orseolo II 1281:Byzantine coinage 1232: 1231: 963:Republic of Genoa 912:Kingdom of Sicily 770:. When his niece 764:Baldwin of Ibelin 729:Comnenian Dynasty 608:Caliph of Baghdad 228:, then under the 183:Byzantine economy 179: 178: 33:Byzantine culture 6238: 6160:Ethiopian Empire 6115:Byzantine Empire 6064:Empire of Brazil 5461: 5454: 5447: 5438: 5437: 5421: 5334: 5333: 5277:Imperial Library 5223:Byzantine Greeks 4964:Daphni Monastery 4915:Panagia Chalkeon 4910:Hagios Demetrios 4877:Prison of Anemas 4827:Basilica Cistern 4785: 4784: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4764: 4620:West Syriac Rite 4610:Alexandrian Rite 4561: 4560: 4554:Religion and law 4550: 4549: 4485:Maritime themata 4441:Palaiologan army 4294:Military manuals 4262: 4261: 4253: 4252: 4242: 4241: 4100: 4099: 4076:Megas logothetes 3927: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3909: 3908: 3782:By modern region 3703: 3650: 3649:(717–1204) 3581: 3543: 3542: 3530: 3529: 3521:Byzantine Empire 3514: 3507: 3500: 3491: 3490: 3485: 3479: 3471: 3462: 3443: 3424: 3405: 3386: 3384: 3383: 3377: 3371:. Archived from 3338: 3328: 3326: 3325: 3292: 3290: 3289: 3266: 3264: 3263: 3237: 3235: 3234: 3228: 3208: 3206: 3205: 3199: 3179: 3177: 3176: 3153: 3151: 3150: 3124: 3105: 3086: 3074: 3063: 3061: 3060: 3039: 3037: 3036: 3015: 3013: 3012: 3006: 3000:. Archived from 2989: 2977: 2949: 2942: 2936: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2910: 2903: 2897: 2890: 2884: 2879:, 726; Norwich, 2873: 2867: 2860: 2854: 2847: 2841: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2792: 2786: 2779: 2773: 2766: 2760: 2753: 2747: 2740: 2734: 2727: 2721: 2714: 2705: 2698: 2692: 2685: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2659: 2653: 2637: 2631: 2624: 2618: 2611: 2605: 2596: 2590: 2583: 2577: 2570: 2564: 2554: 2548: 2541: 2535: 2528: 2517: 2510: 2501: 2494: 2488: 2481: 2475: 2468: 2462: 2455: 2449: 2442: 2436: 2429: 2423: 2416: 2410: 2403: 2397: 2390: 2381: 2374: 2368: 2361: 2355: 2348: 2342: 2335: 2329: 2322: 2313: 2302: 2296: 2289: 2283: 2276: 2270: 2263: 2257: 2250: 2244: 2237: 2226: 2219: 2213: 2206: 2200: 2193: 2187: 2180: 2174: 2167: 2161: 2154: 2148: 2141: 2135: 2128: 2122: 2115: 2109: 2096: 2090: 2083: 2077: 2070: 2064: 2057: 2051: 2044: 2038: 2037: 2035: 2034: 2025:. Archived from 2019: 2006: 2005: 2003: 2002: 1993:. Archived from 1987: 1981: 1974: 1968: 1961: 1955: 1948: 1942: 1928: 1913: 1906: 1900: 1893: 1887: 1880: 1867: 1860: 1854: 1847: 1838: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1796: 1790: 1783: 1777: 1770: 1764: 1757: 1751: 1744: 1738: 1731: 1725: 1718: 1712: 1705: 1699: 1692: 1686: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1662: 1644: 1612: 1573:Branko Milanovic 1408:in 1218, and in 1013: 1012: 973:was captured by 857:Isaac II Angelos 684:Byzantine Empire 555:Around 775, the 474:Sassanian Empire 466:Justinian Plague 420:. By the end of 382:in the Balkans. 364:aggregate demand 171: 164: 157: 54: 43: 29: 28: 6246: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6239: 6237: 6236: 6235: 6221: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6093: 6069:Empire of Japan 6049:Austria-Hungary 6041: 6035: 6014: 5852: 5808:Solomon Islands 5709: 5608: 5470: 5465: 5435: 5430: 5427: 5392: 5368:Cyrillic script 5339: 5320: 5265: 5249: 5149: 5131:Digenes Akritas 5107: 5052: 4993: 4957:Other locations 4952: 4924: 4881: 4813: 4802:Cross-in-square 4770: 4751: 4701: 4555: 4536: 4462: 4412: 4408:Varangian Guard 4351: 4325:East Roman army 4320:Late Roman army 4308: 4247: 4228: 4191: 4170: 4139: 4085: 4064: 4060:Epi ton deeseon 4050:Epi tou eidikou 4008: 3972: 3914: 3895: 3882: 3785: 3783: 3776: 3762:Palaiologan era 3704: 3701: 3692: 3663:Nikephorian era 3651: 3648: 3639: 3582: 3580:(330–717) 3579: 3570: 3550: 3537: 3524: 3518: 3488: 3473: 3472: 3459: 3440: 3421: 3402: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3336: 3323: 3321: 3287: 3285: 3261: 3259: 3242:Magdalino, Paul 3232: 3230: 3226: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3174: 3172: 3148: 3146: 3121: 3102: 3083: 3058: 3056: 3034: 3032: 3010: 3008: 3004: 2998: 2987: 2974: 2957: 2952: 2943: 2939: 2930: 2926: 2917: 2913: 2904: 2900: 2891: 2887: 2874: 2870: 2861: 2857: 2848: 2844: 2835: 2831: 2822: 2815: 2806: 2802: 2796:Byzantine Money 2793: 2789: 2783:Byzantine Money 2780: 2776: 2770:Byzantine Money 2767: 2763: 2754: 2750: 2744:Byzantine Money 2741: 2737: 2731:Byzantine Money 2728: 2724: 2718:Byzantine Money 2715: 2708: 2702:Byzantine Money 2699: 2695: 2686: 2682: 2676:Byzantine Money 2673: 2669: 2663:Byzantine Money 2660: 2656: 2638: 2634: 2628:Byzantine Money 2625: 2621: 2615:Byzantine Money 2612: 2608: 2602:Byzantine Money 2597: 2593: 2584: 2580: 2571: 2567: 2555: 2551: 2542: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2511: 2504: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2478: 2469: 2465: 2456: 2452: 2443: 2439: 2430: 2426: 2417: 2413: 2404: 2400: 2391: 2384: 2375: 2371: 2362: 2358: 2349: 2345: 2336: 2332: 2323: 2316: 2303: 2299: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2273: 2265:George Finlay, 2264: 2260: 2251: 2247: 2238: 2229: 2220: 2216: 2207: 2203: 2194: 2190: 2181: 2177: 2168: 2164: 2155: 2151: 2142: 2138: 2129: 2125: 2116: 2112: 2103: 2097: 2093: 2084: 2080: 2071: 2067: 2058: 2054: 2045: 2041: 2032: 2030: 2021: 2020: 2009: 2000: 1998: 1989: 1988: 1984: 1975: 1971: 1962: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1939:Wayback Machine 1929: 1916: 1907: 1903: 1894: 1890: 1881: 1870: 1861: 1857: 1848: 1841: 1832: 1828: 1797: 1793: 1784: 1780: 1771: 1767: 1758: 1754: 1745: 1741: 1732: 1728: 1719: 1715: 1706: 1702: 1693: 1689: 1680: 1676: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1593: 1561: 1433: 1423: 1334:Valentinian III 1326:Theodosian Code 1283: 1277: 1237: 1019:Annual Revenue 953:. When Emperor 893:Crown of Thorns 583:needed 400,000 388: 316:Arabic numerals 238: 175: 50: 12: 11: 5: 6244: 6234: 6233: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6195:Ottoman Empire 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6150:Dutch Republic 6147: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6117: 6112: 6110:Ashanti Empire 6107: 6105:Ancient Greece 6101: 6099: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6054:Czechoslovakia 6051: 6045: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6028: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6005: 5998:United Kingdom 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5901:Czech Republic 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5717: 5715: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5464: 5463: 5456: 5449: 5441: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5415: 5410: 5404: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5330: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5306: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5260: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5208: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5142: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5123: 5117: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5062: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5007: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4960: 4958: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4934: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4900:Byzantine Bath 4897: 4891: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4823: 4821: 4819:Constantinople 4815: 4814: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4772: 4771: 4761: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4717: 4711: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4602: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4578:Byzantine Rite 4569: 4567: 4557: 4556: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4458:Grand domestic 4455: 4454: 4453: 4448: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4424:Komnenian army 4420: 4418: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4306: 4301: 4299:Military units 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4269:Battle tactics 4265: 4259: 4249: 4248: 4238: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4205: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4106: 4104: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3965: 3964: 3963: 3961:Medieval Greek 3953: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3930: 3924: 3916: 3915: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3788: 3786: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3775: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3720: 3719: 3718: 3716:Fourth Crusade 3707: 3705: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3673:Macedonian era 3670: 3665: 3660: 3654: 3652: 3644: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3606:Theodosian era 3603: 3602: 3601: 3596: 3585: 3583: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3553: 3551: 3546: 3539: 3538: 3526: 3525: 3517: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3494: 3487: 3486: 3463: 3457: 3444: 3438: 3425: 3419: 3406: 3400: 3387: 3347:(3): 865–888. 3329: 3303: 3293: 3267: 3238: 3209: 3180: 3154: 3125: 3119: 3106: 3100: 3087: 3081: 3064: 3040: 3016: 2996: 2978: 2972: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2950: 2937: 2924: 2911: 2898: 2885: 2868: 2855: 2842: 2829: 2813: 2800: 2787: 2774: 2761: 2748: 2735: 2722: 2706: 2693: 2680: 2667: 2654: 2632: 2619: 2606: 2591: 2578: 2565: 2549: 2543:W. Treadgold, 2536: 2530:W. Treadgold, 2518: 2512:W. Treadgold, 2502: 2496:W. Treadgold, 2489: 2483:W. Treadgold, 2476: 2470:W. Treadgold, 2463: 2457:W. Treadgold, 2450: 2437: 2424: 2418:W. Treadgold, 2411: 2405:W. Treadgold, 2398: 2382: 2369: 2356: 2343: 2330: 2324:W. Treadgold, 2314: 2297: 2284: 2271: 2258: 2245: 2239:W. Treadgold, 2227: 2214: 2201: 2195:W. Treadgold, 2188: 2175: 2162: 2149: 2136: 2123: 2117:W. Treadgold, 2110: 2091: 2078: 2072:W. Treadgold, 2065: 2059:W. Treadgold, 2052: 2039: 2007: 1982: 1969: 1956: 1954:, 195, 229,260 1943: 1914: 1908:W. Treadgold, 1901: 1895:W. Treadgold, 1888: 1882:W. Treadgold, 1868: 1866:, 314-315, 317 1855: 1839: 1826: 1791: 1778: 1765: 1752: 1739: 1726: 1713: 1700: 1687: 1674: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1600: 1599: 1592: 1589: 1565:GDP per capita 1563:The Byzantine 1560: 1557: 1529:Southern Italy 1427:Byzantine silk 1422: 1419: 1414:Venetian coins 1384:Venetian ducat 1368:(3.53 g). The 1276: 1273: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1212: 1208: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1188: 1184: 1183: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1166: 1162: 1161: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1144: 1140: 1139: 1133: 1129: 1128: 1122: 1118: 1117: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1098: 1094: 1093: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1076: 1072: 1071: 1065: 1061: 1060: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1039: 1038: 1025: 1021: 1020: 1017: 1000:Constantine XI 975:Ivan Alexander 910:to invade the 881:Latin emperors 692:Constantinople 398:'s reign, the 387: 384: 352:soleard plough 330:including the 328:Works and Days 237: 234: 203:Fourth Crusade 187:Constantinople 177: 176: 174: 173: 166: 159: 151: 148: 147: 146: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 45: 44: 36: 35: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6243: 6232: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6211: 6210:Tamil Country 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6185:Mongol Empire 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6017: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5942: 5939: 5938: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5723: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5700:United States 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5484: 5480: 5479: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5462: 5457: 5455: 5450: 5448: 5443: 5442: 5439: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5403: 5402: 5399: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5335: 5331: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5272:Encyclopedias 5270: 5269: 5267: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5252: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5224: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5196:Hellenization 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154:Everyday life 5152: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5127: 5126:Acritic songs 5124: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4969:Hosios Loukas 4967: 4965: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4884: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4816: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4766: 4762: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4642:Monophysitism 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4615:Armenian Rite 4613: 4611: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4603: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4547: 4533: 4532:Naval battles 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4426: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4358: 4354: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4243: 4239: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4071: 4067: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4055:Protasekretis 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4011: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3957: 3954: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3928: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3906: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3844: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3779: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3724: 3721: 3717: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3700: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3683:Komnenian era 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3655: 3653: 3647: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3628: 3624: 3623: 3622: 3621:Heraclian era 3619: 3617: 3616:Justinian era 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3578: 3573: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3559: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3508: 3503: 3501: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3483: 3477: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3458:0-679-41650-1 3454: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3439:0-14-025960-0 3435: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3420:0-679-72197-5 3416: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3401:1-84176-091-9 3397: 3393: 3388: 3378:on 2007-06-14 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3320:on 2012-11-08 3319: 3315: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3294: 3284:on 2012-11-08 3283: 3279: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3258:on 2012-11-08 3257: 3253: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3229:on 2012-11-08 3225: 3221: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3200:on 2012-11-08 3196: 3192: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3171:on 2012-11-08 3170: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3145:on 2012-11-08 3144: 3140: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3120:0-7546-5740-X 3116: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3082:1-85285-298-4 3078: 3073: 3072: 3065: 3055:on 2008-03-09 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3031:on 2008-02-22 3030: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3007:on 2007-09-27 3003: 2999: 2997:0-88402-274-9 2993: 2986: 2985: 2979: 2975: 2973:0-415-33312-1 2969: 2966:. Routledge. 2965: 2960: 2959: 2947: 2941: 2934: 2928: 2921: 2915: 2908: 2902: 2895: 2889: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2859: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2818: 2810: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2778: 2771: 2765: 2758: 2752: 2745: 2739: 2732: 2726: 2719: 2713: 2711: 2703: 2697: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2664: 2658: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2636: 2629: 2623: 2616: 2610: 2603: 2600: 2599:Morrisson, C. 2595: 2588: 2582: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2559: 2553: 2546: 2540: 2533: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2515: 2509: 2507: 2499: 2493: 2486: 2480: 2473: 2467: 2460: 2454: 2447: 2441: 2434: 2428: 2421: 2415: 2408: 2402: 2395: 2389: 2387: 2379: 2373: 2366: 2360: 2353: 2347: 2340: 2334: 2327: 2321: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2301: 2294: 2288: 2281: 2275: 2268: 2262: 2255: 2252:J. Phillips, 2249: 2242: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2224: 2218: 2211: 2205: 2198: 2192: 2185: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2140: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2114: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2088: 2082: 2075: 2069: 2062: 2056: 2049: 2043: 2029:on 2008-04-16 2028: 2024: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 1997:on 2008-02-22 1996: 1992: 1986: 1979: 1973: 1966: 1960: 1953: 1947: 1940: 1936: 1933: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1911: 1905: 1898: 1892: 1885: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1865: 1859: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1836: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1795: 1788: 1782: 1775: 1769: 1762: 1756: 1749: 1743: 1736: 1730: 1723: 1717: 1710: 1704: 1697: 1691: 1684: 1678: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1611: 1607: 1598: 1597:Roman economy 1595: 1594: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1556: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1497: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1454: 1446: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1428: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1380: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1356: 1352: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1316: 1313: 1308: 1305: 1304:Constantine I 1296: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1005: 1001: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 931:Anna of Savoy 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 896: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 845: 841: 840:the Tetrarchs 837: 832: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 809: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 787: 781: 777: 774:married King 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 740: 738: 734: 730: 725: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 706:Nikephoros II 703: 699: 697: 693: 689: 688:Constantine V 685: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 661: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 630: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 553: 551: 547: 542: 538: 534: 529: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 442: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 406: 401: 397: 393: 383: 381: 376: 372: 367: 365: 359: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 300: 297: 292: 290: 285: 281: 277: 271: 268: 264: 260: 259:rural economy 255: 253: 246: 242: 233: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 210: 208: 204: 200: 199:Constantine V 196: 192: 188: 184: 172: 167: 165: 160: 158: 153: 152: 150: 149: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 69: 66: 64: 61: 59: 56: 53: 49: 48: 47: 46: 42: 38: 37: 34: 31: 30: 24: 20: 16: 6200:Roman Empire 6165:Feudal Japan 6133:Ming dynasty 6128:Song dynasty 6114: 6084:Soviet Union 6059:East Germany 5863: 5803:Saudi Arabia 5720: 5579:South Africa 5481: 5137: 5057: 4905:Hagia Sophia 4887:Thessalonica 4862:Hagia Sophia 4842:Chora Church 4780:Architecture 4657:Great Schism 4647:Paulicianism 4625:Miaphysitism 4480:Karabisianoi 3784:or territory 3744:Thessalonica 3728:Latin Empire 3723:Frankokratia 3698: 3658:Isaurian era 3645: 3576: 3561: 3557:Roman Empire 3547: 3467: 3448: 3429: 3410: 3391: 3380:. 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Retrieved 1995:the original 1985: 1977: 1972: 1964: 1959: 1951: 1946: 1909: 1904: 1896: 1891: 1883: 1863: 1858: 1850: 1834: 1829: 1804: 1800: 1794: 1786: 1781: 1773: 1768: 1760: 1755: 1747: 1742: 1734: 1729: 1721: 1716: 1708: 1703: 1695: 1690: 1682: 1677: 1624: 1620: 1610: 1562: 1549: 1545: 1524: 1520: 1505:Thessaloniki 1501: 1492: 1457: 1450: 1404:in 1222, in 1397: 1391: 1377: 1375: 1359: 1346: 1337: 1329: 1320: 1317: 1309: 1300: 1295:Justinian II 1290: 1254: 1245:Anastasius I 1235:State's role 1226: 1215: 1202: 1191: 1180: 1169: 1158: 1147: 1136: 1125: 1112: 1101: 1090: 1079: 1068: 1057: 1046: 1028: 1008: 1003: 990: 986: 966: 958: 950: 942: 938: 935:crown jewels 928: 923: 915: 903: 897: 876: 872: 868: 849: 824: 820: 816: 812: 806: 784: 756:Bohemond III 741: 726: 721: 717: 702:Sviatoslav I 700: 681: 676: 672: 668: 662: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 631: 627: 619: 604:Nikephoros I 597: 592: 588: 584: 576: 572: 568: 564: 554: 546:Thessaloniki 536: 530: 525: 521: 517: 513: 489: 478:Hagia Sophia 461: 453: 450:Anastasius I 443: 437: 425: 417: 413: 409: 403: 389: 370: 368: 360: 301: 293: 283: 279: 275: 272: 256: 249: 230:Latin Empire 218:Medieval era 211: 182: 180: 107: 68:Architecture 15: 6175:Inca Empire 6123:Han dynasty 6031:New Zealand 5993:Switzerland 5958:Netherlands 5818:South Korea 5798:Philippines 5778:North Korea 5534:Ivory Coast 5388:Megali Idea 5363:Byzantinism 5066:Agriculture 4857:Hagia Irene 4690:Kievan Rus' 4667:Mount Athos 4490:Cibyrrhaeot 4434:Vestiaritai 4289:Mercenaries 4166:Catepanates 4025:Sakellarios 3944:Family tree 3869:Mesopotamia 3688:Angelid era 3668:Amorian era 3432:. Penguin. 3413:. Vintage. 2944:Milanovic, 2931:Milanovic, 2794:Morrisson, 2781:Morrisson, 2768:Morrisson, 2742:Morrisson, 2729:Morrisson, 2716:Morrisson, 2700:Morrisson, 2674:Morrisson, 2661:Morrisson, 2648:(Grierson, 2626:Morrisson, 2613:Morrisson, 2376:Magdalino, 2208:T. Madden, 2104:* Neumann, 2085:Magdalino, 1552:Palaiologoi 1496:Justinian I 1370:inscription 1249:Dardanelles 1078:11,300,000 891:pawned the 776:Baldwin III 665:Michael III 624:Theodora II 458:Justinian I 320:illuminated 236:Agriculture 207:Palaiologoi 6089:Yugoslavia 5833:Tajikistan 5743:East Timor 5728:Azerbaijan 5722:Arab world 5554:Mozambique 5544:Madagascar 5383:Third Rome 5309:University 5292:Philosophy 5282:Inventions 5145:Historians 5113:Literature 5096:Varangians 4938:San Vitale 4867:Hippodrome 4847:City Walls 4747:Mutilation 4742:Hexabiblos 4662:Bogomilism 4652:Iconoclasm 4522:Megas doux 4512:Greek fire 4495:Aegean Sea 4368:Kleisourai 4345:Excubitors 4335:Bucellarii 4187:Despotates 4156:Kleisourai 4095:Provincial 3939:Coronation 3913:Governance 3678:Doukid era 3611:Leonid era 3382:2007-05-21 3324:2012-12-11 3288:2012-12-11 3262:2012-12-11 3233:2012-12-11 3204:2012-12-11 3175:2012-12-11 3149:2012-12-11 3059:2008-03-19 3035:2008-03-19 3011:2008-07-18 2955:References 2918:Matschke, 2905:Matschke, 2755:Grierson, 2585:Grierson, 2392:Matschke, 2033:2008-04-03 2001:2007-12-24 1571:economist 1569:World Bank 1535:, Venice, 1364:issued by 1348:hyperpyron 1312:Diocletian 1251:' customs. 1225:1,000,000 1214:1,800,000 1201:5,600,000 1190:5,900,000 1179:4,000,000 1168:3,300,000 1157:3,100,000 1146:2,000,000 1135:1,800,000 1124:2,000,000 1111:3,700,000 1100:8,500,000 1089:6,000,000 1067:5,000,000 1056:8,500,000 1045:7,800,000 1027:9,400,000 889:Baldwin II 838:statue of 808:kommerkion 737:Romanos IV 708:to invade 628:nomismata. 612:Theophilos 561:head taxes 468:, and the 396:Diocletian 267:Asia Minor 123:Literature 6042:economies 6026:Australia 5953:Lithuania 5813:Singapore 5788:Palestine 5753:Indonesia 5680:Nicaragua 5625:Argentina 5211:Octoechos 5091:Silk Road 4583:Hesychasm 4451:Paramonai 4398:Hetaireia 4330:Foederati 4219:Diplomacy 4214:Diplomats 4120:Provinces 3949:Empresses 3752:Trebizond 3548:Preceding 3451:. Knopf. 3369:144773343 3361:1569-2981 2772:, 933-934 2704:, 918-919 2576:, 255-256 2562:, 255-256 2444:Nicolle, 2431:Norwich, 2396:, 805-806 2380:, 535-536 2337:Konstam, 2291:Norwich, 2169:Norwich, 2143:Norwich, 2130:Norwich, 2108:, 870-871 2046:Norwich, 1991:"K. Harl" 1976:Norwich, 1963:Heather, 1950:Norwich, 1821:161988014 1807:: 45–80. 1776:, 267-268 1724:, 236-237 1698:, 234-235 1651:0027-8424 1525:nomismata 1521:nomismata 1509:Trebizond 1453:Trebizond 1441:Varangian 1402:Trebizond 1398:hyperpyra 1393:stavraton 1388:Komnenian 1379:basilikon 1366:Manuel II 1361:stavraton 1227:hyperpyra 1216:hyperpyra 1204:hyperpyra 1192:nomismata 1181:nomismata 1170:nomismata 1159:nomismata 1148:nomismata 1137:nomismata 1126:nomismata 1114:nomismata 1004:hyperpyra 991:hyperpyra 987:hyperpyra 985:, 25,663 967:hyperpyra 959:hyperpyra 951:hyperpyra 943:hyperpyra 939:hyperpyra 924:hyperpyra 916:hyperpyra 904:hyperpyra 885:Venetians 877:hyperpyra 873:hyperpyra 869:hyperpyra 853:Black Sea 825:hyperpyra 821:hyperpyra 817:hyperpyra 813:hyperpyra 803:Baldwin I 786:hyperpyra 780:Jerusalem 744:Alexios I 722:nomismata 718:nomismata 677:nomismata 673:nomismata 669:nomismata 658:nomismata 654:nomismata 650:nomismata 646:nomismata 642:nomismata 638:nomismata 634:nomismata 620:nomismata 593:nomismata 589:nomismata 585:nomismata 577:nomismata 573:nomismata 569:nomismata 565:nomismata 550:Dark Ages 541:Anatolian 537:nomismata 526:nomismata 524:(plural: 516:(plural: 494:Khosrau I 482:Justin II 375:Macedonia 358:terrain. 98:Diplomacy 6225:Category 6180:Iroquois 6003:Scotland 5978:Slovakia 5968:Portugal 5891:Bulgaria 5838:Thailand 5793:Pakistan 5783:Mongolia 5773:Malaysia 5733:Cambodia 5690:Paraguay 5650:Colombia 5630:Barbados 5613:Americas 5604:Zimbabwe 5514:Ethiopia 5499:Botswana 5304:Scholars 5297:Rhetoric 5287:Medicine 5262:Learning 5161:Calendar 5038:Painters 4737:Basilika 4675:Bulgaria 4637:Arianism 4588:Hayhurum 4565:Religion 4527:Admirals 4446:Allagion 4378:Droungos 4284:Generals 4246:Military 4209:Treaties 4115:Dioceses 3934:Emperors 3847:Sardinia 3827:Dalmatia 3807:Bulgaria 3797:Anatolia 3756:Theodoro 3750: / 3746: / 3738: / 3244:(2007). 3131:(2007). 2363:Harris, 2350:Harris, 2304:Harris, 2278:Jakoby, 2221:Harris, 2182:Harris, 2156:Harris, 1935:Archived 1785:Lefort, 1772:Lefort, 1759:Lefort, 1746:Lefort, 1733:Lefort, 1720:Lefort, 1707:Lefort, 1694:Lefort, 1681:Lefort, 1669:29531084 1591:See also 1581:Basil II 1406:Bulgaria 918:, under 906:to King 861:Henry VI 855:. When 836:porphyry 793:and the 772:Theodora 752:Manuel I 748:Henry IV 714:Basil II 710:Bulgaria 446:Justin I 394:. Under 380:Ottomans 371:paroikoi 312:windmill 284:paroikoi 280:paroikoi 276:paroikos 226:Komnenoi 128:Medicine 73:Calendar 6019:Oceania 5936:Ireland 5931:Hungary 5921:Germany 5911:Estonia 5906:Denmark 5896:Croatia 5881:Belgium 5876:Austria 5871:Albania 5848:Vietnam 5705:Uruguay 5670:Jamaica 5660:Ecuador 5589:Tunisia 5574:Somalia 5569:Senegal 5559:Nigeria 5549:Morocco 5519:Eritrea 5489:Algeria 5413:Outline 5358:Museums 5258:Science 5235:Slavery 5191:Gardens 5171:Cuisine 5103:Dynatoi 5071:Coinage 5058:Economy 5026:Mosaics 4989:Mystras 4930:Ravenna 4792:Secular 4680:Moravia 4429:Pronoia 4403:Akritai 4388:Tagmata 4363:Themata 4304:Revolts 4274:Battles 4182:Kephale 4151:Themata 4081:Mesazon 3923:Central 3859:Maghreb 3812:Corsica 3802:Armenia 3792:Albania 3535:History 2892:Laiou, 2875:Laiou, 2862:Laiou, 2849:Laiou, 2836:Laiou, 2823:Laiou, 2807:Laiou, 2687:Esler, 2572:Laiou, 2556:Laiou, 2225:, 25-26 2098:Laiou, 1862:Laiou, 1849:Laiou, 1833:Laiou, 1660:5879668 1629:Bibcode 1338:solidus 1330:Solidus 1321:solidus 1291:solidus 1275:Coinage 1265:cereals 1257:coinage 1036:of gold 979:florins 522:nomisma 514:solidus 422:Marcian 308:milling 304:tilling 263:Balkans 214:coinage 191:Eurasia 143:Science 113:Gardens 108:Economy 88:Cuisine 83:Coinage 6190:Muisca 6119:China 5988:Sweden 5973:Russia 5963:Norway 5926:Greece 5916:France 5865:Europe 5857:Europe 5843:Turkey 5828:Taiwan 5763:Israel 5685:Panama 5675:Mexico 5640:Canada 5635:Brazil 5599:Zambia 5594:Uganda 5564:Rwanda 5529:Guinea 5494:Angola 5483:Africa 5475:Africa 5423:Portal 5338:Impact 5218:People 5166:Cities 5016:Enamel 4797:Sacred 4732:Ecloga 4598:Saints 4507:Dromon 4383:Bandon 4373:Tourma 4356:Middle 4279:Beacon 4161:Bandon 4144:Middle 4013:Middle 3968:Senate 3891:Thrace 3874:Serbia 3852:Sicily 3837:Greece 3822:Cyprus 3740:Epirus 3736:Nicaea 3646:Middle 3523:topics 3455: 3436: 3417: 3398: 3367: 3359: 3117: 3098: 3079: 2994: 2970: 2691:, 1081 2639:Under 2023:"Harl" 1930:Harl, 1819: 1667: 1657: 1649: 1539:, and 1533:Amalfi 1523:to 17 1517:Venice 1494:After 1410:Serbia 1102:solidi 1091:solidi 1069:solidi 1058:solidi 1047:solidi 1034:tonnes 1032:/42.3 1030:solidi 983:Venice 947:Galata 616:dinars 600:Muslim 518:solidi 512:, the 490:solidi 462:solidi 454:solidi 438:solidi 434:tonnes 430:pounds 426:solidi 418:solidi 414:solidi 410:solidi 405:solidi 356:Pontic 344:mallet 340:pestle 336:mortar 324:Hesiod 296:plague 265:, and 138:People 78:Cities 6008:Wales 5983:Spain 5948:Italy 5823:Syria 5768:Japan 5748:India 5738:China 5665:Haiti 5645:Chile 5584:Sudan 5539:Kenya 5524:Ghana 5509:Egypt 5408:Index 5240:Death 5230:Women 5201:Music 5181:Dress 5176:Dance 5121:Novel 5081:Trade 5076:Mints 5021:Glass 5011:Icons 4807:Domes 4685:Serbs 4500:Samos 4313:Early 4103:Early 3977:Early 3886:Syria 3864:Malta 3842:Italy 3832:Egypt 3817:Crete 3748:Morea 3577:Early 3376:(PDF) 3365:S2CID 3337:(PDF) 3227:(PDF) 3198:(PDF) 3005:(PDF) 2988:(PDF) 2948:, 461 2935:, 468 2922:, 772 2909:, 771 2896:, 746 2883:, 158 2866:, 725 2853:, 723 2840:, 718 2827:, 703 2811:, 720 2798:, 962 2785:, 961 2746:, 932 2733:, 930 2720:, 919 2678:, 918 2665:, 917 2630:, 911 2617:, 910 2604:, 909 2547:, 841 2534:, 575 2516:, 413 2500:, 411 2487:, 278 2474:, 277 2461:, 276 2435:, 334 2422:, 768 2409:, 750 2367:, 180 2354:, 170 2341:, 162 2328:, 663 2312:, 163 2295:, 153 2269:, 150 2256:, 133 2243:, 705 2212:, 114 2199:, 643 2186:, 108 2134:, 241 2121:, 577 2076:, 450 2063:, 445 1980:, 269 1967:, 283 1912:, 146 1899:, 139 1886:, 144 1853:, 369 1837:, 311 1817:S2CID 1789:, 270 1763:, 289 1750:, 284 1737:, 238 1711:, 242 1685:, 232 1537:Genoa 1471:Syria 1467:Egypt 1459:Grain 1421:Trade 1358:Half 1289:Gold 799:marks 795:Curia 506:Greek 502:Latin 486:Avars 348:carts 332:wheel 133:Music 103:Dress 93:Dance 5758:Iran 5714:Asia 5695:Peru 5655:Cuba 5206:Lyra 5086:silk 4697:Jews 4472:Navy 4417:Late 4257:Army 4224:Wars 4175:Late 4069:Late 3699:Late 3482:link 3453:ISBN 3434:ISBN 3415:ISBN 3396:ISBN 3357:ISSN 3115:ISBN 3096:ISBN 3077:ISBN 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