1601:, which contrast with his characteristic simplicity of diction and construction. These embellishments interrupt the smooth flow of his lines, and often the sequence of thought in his hymns is clouded by the dragging in of dogmatic questions—in the celebrated Christmas hymn the question of the miraculous birth of Jesus is discussed four times, with a comfortable amplitude that betrays the theologian thrusting the poet aside. The theologian is also too evident in his allusions to the Old Testament when dealing with New Testament incidents; Mary at the birth of Jesus compares her destiny to that of Sarah, the Magi liken the star that went before the Israelites in the wilderness, and so on. The frequent citation of passages from the prophets seem more like unimpassioned paraphrases than like inspired poetry. In fact Romanos does not possess the abundant and highly coloured imagery of the earliest Greek church poets, nor their fine grasp of nature. The reader also gathers the impression that the height of the poet's imagination is not in proportion with the depth of his piety—there often appears in him something naive, almost homely, as when Mary expresses her pleasure in the Magi and calls attention to their utility for the impending Flight into Egypt. There are passages, however, in which devout fervor carries the imagination along with it and elevates the poetic tone, as in the jubilant invitation to the dance (in the Easter-song), in which thoughts of spring and of the Resurrection are harmoniously blended:
1283:. The poetic temperament of the Byzantines is thus akin to that of the Alexandrian writers. Only one new type evolved independently by the Byzantines—the begging-poem. The six genres are not contemporaneous: the epigram and the panegyric developed first (6th and 7th centuries), then, at long intervals, satire, next didactic and begging poetry, finally the romance. Only after the 12th century, the period of decay, do they appear side by side. The epigram was the only form of secular poetry that had an independent revival in Byzantine literature, and this at the very time when ecclesiastical poetry also reached its highest perfection, in the 6th and 7th centuries. This age is therefore the most flourishing period of Byzantine scholarly poetry; its decline in the 12th century is contemporary with the rise of popular poetry. The chief kinds of poetry during the period of the decline (11th to 13th century) were satire and parody, didactic and hortatory poetry, the begging-poem, and the erotic romance. In form this literature is characterized by its extensive use of the popular forms of speech and verse, the latter being the "political" verse (Greek ἡμαξευμένοι στίχοι, called "that abominable make-believe of a metre" by
1589:, linguistically and metrically more artistic in form, replaced much of his work in the Greek Liturgy. Thenceforth his hymns held their own in only a few of the remoter monasteries. Characteristic of his technique is the great length of his hymns, which are regularly composed of from twenty to thirty stanzas (τροπαρια) of from twelve to twenty-one verses each, very finely wrought and varied in metrical structure, and in construction transparent and diverse. They do not resemble contemporary Latin hymns so much as the oratorios of the early 20th century, also using antiphonal rendering by alternative choirs. This also explains the dramatic character of many hymns, with their inserted dialogues and choric songs, as in "Peter's Denial", a little drama of human boastfulness and weakness, and the last part of the "History of Joseph", the "Psalm of the Apostles", and the "Birth of Jesus". Other pieces, like the hymn on the
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influenced by Nonnus. While touching on the most varied things and situations, his epigrams on the life and personnel of his monastery offer special interest for the history of civilization. Joannes
Geometres combines aspects of the previous two. During the course of his life he filled both secular and ecclesiastical offices and his poetry had a universal character; of a deeply religious temper, still he appreciated the greatness of the ancient Greeks. Alongside epigrams on ancient poets, philosophers, rhetoricians, and historians stand others on famous Church Fathers, poets, and saints. Poetically, the epigrams on contemporary and secular topics are superior to those on religious and classic subjects. His best works depict historical events and situations he himself experienced, and reflect his own spiritual moods (Krumbacher).
133:
1201:
of poetry, especially of nature poetry. Metochites composed meditations on the beauty of the sea; Planudes was the author of a long poetic idyll, a genre uncultivated by
Byzantine scholars. While Metochites was a thinker and poet, Planudes was chiefly an imitator and compiler. Metochites was more speculative, as his collection of philosophical and historical miscellanies show; Planudes was more precise, as his preference for mathematics proves. Contemporary progress in philosophy was at a point where Metochites could openly attack Aristotle. He deals more frankly with political questions, such as his comparison of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. While his breadth of interest was large, Metochites's culture rests wholly on a Greek basis, though Planudes, by his translations from the Latin (
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Photius, who was more concerned with individual philosophic arguments, Psellus does not undervalue the old philosophers, and is himself of a philosophic temperament. He was the first of his intellectual circle to raise the philosophy of Plato above that of
Aristotle and to teach philosophy as a professor. Surpassing Photius in intellect and wit, he lacks that scholar's dignity and solidity of character. A restless brilliance characterized his life and literary activity. At first a lawyer, then a professor; now a monk, now a court official; he ended his career the prime minister. He was equally adroit and many-sided in his literary work; in harmony with the polished, pliant nature of the courtier is his elegant
1963:(14th century). It was composed by a Frank brought up in Greece, though a foe of the Greeks. Its object was, amid the constantly progressing hellenization of the Western conquerors, to remind them of the spirit of their ancestors. Therefore, it is only Greek in language; in literary form and spirit it is wholly Frankish. The author "describes minutely the feudal customs which had been transplanted to the soil of Greece, and this perhaps is his chief merit; the deliberations of the High Court are given with the greatest accuracy, and he is quite familiar with the practice of feudal law" (J. Schmitt). As early as the 14th century the Chronicle was translated into Spanish and in the 15th into French and Italian.
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ecclesiastical and monastic; the former is classical, the latter popular. The works of the historians belong to scholarly literature, those of the annalists (or chroniclers) to the literature of the people. The former are carefully elaborated, the latter give only raw material, the former confine themselves to the description of the present and the most recent past, and thus have rather the character of contemporary records; the latter cover the whole history of the world as known to the Middle Ages. The former are therefore the more valuable for political history; the latter for the history of civilization.
166:
1399:" (15th century), by keen satire. Each describes a journey to the underworld and conversations with dead contemporaries; in the former their defects are lashed with good-natured raillery; in the latter, under the masks of dead men, living persons and contemporary conditions, especially at the Byzantine Court, are sharply stigmatized. The former is more a literary satire, the latter a political pamphlet, with keen personal thrusts and without literary value, but with all the greater interest for the history of civilization; the former is in a genuinely popular tone, the latter in vulgar and crude
950:. Depicting as they did what lay within the popular consciousness—events wonderful and dreadful painted in glaring colours and interpreted in a Christian sense—their influence was considerable. The method of handling materials is primitive—beneath each section lies some older source only slightly modified, so that the whole resembles a patchwork of materials rather than the ingenious mosaic of the historians. They are a rich store for comparative linguistics, as their diction is purely the popular tongue, bespeaking the poor education of author and audience.
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712:
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centuries when the existence of the
Byzantine Empire was threatened, city life and education declined, and along with them the use of the classicizing language and style. The political recovery of the 9th century instigated a literary revival, in which a conscious attempt was made to recreate the Hellenic-Christian literary culture of late antiquity. Simple or popular Greek was avoided in literary use and many of the early saints' lives were rewritten in an archaizing style. By the 12th century the cultural confidence of the
1678:. Religious sentiments in hymns were choked by a classical formalism which stifled all vitality. The overvaluation of technique in details destroyed the sense of proportion in the whole. This seems to be the only explanation for the so-called canones first found in the collection of Andrew of Crete. While a canon is a combination of a number of hymns or chants (generally nine) of three or four strophes each, the "Great Canon" of Andrew actually numbers 250 strophes, a "single idea is spun out into serpentine arabesques".
939:, points to an Oriental Christian source. Unconnected with persons of distinction and out of touch with the great world, it follows models bound within its own narrow sphere. The 9th century saw the zenith of the Byzantine chronicle, during the nadir of historical literature. Afterwards it declines abruptly; the lesser chroniclers, seen as late as the 12th century, draw partly from contemporary and partly, though rarely, from earlier historians. In the Palaeologi period no chroniclers of note appear.
2066:, a hellenized Venetian of the 16th century. It abounds in themes and ideas drawn from the folk-poetry of the time. In the story of Erotokritos and Arethusa the poet glorifies love and friendship, chivalric courage, constancy, and self-sacrifice. Although foreign influences do not obtrude themselves, and the poem, as a whole, has a national Greek flavour, it reveals the various cultural elements, Byzantine, Romance, and Oriental, without giving, however, the character of a composite.
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1716:. The composition is evidently the production of a theologian trained in the classics, but without the slightest idea of dramatic art. It is made up chiefly of lamentations and reports of messengers. Even the most effective scenes, those which precede the Crucifixion, are described by messengers; almost two-thirds of the text are given to the descent from the Cross, the lament of Mary, and the apparition of Christ. (Cf. Van Cleef, "The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama
1861:
result of the conflicts which the Greeks sustained during the Middle Ages with the border nations to the east of the empire. Popular books relating the deeds of ancient heroes had long-standing and widespread currency throughout the East; these too revived heroic poetry, though imparted with a deep romantic tinge. The result was a complete upheaval of popular ideals and a broadening of the popular horizon as
Atticist tendencies were gradually eroded.
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36:
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1585:(4th century). He wrote hymns on the Passion of the Lord, on the betrayal by Judas, Peter's denial, Mary before the Cross, the Ascension, the Ten Virgins, and the Last Judgment, while his Old Testament themes mention the history of Joseph and the three young men in the fiery furnace. He is said to have composed about a thousand hymns, of which only eighty have survived, evidently because in the 9th century the so-called
910:(13th century); beside the theological polemicist Pachymeres (13th century), stands the man of the world, Nicephorus Gregoras (14th century), well versed in philosophy and the classics. Though subjective in matters of internal Byzantine history, these and others of this period are trustworthy in their accounts of external events, and especially valuable as sources for the first appearance of the Slavs and Turks.
1746:(in Palestine), whose biographies of saints and monks are distinguished for the reliability of their facts and dates. Of great interest also for their contributions to the history of culture and of ethics and for their genuinely popular language are the writings of Leontius, Archbishop of Cyprus (7th century), especially his life of the Patriarch John (surnamed The Merciful), Eleemosynarius of Alexandria. (Cf.
885:(10th century), dealing respectively with the administration of the empire, its political division, and the ceremonies of the Byzantine Court. They treat of the internal conditions of the empire, and the first and third are distinguished by their use of a popular tongue. The first is an important source of ethnological information, while the last is an interesting contribution to the history of civilization.
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1689:, even reintroducing the principle of quantity into ecclesiastical poetry. Religious poetry was in this way reduced to mere trifling, for in the 11th century, which witnessed the decline of Greek hymnology and the revival of pagan humanism, Michael Psellus began parodying church hymns, a practice that took root in popular culture. Didactic poems took this form without being regarded as blasphemous.
1923:, the majority of the material being drawn from the latter, suffused with a Christian atmosphere. Genuine piety and a strong family feeling combine with an intimate sympathy with nature. Artistically, the work lacks the dramatic quality and diverse characters of the Germanic and classical Greek epics; it must be compared with the Slavic and Oriental heroic songs, among which it properly belongs.
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Malalas is to prose, Romanos is to the
Christian poetry of the Greek Middle Ages. Though he did not go so far as Malalas, he released poetry from meters based on quantitative and tonal scansion; he brought it into harmony with the latest poetics prevailing in Syria as well as with the evolving character of the Greek language. Romanos soon went to Constantinople, where he became a deacon of the
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1052:, patriarch of the city and the greatest statesman of the Greek Church (820–897), enthusiastically collected forgotten manuscripts, revived forgotten works of antiquity, and re-discovered lost works; his attention was chiefly directed to prose works, indicative of his pragmatism. Photius made selections or excerpts from all the works he discovered, forming the beginning of his celebrated
1836:, Byzantine popular literature moved in different directions. Whereas literary poetry springs from the rationalistic, classical atmosphere of the Hellenistic period, popular poetry, or folk-song, is an outgrowth of the idyllic, romantic literature of the same period. As the literary works had their prototypes in Lucian, Heliodorus, Achilles Tatius, and Nonnus, the popular works imitated
802:, who became their guides and models. Sometimes a Byzantine chooses a classic writer to imitate in method and style. The majority, however, took as models several authors, a custom which gave rise to a peculiar mosaic style, quite characteristic of the Byzantines. While often the result of a real community of feeling, it effectively prevented development of an individual style.
1379:(13th century), but also by independent characters like Eustathius and Michael Acominatus. It had become traditional, and so handed down from imperial Rome to Byzantium as a part of ancient rhetoric with all the extravagance of a thoroughly decadent literature (F. Gregorovius). It was a sort of necessary concession to despotism; popular taste was not in general offended by it.
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sensibility. Psellus had more of a poetic temperament than
Photius, as several of his poems show, though they owe more to satirical fancy and occasion than to deep poetic feeling. Though Psellus exhibits more formal skill than creativity, his endowments shone forth in a time particularly backward in aesthetic culture. The intellectual freedom of the great scholars (
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1761:) was another popular work of Byzantine origin now elevated to universal literature. It is the "Song of Songs" of Christian asceticism, illustrated by the experience of the Indian prince Joasaph, who is led by the hermit Barlaam to abandon the joys of life, and as a true Christian to renounce the world. The material of the story is originally Indian, indeed
2087:. Nevertheless, the materials are handled with independence, and more harmoniously arranged than in the original; the father who has killed his daughter's lover is slain not by his daughter's hand, but by the women of his palace. Owing to the lyric undertone of the works some parts of it have survived in popular tradition until the present time.
1169:. His inaugural address, delivered on the Acropolis, exhibits both profound classical scholarship and high enthusiasm despite the material and spiritual decay of his times. These pitiful conditions moved him to compose an elegy, famous because unique, on the decay of Athens, a sort of poetical and antiquarian apostrophe to fallen greatness.
1041:(11th century), a universal genius who bridges the periods. While the humanism of the 9th and 10th centuries retained a theological coloring and a hostile attitude towards the West, the 12th to the 14th century saw several writers seeking to break away from orthodox classicism to attain a true humanism, becoming the forerunners of the
668:, became for the autochthonous Greek civilization a place where hundreds of flourishing cities sprang into existence, where energies confined or crippled in the impoverished homeland found release; not only did these cities surpass in material wealth the mother country, but soon also cultivated the highest goods of the intellect (
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of the servants, in other words, a psychological analysis of the characters. The mainspring of the action is Sarah's fore-knowledge of what is to happen, evidently the invention of the poet to display the power of maternal love. The diction is distinguished by high poetic beauty and by a thorough mastery of versification.
1336:; he abounds, however, in brilliant ideas, and in his skillful imitation of the ancients, particularly in his erotic pieces, he surpasses most of the epigrammatists of the imperial period. Agathias also prepared a collection of epigrams, partly his own and partly by other writers, some of which afterwards passed into the
576:), its capital, Constantinople, as New Rome. Its laws were Roman; so were its government, its army, and its official class, and at first also its language and its private and public life. The organization of the state was very similar to that of the Roman imperial period, including its hierarchy and bureaucratic elite.
1470:, the former of whom lived under the Comneni (12th century), the latter under the Palaeologi (13th century). For historians such poetical wails of distress as Prodromus addressed to the emperor are of value because they give interesting pictures of street and business life in the capital. (Cf. Krumbacher, 324, 333.)
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life with external pomp. Accordingly, Symeon strictly observed the ceremonial rules of the church, regarding them, however, only as a means to the attainment of ethical perfection. His principal work (published only in Latin) is a collection of prose pieces and hymns on communion with God. He is akin to the chief
1739:, and became the favorite form of popular literature. It flourished from the 8th to the 11th century, and was concerned principally with monastic life. Unfortunately, the rhetorical language was in violent contrast with the simple nature of the contents, so that the chief value of this literature is historical.
1068:. Scholars also formed great compilations, arranged by subject, on the basis of older sources. Among these was a now-fragmentary encyclopedia of political science containing extracts from the classical, Alexandrian, and Roman Byzantine periods. These, with the collection of ancient epigrams known as the
1791:(7th century), who deepened the tradition of Christian Neoplatonism, as found in the Pseudo-Dionysius, with the resources of Orthodox Christology. No other writer in Eastern Christian tradition surpasses Maximus in speculative range and originality. Later representatives of this mystical tradition were
1541:(8th century), the fundamental manual of Greek theology, though systematically worked out by a learned and keen intellect, is merely a gigantic collection of materials. Even the homily clings to a pseudo-classical, rhetorical foundation, and tends more to external breadth, not to inwardness and depth.
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is apparently an independent work. The familiar and trite
Biblical incidents are reset in the patriarchal environment of Greek family life. The poet emphasizes the mental struggles of Sarah, the resignation of Abraham to the Divine will, the anxious forebodings of Isaac, and the affectionate sympathy
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we come to the universal scholars (polyhistores) of the time of the
Palaeologi. The former displays his humanism in his use of hexameter, the latter in his knowledge of the Latin; both of which are otherwise unknown in Byzantium, and foreboding a broader grasp of antiquity. Both men show a fine sense
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alongside original works that are candid, courageous, and controversial, intent upon the correction of every evil. In one of his works he attacks the corruption and intellectual stagnation of the monastic life of that day; in another polemic, he assails the hypocrisy and sham holiness of his time; in
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of
Theophanes, a 9th-century monk of Asia Minor, and in its turn a model for later chronicles. It contains much valuable information from lost sources, and its importance for the Western world is due to the fact that by the end of the 9th century it had to be translated into Latin. A third guide-post
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apotheosizes him. In literature and history though, he follows classical models, as is evident in the precision and lucidity of his narrative acquired from Thucydides, and in the reliability of his information, qualities of special merit in the historian. Procopius and to a great degree his successor
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legend. The style is clearer and more transparent, the action more dramatic, than in the extant versions of the Digenis legend. The ethical idea is the romantic idea of knighthood—the winning of the loved one by valour and daring, not by blind chance as in the Byzantine literary romances. Along with
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in the 14th century. The Byzantine mystical writers differ from those of Western Europe chiefly in their attitude to ecclesiastical ceremonies, to which they adhered implicitly, seeing in it a profound symbol of the spiritual life of the church, where Occidentals see an attempt to displace the inner
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Some, like Bouvy and Krumbacher, place him among the greatest hymn-writers of all times; others, like Cardinal Pitra, are more conservative. For a final judgment a complete edition of the hymns is needed. Compared to Latin church poets such as Ambrose and Prudentius, his surviving works tend towards
1161:
The rhetorician Michael Italicus, later a bishop, attacks the chief weakness of Byzantine literature, external imitation; this he did on receiving a work by a patriarch, which was simply a disorderly collection of fragments from other writers, so poorly put together that the sources were immediately
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and have thus been preserved. The abbot Theodorus Studites is in every respect the opposite of Agathias, a pious man of deep earnestness, with a fine power of observation in nature and life, full of sentiment, warmth, and simplicity of expression, free from servile imitation of the ancients, though
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This inclination toward the West is most noticeable in Nicephorus Gregoras, the great pupil of Metochites. His project for a reform of the calendar ranks him among the modern intellects of his time, as will be proven if ever his numerous works in every domain of intellectual activity are brought to
969:
theologian. Originally a city chronicle, it was expanded into a world-chronicle. It is a popular historical work, full of historical and chronological errors, and the first monument of a purely popular Hellenistic civilization. The chief source for most of the later chroniclers as well as for a few
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Between the days of the French influence in the 13th and 14th centuries and those of Italian in the 16th and 17th, there was a short romantic and popular revival of the ancient legendary material. There was neither much need nor much appreciation for this revival, and few of the ancient heroes and
1926:
The love-romance of the Greek Middle Ages is the result of the fusion of the sophistical Alexandro-Byzantine romance and the medieval French popular romance, on the basis of a Hellenistic view of life and nature. This is proved by its three chief creations, composed in the 13th and 14th centuries.
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Poetry likewise had its prototypes, each genre tracing its origins to an ancient progenitor. Unlike the prose, these new genres do not follow from the classical Attic period, for the Byzantines wrote neither Iyrics nor dramas, imitating neither Pindar nor Sophocles. Imitating the literature of the
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While Byzantine historians were mostly dependent on foreign models, and seem to form a continuous series in which each succeeds the last, they do not blend into a uniform whole. Most of the historians come in either the period embracing the 6th and 7th centuries during the reigns of the East-Roman
1970:". Besides songs of various sorts and origins, they contain a complete romance, told in the form of a play on numbers, a youth being obliged to compose a hundred verses in honor of the maiden whom he worships before she returns his love, each verse corresponding to the numbers one to one hundred.
1910:
edited the original poems beyond recognition, an approximate idea of the original poem may be gathered from the numerous echoes of it extant in popular poetry. The existing versions exhibit a blending of several cycles, modeled after the Homeric poems. Its principal subjects are love, adventures,
1554:
hypothesizes that the rhythmic poetry of the Byzantines originates in the Jewish Psalms of the Septuagint. This rhythmic principle accords with the linguistic character of the later Greek, which used a stress accent as it had already been developed in Syriac poetry rather than the classical tonal
934:
Unlike the historical works, Byzantine chronicles were intended for the general public; hence the difference in their origin, development, and diffusion, as well as in their character, method, and style. While the roots of the chronicle have not yet been satisfactorily traced, their comparatively
546:. This intellectual dualism between the culture of scholars and that of the people permeates the Byzantine period. Even Hellenistic literature exhibits two distinct tendencies, one rationalistic and scholarly, the other romantic and popular: the former originated in the schools of the Alexandrian
1727:
Between ecclesiastical poetry and ecclesiastical prose stands the theologico-didactic poem, a favorite species of ancient Christian literature. One of its best examples is the "Hexaemeron" of Georgius Pisides, a spirited hymn on the universe and its marvels, i.e. all living creatures. Taken as a
1083:
A typical representative of the period appears in the following century in the person of the greatest encyclopedist of Byzantine literature, Michael Psellus. Standing between the Middle Ages and modern times, he is a jurist and a man of the world with a mind both receptive and productive. Unlike
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and the imperial reorganization he began; the historical work of her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, describes the internal conflicts that accompanied the rise of the Comneni in the form of a family chronicle (late 11th century); John VI Cantacuzene self-complacently narrates his own achievements
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introduced by Frankish knights in the 13th century and later. The Byzantines imitated and adapted the romantic and legendary materials these westerners brought. Italian influences led to the revival of the drama. That celebration of the achievements of Greek heroes in popular literature was the
1303:
The epigram suited the Byzantine taste for the ornamental and for intellectual ingenuity. It corresponded exactly to the concept of the minor arts that attained high development in the Byzantine period. Making no lofty demands on the imagination of the author, its chief difficulty lay rather in
2836:
The study of Byzantine literature as a self-sufficient discipline originated in the German-speaking world, and the most important general surveys are written in this language. Beck and Hunger remain the standard works on theological and secular literature, respectively, although Krumbacher and
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was the first great ecclesiastical poet of the Greeks to fully embrace the stress accent as a rhythmic principle. A contemporary and countryman of the chronicler Malalas, also a reformer of the Greek literary language, Romanos was a Syrian of Jewish descent, Christianized at an early age. What
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The second group of historians present a classical eclecticism veiling an unclassical partisanship and theological fanaticism. Revelling in classical forms, the historians of the period of the Comneni and Palaeologi were devoid of the classical spirit. While many had stronger, more sympathetic
729:
Classical literary tradition set the standard for Byzantine historians in their grasp of the aims of history, the manner of handling their subjects, and in style of composition. Their works are thoroughly concrete and objective in character, without passion, and even without enthusiasm. Ardent
485:
between two different forms of the same language, which were used for different purposes. However, the relations between the "high" and "low" forms of Greek changed over the centuries. The prestige of the Attic literature remained undiminished until the 7th century AD, but in the following two
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style of his letters and speeches. His extensive correspondence furnishes endless material illustrating his personal and literary character. The ennobling influence of his Attic models mark his speeches and especially his funerary orations; that delivered on the death of his mother shows deep
730:
patriotism and personal convictions are rarely evident. They are diplomatic historians, expert in the use of historical sources and in the polished tact called for by their social position; they are not cIoset-scholars, ignorant of the world, but men who stood out in public life: jurists like
2238:
Indirectly, the Empire protected western Europe for centuries from war, fighting off various invaders and migratory populations. Byzantium was also a treasury of ancient Greek literature. During the Middle Ages, until the capture of the Constantinople, the West was acquainted only with Roman
1544:
Only three kinds of ecclesiastical literature, which were as yet undeveloped in the 4th century, exhibit later an independent growth. These were the ecclesiastical poetry of the 6th century, popular lives of the saints of the 7th, and the mystic writings of the 11th and 12th centuries. The
702:
The two groups of secular prose literature show clearly the dual character of Byzantine intellectual life in its social, religious, and linguistic aspects. From this point of view historical and annalistic literature supplement each other; the former is aristocratic and secular, the latter
1126:—are natures as corrupt as Psellus' own, the majority are marked by their rectitude of intention, sincerity of feeling, and their beneficently broad culture. Among these great intellects and strong characters of the 12th century several theologians are especially conspicuous, for example
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late appearance (6th century) and total remove from Hellenistic tradition places their origins as fairly recent. The chronicle literature is originally foreign to Greek civilization, the first of which was composed by uneducated Syrians. Its presumable prototype, the "Chronography" of
1864:
There was, consequently, a complete reconstruction of the literary types of Byzantium. Of all the varieties of artistic poetry there survived only the romance, though this became more serious in its aims, and its province expanded. Of metrical forms there remained only the political
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supported and enforced this scholarly tendency. Atticism prevailed from the 2nd century BC onward, controlling all subsequent Greek culture, so that the living form of the Greek language was obscured and only occasionally found expression in private documents and popular literature.
1772:
The ascetic conception of life was embedded in the Byzantine character and was strengthened by the high development of monastic institutions. The latter in turn brought forth a broad ascetic literature, though it does not further deepen the asceticism of its great exponent, St.
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1549:
suggests that classical forms were insufficient to express Christian thought to best effect: in several collections of early Christian correspondence it is not the rhythmic laws of Greek rhetorical style which govern the composition, but those of Semitic and Syriac prose.
1229:
dealt with the question of church union, in which Gregoras took the Unionist part. This brought him bitter hostility and the loss of his teaching living; he had been occupied chiefly with the exact sciences, whereby he had already earned the hatred of orthodox Byzantines.
1754:, Leipzig, 1907.) This life describes for us a man who in spite of his peculiarities honestly tried "to realize a pure Biblical Christianity of self-sacrificing love", and whose life brings before us the customs and ideas of the lower classes of the people of Alexandria.
1855:
The chief characteristic of folk-song throughout the Greek Middle Ages is its lyric note, which constantly finds expression in emotional turns. In Byzantine literature, on the other hand, the refinement of erotic poetry was due to the influence of the love-poetry of
1185:(1106). His funeral orations over Eustathius (1195) and his brother Nicetas, though wordier and rhetorical, still evinced a noble disposition and deep feeling. Michael, like his brother, remained a fanatical opponent of the Latins. They had driven him into exile at
498:
saw a vigorous revival of imitative classicizing literature, as the Greeks sought to assert their cultural superiority over the militarily more powerful West. At the same time there was the beginning of a flourishing literature in an approximation to the vernacular
2823:, although the editor notes that "Conspicuous is the lack of any historical overview of the eleven hundred years of Byzantine Greek literature; the task is too demanding and complex to fit in this volume, and I hope to return to it in the future" (p. 13). The
2234:
were the direct heirs of Byzantine civilization; the first two particularly in ecclesiastical, political, and cultural respects (through the translation and adaptation of sacred, historical, and popular literature); the third in respect to civil government.
1327:
The chief phases in the development of the Byzantine epigram are most evident in the works of these three. Agathias, who has already been mentioned among the historians, as an epigrammatist, has the peculiarities of the school of the semi-Byzantine Egyptian
1508:
The first flowering of ecclesiastical literature of Byzantium is Hellenistic in form and Oriental in spirit. This period falls in the 4th century and is closely associated with the names of the Greek Fathers of Alexandria, Palestine, Jerusalem, Cyrene, and
554:
and culminated in the idyllic novel. Both tendencies persisted in Byzantium, but the first, as the one officially recognized, retained predominance and was not driven from the field until the fall of the empire. The reactionary linguistic movement known as
1225:
light. His letters, especially, promise a rich harvest. His method of exposition is based on that of Plato, whom he also imitated in his ecclesiastico-political discussions, e.g. in his dialogue "Florentius, or Concerning Wisdom." These disputations with
987:. It reflects somewhat the atmosphere of the Comneni renaissance; not only is the narrative better than that of Theophanes, but many passages from ancient writers are worked into the text. It was translated not only into Slavic and Latin, but into
1945:. While the first and the last of these are markedly influenced by Byzantine romance in thought and manner of treatment, the second begins to show the aesthetic and ethical influence of the Old-French romance; indeed, its story often recalls the
1865:(fifteen-syllable) verse. From these simple materials there sprang forth an abundance of new poetic types. Alongside of the narrative romance of heroism and love there sprang up popular love lyrics, and even the beginnings of the modern drama.
1670:
in praise of the Mother of God, is the last great monument of Greek church poetry, comparable to the hymns of Romanos, which it has even outlived in fame. It has had numerous imitators and as late as the 17th century was translated into Latin.
1769:. The Greek version originated in the Sabbas monastery in Palestine about the middle of the 7th century. It did not circulate widely until the 11th century, when it became known to all Western Europe through the medium of a Latin translation
880:
Between the historical writings of the first period and those of the second, there is an isolated series of works which in matter and form offer a strong contrast to both the aforesaid groups. These are the works under the name of the Emperor
1056:("Library"), which while dry and schematic remains the most valuable literary compendium of the Middle Ages, containing trustworthy summaries of many ancient works now lost, together with good characterizations and analyses such as those of
2054:
with a few minor pictures of customs and manners. These works fall chronologically outside the limits of Byzantine literature; nevertheless, as a necessary complement and continuation of the preceding period, they should be discussed here.
1402:
Two popular offshoots of the "Timarion", the "Apokopos" and the "Piccatoros" are discussed below. Another group of satires takes the form of dialogues between animals, manifestly a development from the Christian popular book known as the
1437:
Didactic poetry found its model in the "To Demonikos" ascribed to Isocrates. The greatest example of this type of literature in Byzantium is the "Spaneas" (12th century), a hortatory poem addressed by an emperor to his nephew, a sort of
417:
and others, Byzantine literature was held in low regard by academia. It was previously considered either an inferior variant of Ancient Greek or biblical literature, or only important for its contributions to Modern Greek literature.
1998:, on the other hand, though written in the popular verse and not without taste, is wholly devoid of antique local colour, and is rather a romance of French chivalry than a history of Achilles. Lastly, of two compositions on the
1304:
technique and the attainment of the utmost possible pregnancy of phrase. Two groups may be distinguished among the Byzantine epigrammatists: one pagan and humanistic, the other Christian. The former is represented chiefly by
1029:, a pronounced interest in the literature of Greek antiquity first manifested at Constantinople in the late 9th century. With the 12th century begins the period of original works imitating antique models, a revival of the
2009:
To these products of the 14th century may be added two of the 16th, both describing a descent into the lower world, evidently popular offshoots of the Timarion and Mazaris already mentioned. To the former corresponds the
1233:
While the Byzantine essayists and encyclopedists stood wholly under the influence of ancient rhetoric, still they embodied in the traditional forms their own characteristic knowledge, and thereby lent it a new charm.
889:
personalities than the school of Procopius, the very vigor of these individuals and their close ties to the imperial government served to hamper their objectivity, producing subjective, partisan works. Thus the "
1728:
whole, it is somewhat conventional; only the description of the minor forms of life, especially of the animals, reveals the skill of the epigrammatist and nature-lover's gift of affectionate observation.
514:
tradition. Each of those sources provided a series of models and references for the Byzantine writer and his readers. In occasion, both sources were referred to side by side, for example when emperor
6291:
1950:
these independent adaptations of French material, are direct translations from "Flore et Blanchefleur", "Pierre et Maguelonne", and others, which have passed into the domain of universal literature.
503:. However the vernacular literature was limited to poetic romances and popular devotional writing. All serious literature continued to make use of the archaizing language of learned Greek tradition.
680:
The following account classifies Byzantine literature into five groups. The first three include representatives of those kinds of literature which continued the ancient traditions: historians and
490:
led them to develop new literary genres, such as romantic fiction, in which adventure and love are the main elements. Satire made occasional use of elements from spoken Greek. The period from the
1295:), an iambic verse of fifteen syllables, still the standard verse of modern Greek popular poetry . In content, however, all this literature continues to bear the imprint of Byzantine erudition.
2018:, a metrical piece decidedly lengthy but rather unpoetic, while the former has many poetical passages (e.g. the procession of the dead) and betrays the influence of Italian literature. In fact
873:
Agathias remain the models of descriptive style as late as the 11th century. Procopius is the first representative of the ornate Byzantine style in literature and in this is surpassed only by
1021:
The spirit of antiquarian scholarship awoke in Byzantium earlier than in the West, but begun by lay theologians, not laymen. For this reason it always had a scholastic flavor; the Byzantine
1450:'s "Wallenstein". Such, for instance, are that of Geogillas after the great plague of Rhodes (1498) and the oracular prophecies on the end of the Byzantine empire current under the name of
942:
Not only important sources for the history of Byzantine civilization, the chronicles themselves contributed to the spread of civilization, passing Byzantine culture to the arriving Slavic,
4992:
3122:
672:). Under such circumstances it is not strange that about nine-tenths of all the Byzantine authors of the first eight centuries were natives of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor.
1189:, whence he addressed many letters to his friends illustrating his character. Stylistically influenced by Eustathius, his otherwise classical diction sounded an ecclesiastical note.
542:
and Hellenistic civilization. Alexandria through this period is the center of both Atticizing scholarship and of Graeco-Judaic social life, looking towards Athens as well as towards
2246:
Byzantine culture had a direct influence upon southern and central Europe in church music and church poetry, though this was only in the very early period (until the 7th century).
1363:
Even the best writers often could not escape composing the official panegyrics on emperors and their achievements. Typical of this kind of literature are the commemorative poem of
1375:
on the glory of the prince. Unfavorable conclusions must not be drawn as to the character of these poets, for such eulogies were composed by not only courtiers like Psellus and
2184:
The Roman supremacy in governmental life did not disappear. The subjection of the Church to the power of the State led to a governmental ecclesiasticism, causing friction with
3832:
1929:
1153:
The three theologians may best be judged by their letters and minor occasional writings. Eustathius seems to be the most important, writing learned commentary on Homer and
1666:
Ecclesiastical poetry did not long remain on the high level to which Romanos had raised it. The "Hymnus Acathistus" (of unknown authorship) of the 7th century, a sort of
684:, encyclopedists and essayists, and writers of secular poetry. The other two include new literary genres, ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular poetry.
1462:
A late Byzantine variety of the laudatory poem is the begging-poem, the poetical lament of hungry authors and the parasites of the court. Its chief representatives are
2034:
As a rich popular poetry sprang up during the last-mentioned period on the islands off the coast of Asia Minor, so now a similar literature developed on the island of
786:, and others. The Byzantine historians thus represent not only the social but also the intellectual flower of their time, resembling in this their Greek predecessors,
1966:
About the same time and in the same locality the small islands off the coast of Asia Minor, appeared the earliest collection of neo-Greek love songs, known as the "
902:(14th century). This group exhibits striking antitheses both personal and objective. Beside Cinnamus, who honestly hated everything Western, stand the broad-minded
4985:
1941:
1816:, but in the plan of his principal work, "Life in Christ", exhibits a complete independence of all other worlds and is without a parallel in Byzantine asceticism.
442:, who shared the literary values of their pagan contemporaries. Consequently, the vast Christian literature of the 3rd to 6th centuries established a synthesis of
2829:
provides excellent coverage of individual authors and topics. The chapters of Horrocks that cover the medieval period are useful for the "language question." The
1581:
Romanos borrowed the form of his poems, the material, and many of their themes partly from the Bible and partly from the (metrical) homilies of the Syrian Father
1048:
The new spirit first found expression in an academy founded for classical studies at Constantinople in 863. About the same time the broadly trained and energetic
341:. Most scholars consider 'literature' to include all medieval Greek texts, but some define it with specific constraints. Byzantine literature is the successor to
1064:. This encyclopedic activity was more assiduously pursued in the 10th century, particularly in the systematic collecting of materials associated with Emperor
6497:
4065:
1994:
1597:
a more rhetorically flowery, digressive, and dogmatic verse. He is fond of symbolic pictures and figures of speech, antitheses, assonances, especially witty
1284:
2524:
1493:
6286:
4978:
2952:
1425:(11th century). One example of this sacrilegious literature, though not fully understood, is the "Mockery of a Beardless Man," in the form of an obscene
1030:
636:
and where later arose the Christian universal chronicles. In surrounding Syria, we find the germs of Greek ecclesiastical poetry, while from neighboring
965:, respectively. The first is the earliest Christian Byzantine monastic chronicle, composed in the Antioch in the 6th century by a hellenized Syrian and
877:
in the 7th century. Despite their unclassical form, however, they approach the ancients in their freedom from ecclesiastical and dogmatic tendencies.
3045:
1832:
in the year 1204 displaced or supplanted aristocratic and ecclesiastic controls on literary taste and style. In response to new influences from the
426:
Many of the classical Greek genres, such as drama and choral lyric poetry, had been obsolete by late antiquity, and all medieval literature in the
2239:
literature. Greek antiquity was first carried to Italy by the treasures brought by fugitive Greek humanists, many of whom were delegates at the
4941:
3295:
3196:
1808:
in his tendency towards pantheism. Of Symeon's equally distinguished pupil, Nicetas Stethatos, we need only say that he cast off his teacher's
849:(the 9th and 10th centuries) the Byzantine world produced great heroes, but no great historians, excepting the solitary figure of the Emperor
6086:
4629:
3206:
3139:
1442:". Some few offshoots from this are found in the popular literature of Crete in the 15th and 16th centuries, handed down under the names of
5982:
3154:
3149:
604:. At Alexandria the great Greek ecclesiastical writers worked alongside pagan rhetoricians and philosophers; several were born here, e.g.
4230:
3216:
3191:
572:
split into West and East, it was in the latter half, where the Byzantine state entered history; its citizens were still known as Romans (
293:
458:
that was spoken by all classes of Byzantine society in their everyday lives. In addition, this literary style was also removed from the
5814:
4581:
4564:
3221:
3201:
2678:
2543:
1906:
in Eastern Asia Minor. The nucleus of this epic goes back to the 12th or 13th century, its final literary form to the 15th. Though the
1593:, are purely descriptive in character, though even in them the rhetorical and dogmatic elements seriously impair the artistic effect.
4280:
4126:
4098:
3742:
3734:
3211:
3144:
1704:), written in the 11th or 12th century; of its 2,640 verses, about one-third are borrowed from ancient dramas, chiefly from those of
2102:
Other products of Cretan literature are a few adaptations of Italian pastorals, a few erotic and idyllic poems, like the so-called "
1095:), both ecclesiastical and secular, of the following centuries would be inconceivable without the triumph of Psellus over Byzantine
1025:
spirit savored of antiquity and the Middle Ages in equal proportion. Primarily directed to the systematic collection and sifting of
6605:
6053:
5419:
4476:
3837:
2207:
had made great progress, and by the 11th Greek was supreme, though it never supplanted the numerous other languages of the empire.
1165:
The pupil and friend of Eustathius, Michael Acominatus (12th and 13th centuries) Archbishop of Athens and brother of the historian
100:
6018:
4325:
72:
846:
4805:
4330:
2312:
856:
The first period is dominated by Procopius because of his subject matter and his literary importance. Typically Byzantine, his
4729:
3489:
3482:
3038:
2971:
2789:
2697:
2663:
2562:
2493:
2145:
176:
53:
1780:
Less extensively cultivated, but excelling in quality, are Byzantine mystical writings. The true founder of a distinctively
132:
79:
4481:
4340:
3628:
1742:
More popular in style are the biographers of saints of the 6th and 7th centuries. The oldest and most important of them is
17:
3472:
588:
translation had been made; there that that fusion of Greek philosophy and Jewish religion took place which culminated in
4810:
4223:
1415:
1218:
262:
2949:(Berlin, 1958) (A deceptive title: in fact the most important history of Byzantine secular literature before Hunger).
86:
6079:
4911:
3477:
2939:
2914:
2906:
2884:
2869:
2850:
2723:
2322:
2171:
1708:, and Mary, the chief character, sometimes recites verses from the "Medea" of Euripides, again from the "Electra" of
1421:
Here belong also the parodies in the form of church poems, and in which the clergy themselves took part, e.g. Bishop
119:
2833:
of Kazhdan covers only the early period. Beaton and Lauxtermann are useful on "low" and "high" verse, respectively.
2153:
664:
are the real birthplaces of the Graeco-Oriental church and Byzantine civilization in general. Egypt and Syria, with
3974:
3031:
806:
763:
6539:
2597:
2002:, one is wholly crude and barbarous, the other, though better, is a literal translation of the old French poem of
6625:
5972:
4946:
4768:
3300:
3068:
2984:
2579:
2073:
is more of a mosaic, being a combination of two Italian tragedies, with the addition of lyrical intermezzos from
1813:
1065:
882:
850:
725:
woman killing a Varangian who tried to rape her, whereupon his comrades praised her and gave her his possessions.
357:
286:
68:
3003:
1894:, a popular poetic crystallization of the 10th- and 11th-century conflicts between the Byzantine wardens of the
6615:
6350:
4916:
4906:
4778:
4699:
4517:
4385:
3957:
3901:
3822:
3689:
2825:
2684:
2549:
2149:
1825:
1268:
697:
202:
147:
57:
6595:
5977:
5882:
4773:
4763:
4678:
4433:
4218:
2575:
2538:
1574:
1288:
518:
justified his actions of seizing church property to pay his soldiers by referring to the earlier examples of
3653:
1037:
literature, a number of writers showing vigorous originality. Quite isolated between the two periods stands
6630:
6600:
6298:
6072:
5711:
5412:
4847:
4815:
4719:
4428:
4400:
4208:
3747:
3018:
1521:—became canonical for the whole Byzantine period; the last important work is the ecclesiastical history of
1446:
and Depharanus. Here also belong the ranting theological exhortations resembling those of the Capuchin in
6557:
5641:
4571:
4213:
4060:
3817:
3568:
2222:. These cultures differed ethnographically, linguistically, ecclesiastically, and historically. Imperial
1049:
775:
6569:
6485:
4891:
4837:
4576:
4448:
4438:
4138:
4018:
3896:
3827:
3715:
3684:
3527:
3467:
2647:
1935:
1127:
279:
2819:
There is no comprehensive history of Byzantine literature written in English; the closest is the 2021
2592:
6610:
6562:
6480:
6239:
6221:
6028:
5683:
5296:
4751:
4275:
4131:
3916:
3807:
3694:
1833:
1792:
1413:
remarks upon the clergy, the bureaucracy, the foreign nations in the Byzantine Empire, etc. See also
1309:
568:
Alexandria, the intellectual center, is balanced by Rome, the center of government. When the unified
393:
2106:" (an echo of the Rhodian Love-Songs), and the lovely, but ultra-sentimental, pastoral idyll of the
6422:
6318:
6196:
5946:
5786:
4050:
3802:
3289:
3168:
2134:
1485:
874:
342:
6502:
2003:
93:
6620:
6328:
6116:
6008:
5956:
5887:
5806:
5405:
5031:
4956:
4380:
4106:
3926:
3812:
2773:
2689:
2606:
2554:
2294:
2263:
2138:
1111:
936:
511:
346:
165:
46:
813:, in the 11th and 12th centuries, show the influence of Xenophon in their writing; 13th-century
6231:
5917:
5825:
5734:
5563:
4881:
4471:
4313:
3757:
3563:
3537:
3532:
3305:
3281:
3277:
3244:
2604:
van Dieten, Jan Louis (1980). "Die Byzantinische Literatur - Eine Literatur Ohne Geschichte?".
2022:
impressed its popular character on the Greek popular poetry of the 16th and 17th centuries, as
1959:
1735:
flourished from the 6th to the 11th century. This species of literature developed from the old
1391:. His celebrated "Dialogues of the Dead" furnished the model for two works, one of which, the "
495:
192:
6362:
2781:
2062:
is a long romantic poem of chivalry, lyric in characters and didactic in purpose, the work of
974:(c. early 10th century). Superior in substance and form, and more properly historical, is the
6455:
6417:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6151:
6033:
5921:
5841:
5820:
5771:
5203:
4970:
4599:
4453:
3643:
3553:
3517:
3402:
3132:
3127:
2837:
Moravcsik are still valuable. Rosenqvist is a recent and useful introduction to the subject.
2739:
2529:
2185:
1812:
tendencies. The last great mystic Kavasilas, Archbishop of Saloniki, revived the teaching of
1788:
1522:
759:
739:
1529:, later works consist merely of compilations and commentaries, in the form of the so-called
6544:
6470:
6440:
6427:
6377:
6372:
6340:
6335:
6176:
6131:
6121:
6023:
6003:
5851:
5810:
5480:
5143:
5021:
4842:
4825:
4405:
4370:
4253:
4190:
4185:
3720:
3663:
2998:
2712:
2302:
1837:
1758:
1743:
1686:
1558:
1497:
1264:
1119:
958:
907:
693:
641:
8:
6549:
6475:
6460:
6445:
6303:
6276:
6246:
6201:
6141:
6136:
6126:
6111:
6095:
5998:
5846:
5626:
5584:
5452:
5318:
5066:
3752:
3668:
3658:
3522:
3285:
3273:
3160:
2240:
2079:
2063:
1985:
1981:
1463:
1364:
1338:
1256:
1226:
1193:
1147:
1143:
1070:
1061:
1042:
971:
826:
814:
783:
755:
717:
633:
617:
222:
2734:
1577:
from the Rossano Gospels, believed to be the oldest surviving illustrated New Testament.
1422:
1320:(9th century). Between the two groups, in point of time as well as in character, stands
6574:
6534:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6492:
6465:
6432:
6407:
6387:
6357:
6271:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6226:
6206:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6171:
6161:
6156:
5776:
5673:
5462:
5308:
5238:
5233:
5153:
4830:
4820:
4694:
4365:
4248:
4165:
4028:
3380:
3360:
3340:
3330:
3096:
2756:
2623:
2019:
1800:
1685:, in the opinion of the Byzantines the foremost writer of canones, who took as a model
1674:
The rapid decline of Greek hymnology begins as early as the 7th century, the period of
1569:
1489:
1443:
1439:
1409:. Such satires describe assemblages of quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, and recite their
1332:(about AD 400). He wrote in an affected and turgid style, in the classical form of the
1317:
1178:
1166:
1135:
903:
898:
771:
767:
751:
743:
711:
637:
550:
and culminated in the rhetorical romance, the latter rooted in the idyllic tendency of
515:
353:
252:
197:
5178:
434:. This practice was perpetuated by a long-established system of Greek education where
6509:
6450:
6367:
6308:
6281:
6266:
6216:
6166:
6146:
6106:
5902:
5867:
5729:
5705:
5363:
5283:
5273:
5046:
4952:
4886:
4791:
4724:
4704:
4672:
4604:
4591:
4512:
4507:
4258:
4023:
3873:
3392:
3345:
3335:
3325:
2967:
2935:
2910:
2902:
2880:
2865:
2846:
2785:
2719:
2693:
2673:
2659:
2635:
2558:
2489:
2307:
2211:
2196:
2023:
1976:
1873:
1849:
1796:
1774:
1582:
1513:. Their works, which cover the whole field of ecclesiastical prose literature—dogma,
1321:
1174:
601:
447:
410:
267:
237:
232:
212:
207:
6529:
6382:
6345:
6313:
6211:
5938:
5907:
5781:
5650:
5472:
5253:
5243:
5223:
5091:
5076:
5071:
4756:
4549:
4497:
4443:
4410:
4360:
4153:
4143:
3921:
3609:
3501:
3424:
3407:
3385:
3370:
3355:
3269:
3054:
2777:
2748:
2651:
2615:
2259:
2215:
1682:
1538:
1376:
1372:
1313:
1197:
1139:
1131:
988:
943:
810:
722:
487:
478:
438:
was a leading subject. A typical product of this Byzantine education was the Greek
318:
310:
157:
2802:
Papaioannou, Stratis (2021a). "What Is Byzantine Literature? An Introduction". In
805:
The Atticist influence on Byzantine literature continued through later centuries.
6412:
6048:
6038:
5744:
5579:
5493:
5457:
5447:
5188:
5173:
5168:
5133:
5108:
5081:
5056:
5041:
5026:
5005:
4901:
4734:
4714:
4709:
4664:
4654:
4614:
4609:
4559:
4554:
4335:
3941:
3858:
3853:
3593:
3583:
3419:
3413:
3397:
3375:
3365:
3350:
2964:
Die byzantinische Literatur: vom 6. Jahrhundert bis zum Fall Konstantinopels 1453
2920:
2619:
2587:
2483:
2250:
1988:
of the Ptolemaic period, which is also the source of the western versions of the
1890:
1877:
1747:
1675:
1479:
1451:
1351:
1260:
1038:
992:
984:
962:
954:
669:
661:
657:
402:
326:
257:
227:
217:
5756:
2269:
Byzantine culture had a definite impact upon the Near East, especially upon the
584:
It was in Alexandria that Graeco-Oriental Christianity had its birth. There the
5897:
5892:
5877:
5761:
5749:
5532:
5428:
5353:
5333:
5313:
5288:
5278:
5263:
5248:
5218:
5183:
5163:
5113:
5103:
5098:
5086:
5061:
5051:
4739:
4619:
4352:
4111:
4005:
3991:
3790:
3494:
3249:
2890:
2639:
2327:
2317:
2270:
2231:
2219:
2204:
2074:
1766:
1551:
1202:
947:
868:
645:
632:
held great prestige, where a school of Christian commentators flourished under
507:
491:
455:
443:
439:
431:
427:
414:
377:
182:
5128:
1911:
battles, and a patriarchal, idyllic enjoyment of life; it is a mixture of the
6589:
6013:
5912:
5739:
5724:
5692:
5636:
5631:
5606:
5506:
5387:
5343:
5328:
5323:
5268:
5258:
5228:
5208:
5193:
5148:
5118:
5036:
5016:
4659:
4536:
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Religious drama did not thrive in the Byzantine era. The only example is the
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Pseudo-classical artificiality found an even more advanced representative in
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The Eastern Roman Empire divided European civilization into two parts: one
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1954:
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970:
church historians, it is also the earliest popular history translated into
894:
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143:
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1974:
their heroic deeds are adequately treated. The best of these works is the
1566:, and where he is said to have first developed his gift for hymn-writing.
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The ancient Greek novel was imitated by four writers of the 12th century:
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a third he denounces the conceit and arrogance of the Byzantine priests.
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Amphoteroglossia': A Poetics of the Twelfth-Century Medieval Greek Novel
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emperors, or that extending from the 11th to the 15th century under the
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2488:, Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, p. 372,
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of the 13th century, it shows the increasing trend towards the use of
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The oldest of these three civilizations is the Greek, centered not in
450:. As a result, Byzantine literature was largely written in a style of
5928:
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2644:
Studies on Byzantine Literature of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries
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1713:
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Greek Christianity had of necessity a pronounced Oriental character;
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2123:
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2517: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
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2747:(Homo Byzantinus: Papers in Honor of Alexander Kazhdan): 233–243.
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was written in an archaizing style, which imitated the writers of
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1138:; in the 13th and 14th centuries several secular scholars, like
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and is often regarded as the only surviving epic poem from the
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1255:, and didactic and hortatory poetry, following the models of
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830:
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467:
2439:
1503:
1395:" (12th century) is marked by more rude humour, the other, "
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being the last Latin monument. As early as the 7th century
1525:. Beyond controversial writings against sectarians and the
1206:
1186:
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1013:
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in the history of Byzantine chronicles is the 12th-century
385:
2463:
2858:
Kirche und theologische Literatur im byzantinischen Reich
2485:
John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811-1057
2415:
1007:
A page from a 16th-century edition of the vast Byzantine
2014:, a satire of the dead on the living; to the latter the
2370:
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2262:. It is considered by some to signal the beginnings of
1003:
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2364:
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2348:
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The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the
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or outside its borders. It was marked by a linguistic
2451:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2038:. Its most important creations are the romantic epic
1221:), vastly enlarged the Eastern intellectual horizon.
1177:'s to the Romans, and this with the lament of Bishop
953:
Representative Byzantine chronicles are the three of
2895:
Die hochsprachliche profane Literatur der Byzantiner
2284:
2427:
2403:
2345:
1454:(886–911). (Krumbacher, 332, 336, 343, 352, 366.)
1275:. Didactic poetry looks to an earlier prototype by
1080:, make the 10th century that of the encyclopedias.
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2711:
2677:
2542:
2380:
906:(12th century) and the conciliatory but dignified
2877:Greek: a history of the language and its speakers
1722:Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences
6587:
1312:(11th century), the latter by the ecclesiastics
2634:
2469:
998:
400:became obsolete. The influential romantic epic
3414:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
2899:Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
2862:Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
352:The tradition saw the competing influences of
27:Greek texts of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453)
6080:
5413:
4986:
3039:
2188:, which had remained relatively independent.
1720:in its relation to the text of Euripides" in
287:
5983:Institute for Language and Speech Processing
2801:
2718:. Athens: Institute for Byzantine Research.
2646:. Past and Present Publications. Cambridge:
2421:
2254:(Διγενῆς Ἀκρίτας) is the most famous of the
146:, in a 12th-century manuscript. Kept in the
3053:
2821:The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature
2803:
2770:The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature
2767:
2714:A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850)
2152:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1074:and the scientific dictionary known as the
687:
6087:
6073:
5420:
5406:
4993:
4979:
3046:
3032:
2603:
2522:
2445:
592:; there flourished the mystic speculative
349:, although it overlaps with both periods.
294:
280:
2932:Byzantine poetry from Psides to Geometres
2172:Learn how and when to remove this message
1504:Ecclesiastical and theological literature
1243:Alexandrian period, they wrote romances,
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
6054:Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries
2925:Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur
2580:"Greek literature: Byzantine literature"
2574:
2537:
2409:
2374:
2029:
1867:
1757:The romance of Balaam and Joasaph (also
1568:
1345:
1101:
1002:
917:
710:
329:were used, a scholarly dialect based on
131:
6094:
4302:
2782:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199351763.001.0001
2732:
2709:
2672:
2481:
2457:
2433:
2397:
360:, and earlier in the empire's history,
14:
6588:
2313:Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae
506:Byzantine literature has two sources:
384:. Poetry was often limited to musical
6068:
5401:
4974:
4870:
4301:
4086:
3778:
3445:
3066:
3027:
2199:of the government, the "Novellae" of
628:began and thrived. After Alexandria,
364:. There was a general flourishing of
4087:
2533:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
2150:adding citations to reliable sources
2117:
1173:compared the inaugural address with
715:An illumination of a scene from the
481:was marked for over 1000 years by a
454:Greek, far removed from the popular
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
3789:
1724:, VIII, 363–378; Krumbacher, 312.)
1118:While among his successors—such as
477:In this manner, the culture of the
24:
5427:
2814:
2768:Papaioannou, Stratis, ed. (2021).
2523:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
1416:An Entertaining Tale of Quadrupeds
1387:The father of Byzantine satire is
421:
25:
6642:
4912:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
2978:
2323:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
1819:
1237:
1181:on the demolition of Rome by the
1110:, showing the daily cycle of the
893:", the pedantic work of Princess
5381:
5006:different cultures and languages
4951:
3012:
2512:
2287:
2122:
1765:, for the origin of Joasaph was
1473:
807:Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger
764:Nicephorus Bryennius the Younger
164:
34:
6606:Culture of the Byzantine Empire
5973:Hellenic Foundation for Culture
3301:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
3123:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
2682:. In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.).
2547:. In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.).
2026:had done in the 13th and 14th.
1814:Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite
1457:
1066:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
883:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
851:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
774:; and even crowned heads, like
45:needs additional citations for
4386:Great Palace of Constantinople
4127:Patriarchate of Constantinople
3446:
2826:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
2685:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
2550:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
2475:
913:
762:; generals and diplomats like
698:List of Greek historiographers
409:Until recent scholarship from
148:Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana
13:
1:
5978:Center for the Greek Language
5536:
5523:
5510:
5497:
5484:
2598:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
2333:
1575:Parable of the Good Samaritan
1358:
1106:A Modern copy of a Byzantine
706:
4848:University of Constantinople
4429:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
3779:
3579:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
3268:Byzantine successor states (
3004:Resources in other libraries
2620:10.1524/hzhz.1980.231.jg.101
2338:
2083:, and choral songs from his
1650:Naught bringeth destruction.
999:Encyclopedists and essayists
579:
7:
4518:Saint Catherine's Monastery
3574:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
3569:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
3067:
2710:Kazhdan, Alexander (1999).
2482:Wortley, John, ed. (2010),
2470:Kazhdan & Franklin 1984
2280:
1984:, a revised version of the
1930:Kallimachos and Chrysorrhoe
1659:Who helpeth the fallen ones
1466:and the grossly flattering
1432:
776:Constantine Porphyrogenitus
651:
470:and the writers of ancient
177:Aristocracy and bureaucracy
10:
6647:
4907:Neo-Byzantine architecture
4871:
3528:Comes sacrarum largitionum
2843:The medieval Greek romance
2733:Mullett, Margaret (1992).
2648:Cambridge University Press
2505:
2191:Greek eventually overtook
1957:belongs also the metrical
1936:Belthandros and Chrysantza
1477:
1382:
1354:, being crowned by Christ.
1298:
1128:Eustathius of Thessalonica
845:. At its zenith under the
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4477:Sant'Apollinare in Classe
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2999:Resources in your library
2959:(Cambridge, Mass., 2005).
2113:
2069:The lyrical love tragedy
1828:and establishment of the
1826:capture of Constantinople
1793:Symeon the New Theologian
1712:, or the "Prometheus" of
1635:Cease then your mourning,
1367:on the dedication of the
1310:Christophorus of Mitylene
675:
392:tradition, while ancient
388:forms, or the more niche
317:, whether written in the
4051:Droungarios of the Fleet
2864:12,2,1) (Munich, 1977).
2656:10.1017/CBO9780511735424
2096:The Sacrifice of Abraham
2052:The Sacrifice of Abraham
1980:, based on the story of
1644:So bloom now, ye lilies,
1620:And with us proclaim it:
1486:Eustathios Makrembolites
995:as well (16th century).
875:Theophylaktos Simokattes
688:Historians and annalists
563:
529:
343:Ancient Greek literature
325:; two distinct forms of
6009:Greek language question
4565:Early Byzantine mosaics
3927:Domestic of the Schools
2901:12,5) (Munich, 1978) .
2797:(subscription required)
2774:Oxford University Press
2705:(subscription required)
2690:Oxford University Press
2607:Historische Zeitschrift
2593:Encyclopædia Britannica
2570:(subscription required)
2555:Oxford University Press
2295:Byzantine Empire portal
2264:modern Greek literature
1731:Besides sacred poetry,
1638:Rejoice in blessedness:
1608:Why veil ye your faces?
1605:Why thus faint-hearted?
1573:An illustration of the
1112:Eastern Orthodox Church
937:Sextus Julius Africanus
897:, glorifies her father
866:as emphatically as his
347:Modern Greek literature
345:and forms the basis of
6626:Literature by language
4882:Byzantine commonwealth
3644:Praetorian prefectures
3564:Logothetes tou genikou
3538:Quaestor sacri palatii
3533:Comes rerum privatarum
3306:Fall of Constantinople
3245:Sack of Constantinople
2735:"The Madness of Genre"
2218:, the other Greek and
1960:Chronicle of the Morea
1942:Lybistros and Rhodamne
1885:
1656:And shout: Risen is He
1647:Bloom and be fruitful!
1632:Of the giver of light.
1578:
1355:
1115:
1018:
931:
726:
522:and the biblical king
496:Fall of Constantinople
406:is a major exception.
151:
69:"Byzantine literature"
6616:History of literature
4582:Komnenian renaissance
4577:Macedonian period art
4482:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
4454:Walls of Thessaloniki
3554:Logothetes tou dromou
3169:Twenty Years' Anarchy
3133:Valentinianic dynasty
3128:Constantinian dynasty
3021:at Wikimedia Commons
2740:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
2584:Lucas, Donald William
2530:Catholic Encyclopedia
2186:Roman Catholic Church
2108:Beautiful Shepherdess
2030:Cretan popular poetry
2004:Benoît de Sainte-More
1871:
1789:Maximus the Confessor
1626:Gleaming and gloried,
1623:The Lord is ascended,
1572:
1547:Catholic Encyclopedia
1535:Fountain of Knowledge
1349:
1105:
1006:
921:
760:Laonicus Chalcondyles
714:
692:Further information:
135:
6596:Byzantine literature
6019:Morphemes in English
6004:Eteocypriot language
5436:Origin and genealogy
4779:Units of measurement
4513:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
4406:Pammakaristos Church
4254:Corpus Juris Civilis
4205:Missionary activity
3664:Exarchate of Ravenna
3490:Imperial bureaucracy
3019:Byzantine literature
2990:Byzantine literature
2525:Byzantine Literature
2303:Byzantine philosophy
2146:improve this section
1838:Apollonius of Rhodes
1759:Barlaam and Josaphat
1744:Cyril of Scythopolis
1687:Gregory of Nazianzus
1641:Springtime has come.
1611:Lift up your hearts!
1559:Romanos the Melodist
1498:Constantine Manasses
1369:church of St. Sophia
1350:The Scholar Emperor
1144:Theodorus Metochites
1120:Nicephorus Blemmydes
959:Theophanes Confessor
930:as an artistic tool.
908:Georgius Acropolites
862:depreciates Emperor
694:Greek historiography
642:St. John of Damascus
380:, which became less
307:Byzantine literature
54:improve this article
18:Byzantine Literature
6631:European literature
6601:Medieval literature
6096:European literature
6024:Terms of endearment
5999:Eteocretan language
5966:Promotion and study
5453:Pre-Greek substrate
4303:Culture and society
4166:Ecumenical councils
3669:Exarchate of Africa
3659:Quaestura exercitus
3523:Magister officiorum
3518:Praetorian prefects
3161:Byzantine Dark Ages
2845:(Cambridge, 1989).
2588:Mackridge, Peter A.
2448:, pp. 101–105.
2243:from 1431 to 1449.
2241:Council of Florence
2080:Jerusalem Delivered
2064:Vitsentzos Kornaros
1986:Pseudo-Callisthenes
1982:Alexander the Great
1694:Suffering of Christ
1617:Join in the dances,
1464:Theodorus Prodromus
1365:Paulus Silentiarius
1339:Anthologia Palatina
1285:Charles Peter Mason
1194:Theodore Metochites
1148:Nicephorus Gregoras
1071:Anthologia Palatina
1043:Italian Renaissance
981:Universal Chronicle
972:Old Church Slavonic
827:Georgius Pachymeres
815:Nicephorus Gregoras
784:John VI Cantacuzene
756:Georgius Pachymeres
718:Skylitzes Chronicle
634:St. John Chrysostom
624:. On Egyptian soil
612:, and his opponent
466:, reaching back to
376:, and particularly
6044:Greek Language Day
5674:Jewish Koine Greek
5463:Hellenic languages
4720:Flags and insignia
4366:Baths of Zeuxippus
4249:Codex Theodosianus
4139:Oriental Orthodoxy
3097:Later Roman Empire
2930:M.D. Lauxtermann,
2804:Papaioannou (2021)
2674:Kazhdan, Alexander
2636:Kazhdan, Alexander
2020:Italian literature
1968:Rhodian Love-Songs
1886:
1801:Nikolaos Kavasilas
1579:
1494:Niketas Eugenianos
1490:Theodore Prodromos
1440:Mirror for Princes
1356:
1318:Theodorus Studites
1316:(7th century) and
1308:(6th century) and
1179:Hildebert of Tours
1167:Nicetas Acominatus
1136:Michael Acominatus
1116:
1019:
932:
904:Nicetas Acominatus
847:Macedonian dynasty
821:as his model; and
772:Georgius Phrantzes
768:George Acropolites
752:Nicetas Acominatus
744:Michael Attaliates
727:
512:Orthodox Christian
382:individual-focused
152:
6583:
6582:
6062:
6061:
5868:Cypriot syllabary
5795:
5794:
5669:Hellenistic Koine
5395:
5394:
5388:Poetry portal
4968:
4967:
4930:
4929:
4887:Byzantine studies
4862:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4673:Alexander Romance
4531:
4530:
4508:Nea Moni of Chios
4371:Blachernae Palace
4293:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4259:Code of Justinian
4107:Eastern Orthodoxy
4078:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4000:
3999:
3874:Scholae Palatinae
3770:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3735:Foreign relations
3729:
3728:
3623:
3622:
3437:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3236:(1204–1453)
3017:Media related to
2985:Library resources
2972:978-3-11-018878-3
2953:Panagiotis Roilos
2791:978-0-19-935176-3
2699:978-0-19-504652-6
2665:978-0-511-73542-4
2564:978-0-19-504652-6
2495:978-0-521-76705-7
2422:Papaioannou 2021a
2308:Byzantine science
2197:official language
2182:
2181:
2174:
2024:French literature
1990:Alexander Romance
1977:Alexander Romance
1955:Frankish conquest
1953:To the period of
1874:Troodos Mountains
1799:in the 11th, and
1797:Nicetas Stethatos
1775:Basil of Caesarea
1653:Clap we our hands
1614:Christ is arisen!
1322:Joannes Geometres
1198:Maximos Planoudes
1175:Gregory the Great
1146:, and above all,
1031:Alexandrian essay
746:, statesmen like
448:Christian thought
411:Alexander Kazhdan
304:
303:
158:Byzantine culture
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
6638:
6611:Greek literature
6506:
6436:
6295:
6235:
6089:
6082:
6075:
6066:
6065:
5787:Greco-Australian
5560:
5559:
5541:
5538:
5528:
5525:
5515:
5512:
5502:
5499:
5489:
5486:
5422:
5415:
5408:
5399:
5398:
5386:
5385:
4995:
4988:
4981:
4972:
4971:
4955:
4868:
4867:
4811:Imperial Library
4757:Byzantine Greeks
4498:Daphni Monastery
4449:Panagia Chalkeon
4444:Hagios Demetrios
4411:Prison of Anemas
4361:Basilica Cistern
4319:
4318:
4310:
4309:
4299:
4298:
4154:West Syriac Rite
4144:Alexandrian Rite
4095:
4094:
4088:Religion and law
4084:
4083:
4019:Maritime themata
3975:Palaiologan army
3828:Military manuals
3796:
3795:
3787:
3786:
3776:
3775:
3634:
3633:
3610:Megas logothetes
3461:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3443:
3442:
3316:By modern region
3237:
3184:
3183:(717–1204)
3115:
3077:
3076:
3064:
3063:
3055:Byzantine Empire
3048:
3041:
3034:
3025:
3024:
3016:
2966:(Berlin, 2007).
2947:Byzantinoturcica
2934:(Vienna, 2003).
2879:(London, 1997).
2807:
2798:
2795:
2764:
2729:
2717:
2706:
2703:
2681:
2669:
2631:
2614:(H 1): 101–109.
2600:
2576:Browning, Robert
2571:
2568:
2546:
2539:Browning, Robert
2534:
2516:
2515:
2499:
2498:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2378:
2372:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2260:Byzantine Empire
2177:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2157:
2126:
2118:
1884:in the epic poem
1880:used to jump to
1752:Kleine Schriften
1718:Christos paschon
1698:Christus Patiens
1683:John of Damascus
1539:John of Damascus
1429:(14th century).
1423:Nicetas of Serræ
1377:Manuel Holobolos
1373:Georgius Pisides
1324:(10th century).
1314:Georgius Pisides
1140:Maximus Planudes
1132:Michael Italicus
811:Joannes Cinnamus
748:Joannes Cinnamus
596:associated with
516:Alexius Comnenus
488:Byzantine Greeks
479:Byzantine Empire
462:language of the
319:Byzantine Empire
311:Greek literature
296:
289:
282:
179:
168:
154:
153:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
6646:
6645:
6641:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6635:
6586:
6585:
6584:
6579:
6570:Western Lombard
6540:Turkish Cypriot
6500:
6486:Scottish Gaelic
6434:
6289:
6233:
6098:
6093:
6063:
6058:
6049:Trojan language
6039:Minoan language
5987:
5961:
5933:
5861:Writing systems
5856:
5852:Standard Modern
5830:
5826:Standard Modern
5791:
5745:Greco/Calabrian
5678:
5655:
5551:
5539:
5526:
5513:
5500:
5494:Mycenaean Greek
5487:
5467:
5458:Graeco-Phrygian
5448:Graeco-Armenian
5431:
5426:
5396:
5391:
5380:
5373:
5008:
4999:
4969:
4964:
4961:
4926:
4902:Cyrillic script
4873:
4854:
4799:
4783:
4683:
4665:Digenes Akritas
4641:
4586:
4527:
4491:Other locations
4486:
4458:
4415:
4347:
4336:Cross-in-square
4304:
4285:
4235:
4089:
4070:
3996:
3946:
3942:Varangian Guard
3885:
3859:East Roman army
3854:Late Roman army
3842:
3781:
3762:
3725:
3704:
3673:
3619:
3598:
3594:Epi ton deeseon
3584:Epi tou eidikou
3542:
3506:
3448:
3429:
3416:
3319:
3317:
3310:
3296:Palaiologan era
3238:
3235:
3226:
3197:Nikephorian era
3185:
3182:
3173:
3116:
3114:(330–717)
3113:
3104:
3084:
3071:
3058:
3052:
3010:
3009:
3008:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2981:
2962:J. Rosenqvist,
2927:(Munich, 1897).
2817:
2815:Further reading
2812:
2796:
2792:
2753:10.2307/1291656
2726:
2704:
2700:
2666:
2640:Franklin, Simon
2569:
2565:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2502:
2496:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2446:van Dieten 1980
2444:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2381:
2373:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2293:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2251:Digenes Akritas
2178:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2143:
2127:
2116:
2044:and the dramas
2032:
1891:Digenis Akritas
1878:Digenis Akritas
1822:
1748:Heinrich Gelzer
1702:Χριστὸς пάσχων
1676:Andrew of Crete
1629:He who was born
1506:
1482:
1480:Byzantine novel
1476:
1460:
1435:
1385:
1361:
1352:Constantine VII
1301:
1261:Achilles Tatius
1240:
1039:Michael Psellus
1001:
963:Joannes Zonaras
955:Joannes Malalas
916:
709:
700:
690:
678:
658:Ptolemaic Egypt
654:
582:
566:
532:
508:Classical Greek
424:
422:Characteristics
403:Digenes Akritas
327:Byzantine Greek
300:
175:
142:, a history by
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6644:
6634:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6621:Greek language
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6581:
6580:
6578:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6566:
6565:
6560:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6495:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6483:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6354:
6353:
6351:Northern Irish
6343:
6338:
6333:
6332:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6244:
6243:
6242:
6240:Middle English
6237:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6103:
6100:
6099:
6092:
6091:
6084:
6077:
6069:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5995:
5993:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5969:
5967:
5963:
5962:
5960:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5943:
5941:
5935:
5934:
5932:
5931:
5926:
5925:
5924:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5900:
5898:Greek numerals
5895:
5893:Attic numerals
5890:
5885:
5878:Greek alphabet
5875:
5870:
5864:
5862:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5838:
5836:
5832:
5831:
5829:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5803:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5753:
5752:
5747:
5737:
5735:Constantinople
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5703:
5696:
5688:
5686:
5680:
5679:
5677:
5676:
5671:
5665:
5663:
5657:
5656:
5654:
5653:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5621:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5609:
5599:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5587:
5577:
5568:
5566:
5557:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5549:
5543:
5533:Medieval Greek
5530:
5517:
5504:
5491:
5477:
5475:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5439:
5437:
5433:
5432:
5429:Greek language
5425:
5424:
5417:
5410:
5402:
5393:
5392:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5299:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5204:Latin American
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5013:
5010:
5009:
4998:
4997:
4990:
4983:
4975:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4864:
4863:
4860:
4859:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4850:
4840:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4802:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4794:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4760:
4759:
4749:
4748:
4747:
4742:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4657:
4651:
4649:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4541:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4468:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4434:Byzantine Bath
4431:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4357:
4355:
4353:Constantinople
4349:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4328:
4322:
4316:
4306:
4305:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4251:
4245:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4112:Byzantine Rite
4103:
4101:
4091:
4090:
4080:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4016:
4010:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3992:Grand domestic
3989:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3972:
3971:
3970:
3965:
3958:Komnenian army
3954:
3952:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3856:
3850:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3833:Military units
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3803:Battle tactics
3799:
3793:
3783:
3782:
3772:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3739:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3495:Medieval Greek
3487:
3486:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3464:
3458:
3450:
3449:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3322:
3320:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3254:
3253:
3252:
3250:Fourth Crusade
3241:
3239:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3207:Macedonian era
3204:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3186:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3140:Theodosian era
3137:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3119:
3117:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3087:
3085:
3080:
3073:
3072:
3060:
3059:
3051:
3050:
3043:
3036:
3028:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2979:External links
2977:
2976:
2975:
2960:
2950:
2945:G. Moravcsik,
2943:
2928:
2918:
2888:
2873:
2854:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2790:
2765:
2730:
2724:
2707:
2698:
2670:
2664:
2632:
2601:
2572:
2563:
2535:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2494:
2474:
2462:
2460:, p. 233.
2450:
2438:
2426:
2414:
2402:
2379:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2328:Medieval Greek
2325:
2320:
2318:Epistolography
2315:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2282:
2279:
2232:Ottoman Empire
2205:Greek language
2180:
2179:
2130:
2128:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2104:Seduction Tale
2075:Torquato Tasso
2031:
2028:
1830:Latin kingdoms
1821:
1820:Popular poetry
1818:
1806:German mystics
1664:
1663:
1662:To rise again.
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1552:Cardinal Pitra
1505:
1502:
1478:Main article:
1475:
1472:
1459:
1456:
1434:
1431:
1384:
1381:
1371:, and that of
1360:
1357:
1300:
1297:
1239:
1238:Secular poetry
1236:
1162:recognizable.
1000:
997:
948:Turkic peoples
915:
912:
869:Peri Ktismaton
721:, depicting a
708:
705:
689:
686:
677:
674:
662:Seleucid Syria
653:
650:
581:
578:
565:
562:
531:
528:
492:Fourth Crusade
456:Medieval Greek
440:Church Fathers
432:ancient Greece
428:Greek language
423:
420:
415:Simon Franklin
378:historiography
302:
301:
299:
298:
291:
284:
276:
273:
272:
271:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
170:
169:
161:
160:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6643:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6593:
6591:
6576:
6573:
6571:
6568:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6555:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6504:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6478:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6352:
6349:
6348:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6316:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6293:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6234:(Anglo-Saxon)
6230:
6229:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6197:Crimean Tatar
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6104:
6101:
6097:
6090:
6085:
6083:
6078:
6076:
6071:
6070:
6067:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5996:
5994:
5990:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5964:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5940:
5936:
5930:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5918:Cyrillization
5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5888:Archaic forms
5886:
5884:
5881:
5880:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5865:
5863:
5859:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5833:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5798:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5751:
5750:Griko/Apulian
5748:
5746:
5743:
5742:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5714:
5713:
5709:
5708:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5701:
5697:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5666:
5664:
5662:
5658:
5652:
5649:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5586:
5585:Arcadocypriot
5583:
5582:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5558:
5554:
5547:
5544:
5534:
5531:
5527: 300 BC
5521:
5518:
5508:
5507:Ancient Greek
5505:
5495:
5492:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5470:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5423:
5418:
5416:
5411:
5409:
5404:
5403:
5400:
5390:
5389:
5384:
5376:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4991:
4989:
4984:
4982:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4939:
4937:
4936:
4933:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4876:
4869:
4865:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4832:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4806:Encyclopedias
4804:
4803:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4750:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4730:Hellenization
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:Everyday life
4686:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4661:
4660:Acritic songs
4658:
4656:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4644:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4593:
4589:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4534:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4503:Hosios Loukas
4501:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4489:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4296:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4176:Monophysitism
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4149:Armenian Rite
4147:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4137:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4085:
4081:
4067:
4066:Naval battles
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4003:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3777:
3773:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3626:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3589:Protasekretis
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3440:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3313:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3234:
3229:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3217:Komnenian era
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3181:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3155:Heraclian era
3153:
3151:
3150:Justinian era
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3112:
3107:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3049:
3044:
3042:
3037:
3035:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3020:
3015:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2940:3-7001-3150-X
2937:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2922:
2921:K. Krumbacher
2919:
2916:
2915:3-406-01428-3
2912:
2908:
2907:3-406-01427-5
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2885:0-582-30709-0
2882:
2878:
2875:G. Horrocks,
2874:
2871:
2870:3-406-01416-X
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2851:0-521-33335-0
2848:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2805:
2800:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2725:960-371-010-5
2721:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2686:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2519:public domain
2511:
2510:
2497:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2478:
2471:
2466:
2459:
2454:
2447:
2442:
2435:
2430:
2424:, p. 10.
2423:
2418:
2411:
2410:Browning 1991
2406:
2399:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2376:
2375:Browning 2022
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2344:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2285:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2256:Acritic songs
2253:
2252:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2176:
2173:
2165:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2131:This section
2129:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1971:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1883:
1879:
1876:, from which
1875:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1737:martyrologies
1734:
1729:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1599:jeux d'esprit
1594:
1592:
1591:Last Judgment
1588:
1584:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1474:Romance novel
1471:
1469:
1468:Manuel Philes
1465:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1289:William Smith
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1271:, Lucian and
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1195:
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1097:scholasticism
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1015:
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1009:encyclopaedia
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646:Greek Fathers
644:, one of the
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110:November 2013
102:
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81:
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71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
6323:
6232:Old English
6117:Anglo-Norman
5951:
5922:Romanization
5772:Romano-Greek
5762:Mariupolitan
5710:
5700:Katharevousa
5698:
5691:
5548:(since 1453)
5546:Modern Greek
5443:Graeco-Aryan
5379:
5319:Serbian epic
4671:
4646:
4439:Hagia Sophia
4421:Thessalonica
4396:Hagia Sophia
4376:Chora Church
4314:Architecture
4191:Great Schism
4181:Paulicianism
4159:Miaphysitism
4014:Karabisianoi
3318:or territory
3278:Thessalonica
3262:Latin Empire
3257:Frankokratia
3232:
3192:Isaurian era
3179:
3110:
3095:
3091:Roman Empire
3081:
3011:
2989:
2963:
2956:
2946:
2931:
2924:
2898:
2894:
2876:
2861:
2857:
2856:H.-G. Beck,
2842:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2820:
2818:
2769:
2744:
2738:
2713:
2683:
2679:"Literature"
2643:
2611:
2605:
2591:
2548:
2528:
2484:
2477:
2465:
2458:Mullett 1992
2453:
2441:
2436:, p. 1.
2434:Kazhdan 1999
2429:
2417:
2405:
2398:Kazhdan 1991
2268:
2249:
2248:
2245:
2237:
2209:
2190:
2183:
2168:
2159:
2144:Please help
2132:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2095:
2092:mystery play
2089:
2084:
2078:
2070:
2068:
2059:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2015:
2011:
2008:
1993:
1989:
1975:
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1952:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1918:
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1580:
1564:Hagia Sophia
1557:
1546:
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1534:
1530:
1507:
1483:
1461:
1458:Begging-poem
1436:
1420:
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1386:
1362:
1337:
1326:
1302:
1292:
1281:Ad Demonicum
1280:
1241:
1232:
1223:
1191:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1117:
1092:polyhistores
1090:
1082:
1075:
1069:
1053:
1047:
1020:
1012:
980:
975:
952:
941:
933:
922:A Byzantine
895:Anna Comnena
887:
879:
867:
857:
855:
835:
823:Leo Diaconus
804:
780:Anna Comnena
728:
716:
701:
679:
655:
594:Neoplatonism
583:
573:
570:Roman Empire
567:
533:
505:
501:Modern Greek
476:
425:
408:
401:
358:Christianity
351:
306:
305:
247:
193:Architecture
144:Anna Komnene
137:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
6501: [
6435:(Provençal)
6423:Montenegrin
6290: [
6029:Place names
5903:Orthography
5712:Misthiotika
5706:Cappadocian
5520:Koine Greek
5501: 1600
5488: 2900
5481:Proto-Greek
5239:Old English
5234:New Zealand
5154:Indian epic
5129:Guernésiais
5032:Anglo-Welsh
4922:Megali Idea
4897:Byzantinism
4600:Agriculture
4391:Hagia Irene
4224:Kievan Rus'
4201:Mount Athos
4024:Cibyrrhaeot
3968:Vestiaritai
3823:Mercenaries
3700:Catepanates
3559:Sakellarios
3478:Family tree
3403:Mesopotamia
3222:Angelid era
3202:Amorian era
2841:R. Beaton,
2596:. Chicago:
2201:Justinian I
2060:Erotokritos
2041:Erotokritos
1842:Callimachus
1810:pantheistic
1733:hagiography
1533:; even the
1527:Iconoclasts
1452:Emperor Leo
1406:Physiologus
1265:Asclepiades
1171:Gregorovius
1054:Bibliotheca
1027:manuscripts
967:Monophysite
914:Chroniclers
864:Justinian I
682:chroniclers
626:monasticism
460:Koine Greek
370:hagiography
339:Koine Greek
331:Attic Greek
315:Middle Ages
6590:Categories
6558:in English
6456:Portuguese
6403:Macedonian
6398:Luxembourg
6393:Lithuanian
6152:Belarusian
5939:Literature
5908:Diacritics
5651:Pamphylian
5642:Macedonian
5623:Northwest
5540: 330
5514: 800
5364:Vietnamese
5284:Rajasthani
5274:Portuguese
5047:Australian
4917:Third Rome
4843:University
4826:Philosophy
4816:Inventions
4679:Historians
4647:Literature
4630:Varangians
4472:San Vitale
4401:Hippodrome
4381:City Walls
4281:Mutilation
4276:Hexabiblos
4196:Bogomilism
4186:Iconoclasm
4056:Megas doux
4046:Greek fire
4029:Aegean Sea
3902:Kleisourai
3879:Excubitors
3869:Bucellarii
3721:Despotates
3690:Kleisourai
3629:Provincial
3473:Coronation
3447:Governance
3212:Doukid era
3145:Leonid era
2772:. Oxford:
2688:. Oxford:
2553:. Oxford:
2544:"Language"
2334:References
2273:, and the
2016:Piccatores
2000:Trojan War
1902:) and the
1898:(ακρίτης,
1882:Asia Minor
1846:Theocritus
1834:Latin West
1763:Buddhistic
1519:homiletics
1511:Cappadocia
1411:lampooning
1359:Panegyrics
1293:Dictionary
1269:Posidippus
1257:Heliodorus
1245:panegyrics
1124:Hyrtakenos
1108:Horologion
1062:Heliodorus
1035:rhetorical
1023:humanistic
843:Palaeologi
792:Thucydides
723:Thracesian
707:Historians
670:Krumbacher
666:Asia Minor
610:Athanasius
586:Septuagint
552:Theocritus
540:Alexandria
452:Atticistic
335:vernacular
248:Literature
150:, Florence
80:newspapers
6545:Ukrainian
6471:Sardinian
6441:Old Norse
6428:Norwegian
6373:Kashubian
6341:Icelandic
6336:Hungarian
6177:Bulgarian
6132:Aromanian
6122:Aragonese
5952:Byzantine
5929:Greeklish
5800:Phonology
5777:Tsakonian
5730:Himariote
5580:Mycenaean
5556:Varieties
5503:–1100 BC)
5490:–1600 BC)
5297:Classical
5293:Sanskrit
5254:Pakistani
5244:Old Norse
5224:Malayalam
5092:Cantonese
5077:Byzantine
5072:Bulgarian
4745:Octoechos
4625:Silk Road
4117:Hesychasm
3985:Paramonai
3932:Hetaireia
3864:Foederati
3753:Diplomacy
3748:Diplomats
3654:Provinces
3483:Empresses
3286:Trebizond
3082:Preceding
2891:H. Hunger
2339:Citations
2133:does not
1995:Achilleis
1908:schoolmen
1785:mysticism
1782:Byzantine
1714:Aeschylus
1710:Sophocles
1706:Euripides
1334:hexameter
1277:Isocrates
976:Chronicle
829:emulated
788:Herodotus
732:Procopius
638:Palestine
580:Christian
544:Jerusalem
354:Hellenism
337:based on
223:Diplomacy
6563:in Welsh
6550:Venetian
6498:Silesian
6476:Scottish
6461:Romanian
6446:Ossetian
6433:Occitan
6418:Moldovan
6363:Jèrriais
6324:medieval
6304:Georgian
6299:Galician
6277:Friulian
6247:Estonian
6202:Croatian
6142:Austrian
6137:Asturian
6127:Armenian
6112:Albanian
6034:Proverbs
5873:Linear B
5815:teaching
5571:Central
5529:–AD 330)
5516:–300 BC)
5309:Scottish
5189:Kashmiri
5179:Jèrriais
5174:Javanese
5169:Japanese
5134:Gujarati
5109:Estonian
5082:Canadian
5057:Biblical
5042:Assamese
5027:American
5022:Albanian
4838:Scholars
4831:Rhetoric
4821:Medicine
4796:Learning
4695:Calendar
4572:Painters
4271:Basilika
4209:Bulgaria
4171:Arianism
4122:Hayhurum
4099:Religion
4061:Admirals
3980:Allagion
3912:Droungos
3818:Generals
3780:Military
3743:Treaties
3649:Dioceses
3468:Emperors
3381:Sardinia
3361:Dalmatia
3341:Bulgaria
3331:Anatolia
3290:Theodoro
3284: /
3280: /
3272: /
2676:(1991).
2642:(1984).
2628:27621785
2590:(eds.).
2578:(2022).
2541:(1991).
2281:See also
2271:Persians
2216:Germanic
2162:May 2021
2071:Erophile
2047:Erophile
2012:Apokopos
1917:and the
1904:Saracens
1858:chivalry
1555:accent.
1523:Evagrius
1515:exegesis
1448:Schiller
1444:Sahlikis
1433:Didactic
1393:Timarion
1306:Agathias
1249:epigrams
1219:Boethius
1086:Platonic
859:Anekdota
841:and the
800:Polybius
796:Xenophon
740:Evagrius
736:Agathias
652:Oriental
622:Synesius
602:Porphyry
598:Plotinus
574:Rhomaioi
557:Atticism
548:sophists
520:Pericles
483:diglossy
444:Hellenic
436:rhetoric
362:Paganism
333:, and a
323:diglossy
253:Medicine
198:Calendar
6575:Yiddish
6535:Turkish
6525:Swedish
6520:Spanish
6515:Slovene
6493:Serbian
6466:Russian
6408:Maltese
6388:Latvian
6378:Kosovar
6358:Italian
6319:ancient
6272:Frisian
6262:Flemish
6257:Finnish
6252:Faroese
6227:English
6207:Cypriot
6192:Cornish
6187:Chuvash
6182:Catalan
6172:British
6162:Bosnian
6157:Belgian
6014:Exonyms
5947:Ancient
5913:Braille
5883:History
5842:Ancient
5835:Grammar
5807:Ancient
5782:Yevanic
5740:Italiot
5725:Cypriot
5693:Demotic
5637:Locrian
5632:Epirote
5627:Achaean
5607:Homeric
5564:Ancient
5473:Periods
5354:Turkish
5334:Spanish
5314:Serbian
5289:Russian
5279:Punjabi
5264:Persian
5249:Ottoman
5219:Marathi
5184:Kannada
5164:Italian
5114:Finnish
5104:English
5099:Cornish
5087:Chinese
5067:Bosnian
5062:British
5052:Bengali
4947:Outline
4892:Museums
4792:Science
4769:Slavery
4725:Gardens
4705:Cuisine
4637:Dynatoi
4605:Coinage
4592:Economy
4560:Mosaics
4523:Mystras
4464:Ravenna
4326:Secular
4214:Moravia
3963:Pronoia
3937:Akritai
3922:Tagmata
3897:Themata
3838:Revolts
3808:Battles
3716:Kephale
3685:Themata
3615:Mesazon
3457:Central
3393:Maghreb
3346:Corsica
3336:Armenia
3326:Albania
3069:History
2831:History
2761:1291656
2521::
2506:Sources
2228:Balkans
2212:Romance
2195:as the
2154:removed
2139:sources
1947:Tristan
1920:Odyssey
1900:akrites
1896:marches
1850:Musaeus
1668:Te Deum
1587:canones
1531:Catenae
1427:liturgy
1397:Mazaris
1383:Satires
1299:Epigram
1253:satires
1227:Barlaam
1183:Normans
1050:Photius
989:Italian
985:Zonaras
899:Alexius
891:Alexiad
839:Comneni
630:Antioch
616:, also
538:but in
494:to the
390:epigram
374:sermons
313:of the
309:is the
268:Science
238:Gardens
233:Economy
213:Cuisine
208:Coinage
139:Alexiad
94:scholar
6554:Welsh
6510:Slovak
6451:Polish
6368:Kazakh
6329:modern
6309:German
6287:Gagauz
6282:Gaelic
6267:French
6217:Danish
6167:Breton
6147:Basque
6107:Abkhaz
5957:Modern
5811:accent
5767:Pontic
5757:Maniot
5720:Cretan
5684:Modern
5575:Aeolic
5542:–1453)
5344:Telugu
5329:Slovak
5324:Sindhi
5269:Polish
5259:Pashto
5229:Nepali
5209:Latino
5194:Korean
5149:Indian
5144:Hebrew
5119:French
5037:Arabic
5017:Afghan
5002:Poetry
4957:Portal
4872:Impact
4752:People
4700:Cities
4550:Enamel
4331:Sacred
4266:Ecloga
4132:Saints
4041:Dromon
3917:Bandon
3907:Tourma
3890:Middle
3813:Beacon
3695:Bandon
3678:Middle
3547:Middle
3502:Senate
3425:Thrace
3408:Serbia
3386:Sicily
3371:Greece
3356:Cyprus
3274:Epirus
3270:Nicaea
3180:Middle
3057:topics
2987:about
2970:
2938:
2913:
2905:
2883:
2868:
2849:
2788:
2759:
2722:
2696:
2662:
2626:
2561:
2492:
2230:, and
2226:, the
2224:Russia
2220:Slavic
2114:Legacy
2085:Aminta
1992:. The
1848:, and
1767:Buddha
1583:Ephrem
1517:, and
1496:, and
1389:Lucian
1330:Nonnus
1273:Longus
1217:, and
1215:Caesar
1211:Cicero
1155:Pindar
1134:, and
1058:Lucian
1011:, the
993:French
961:, and
946:, and
944:Magyar
924:Gospel
798:, and
676:Genres
606:Origen
536:Athens
472:Athens
394:dramas
386:hymnal
366:gnomai
263:People
203:Cities
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
6530:Swiss
6505:]
6481:Scots
6383:Latin
6346:Irish
6314:Greek
6294:]
6222:Dutch
6212:Czech
5992:Other
5847:Koine
5821:Koine
5661:Koine
5619:Doric
5615:West
5602:Ionic
5597:Attic
5593:East
5369:Welsh
5339:Tamil
5302:Vedic
5199:Latin
5159:Irish
5139:Hindi
5124:Greek
4942:Index
4774:Death
4764:Women
4735:Music
4715:Dress
4710:Dance
4655:Novel
4615:Trade
4610:Mints
4555:Glass
4545:Icons
4341:Domes
4219:Serbs
4034:Samos
3847:Early
3637:Early
3511:Early
3420:Syria
3398:Malta
3376:Italy
3366:Egypt
3351:Crete
3282:Morea
3111:Early
2757:JSTOR
2624:JSTOR
2582:. In
2275:Arabs
2193:Latin
2036:Crete
1914:Iliad
1192:With
928:Ivory
831:Homer
819:Plato
817:took
640:came
618:Cyril
614:Arius
590:Philo
564:Roman
530:Greek
524:David
468:Homer
398:epics
258:Music
228:Dress
218:Dance
101:JSTOR
87:books
6413:Manx
5920:and
5359:Urdu
5349:Thai
5214:Manx
4740:Lyra
4620:silk
4231:Jews
4006:Navy
3951:Late
3791:Army
3758:Wars
3709:Late
3603:Late
3233:Late
2968:ISBN
2936:ISBN
2911:ISBN
2903:ISBN
2881:ISBN
2866:ISBN
2847:ISBN
2786:ISBN
2720:ISBN
2694:ISBN
2660:ISBN
2559:ISBN
2490:ISBN
2214:and
2137:any
2135:cite
2090:The
2058:The
2050:and
1872:The
1824:The
1795:and
1787:was
1267:and
1259:and
1207:Ovid
1203:Cato
1196:and
1187:Ceos
1122:and
1077:Suda
1060:and
1033:and
1014:Suda
991:and
825:and
809:and
696:and
660:and
620:and
600:and
510:and
446:and
396:and
183:Army
136:The
73:news
5004:of
4537:Art
4241:Law
2955:, '
2778:doi
2749:doi
2652:doi
2616:doi
2612:231
2527:".
2148:by
2094:of
2077:'s
1537:of
1291:'s
1287:in
983:of
243:Law
188:Art
56:by
6592::
6503:cs
6292:ru
5537:c.
5524:c.
5511:c.
5498:c.
5485:c.
2923:,
2909:;
2897:(=
2893:,
2860:(=
2784:.
2776:.
2755:.
2745:46
2743:.
2737:.
2692:.
2658:.
2650:.
2638:;
2622:.
2610:.
2586:;
2557:.
2382:^
2347:^
2277:.
2266:.
2110:.
2006:.
1939:,
1933:,
1852:.
1844:,
1840:,
1777:.
1750:,
1700:,
1500:.
1492:,
1488:,
1279:'
1263:,
1251:,
1247:,
1213:,
1209:,
1205:,
1150:.
1142:,
1130:,
1099:.
1045:.
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