477:
In the mid 1980s there was a substantial increase in the number of calcium oxalate samples, and between 1994 and 2002, 55 percent of feline stones were calcium oxalate and 33 percent were struvite. This may have been caused by the use of dissolution diets for struvite stones in cats and modification of other diets to prevent struvite crystal formation. These modifications predisposed to calcium oxalate crystal formation. However, in 2004, struvite stones once again surpassed calcium oxalate stones 44.9 percent to 44.3 percent, and in 2006, 50 percent of stones were struvite and 39 percent were calcium oxalate. This may have been due to the increased use of diets designed to prevent calcium oxalate crystal formation, which because of increased magnesium in the diet and decreased acidity of the urine help promote struvite crystal formation.
27:
259:
342:
35:
227:
492:
43:
715:), stones form in neutral to alkaline urine. They are usually smooth and round. Calcium phosphate is usually a component of struvite or calcium oxalate stones and is infrequently a pure stone. They form more readily with hypercalcaemia. Dog breeds possibly predisposed to calcium phosphate stone formation include Yorkshire Terriers, Miniature Schnauzers, and Cocker Spaniels.
476:
College of
Veterinary Medicine has done detailed analysis of uroliths from animals since 1981 and has noted changing trends in feline uroliths. In 1981, struvite stones were the most common type in cats, making up 78 percent of submitted samples, with only 2 percent comprising calcium oxalate stones.
459:
and a high fractional urinary excretion of calcium. The urine will appear thick and creamy or sometimes sandy. Small stones and sand can be removed using urohydropropulsion. Prevention is through reducing calcium intake by feeding more hay and less commercial rabbit pellets, and by not using mineral
254:
enzyme in dogs. More than 90 percent of dogs with struvite stones have an associated urease-producing bacterial infection in the urinary tract, but in cats struvite stones usually form in sterile urine. The appearance of the stones vary from large solitary stones to multiple smaller stones. They can
197:
Nutrition often plays a major role in the development of bladder stones. Sodium, calcium, phosphorus and potassium ratios and quantities play a large role in urinary health of animals. Research indicates that low dietary inclusion of potassium is associated with increased renal calcium excretion,
762:
Reasons for treatment of bladder stones include recurring symptoms and risk of urinary tract obstruction. Some stones, including struvite and urate stones, can be dissolved using dietary modifications and/or medications. Calcium oxalate stones are not able to be dissolved and must be surgically
767:, a nonsurgical procedure. Urohydropropulsion is performed under sedation by filling the bladder with saline through a catheter, holding the dog vertically, and squeezing the bladder to expel the stones through the urethra. Bladder stones can be removed surgically by a
190:, and organic matrix mixed with crystals, or crystals alone. The nidus makes up about two to ten percent of the mass of the stone. It is possible for the nidus to be made of a different type of crystal than the rest of the stone, also known as
419:
and high in magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium is recommended. Increased dietary magnesium and phosphorus decreases the amount of calcium in the urine, and increased dietary calcium reduces absorption of oxalates from the intestines.
198:
which lowers urinary pH. By lowering urinary pH, the risk for development of calcium oxalate uroliths increases. By feeding proper amounts of calcium and potassium we avoid this issue, which is especially common in male cats.
913:
PaBlack, N., Brenten, T., Neumann, K., & Zentek, J. (2014). Effects of potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate in the diet on urinary pH and mineral excretion of adult cats. British
Journal of Nutrition, 111(5),
129:) but sometimes there may be no signs at all. Painful urination or straining to urinate are other signs. Urinary tract infections are commonly associated with bladder stones. Smaller stones may become lodged in the
249:
O. Often there is a small amount of calcium phosphate present. They form at a neutral to alkaline pH of the urine. Bacterial infections contribute to their formation by increasing the pH of the urine through the
790:
To prevent recurrence of stones, special diets can be used for each type of stone. Increasing water consumption by the animal dilutes the urine, which prevents oversaturation of the urine with crystals.
644:) stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually smooth and round. They are caused by increased urine excretion of cystine (a relatively insoluble amino acid) in dogs with a defect in
117:. Struvite and calcium oxalate stones are by far the most common. Bladder stones are not the same as bladder crystals but if the crystals coalesce unchecked in the bladder they can become stones.
601:
is used in dogs with altered purine metabolism to prevent the formation of uric acid. Feeding a diet high in purines while simultaneously administering allopurinol can result in the formation of
282:, as well as increased salt to increase water consumption and dilute the urine. The diet needs to be fed exclusively, but it can only be fed for a few months total due to potential side effects.
161:
with crystals is by far the biggest factor in stone formation in dogs and cats. This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the
210:. Most types of stones will appear readily in an x-ray, urate and occasionally cystine stones being the most common exceptions. Stones smaller than three millimeters may not be visible.
771:, which is a small incision into the bladder to scoop out the stones. Stones lodged in the urethra can often be flushed into the bladder and removed, but sometimes a
776:
424:
has been recommended to prevent calcium oxalate stone formation because it forms a soluble complex with oxalates and promotes the formation of alkaline urine.
764:
169:
that influence crystallization. Other contributing factors include diet, frequency of urination, genetics, current medications, and the presence of a
1059:
Escolar E, Bellanato J (2003). "Analysis of feline urinary calculi and urethral plugs by infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy".
558:
O), form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually small, yellow-brown, smooth stones. Urate stones form due to an increased excretion of
660:, which forms a soluble complex with cystine in the urine. Dog breeds possibly predisposed to formation of cystine stones include Bulldogs,
835:
768:
648:
reabsorption of cystine. Dietary reduction of protein and alkalinization of the urine may help prevent formation. Medications such as
218:
may help identify the stones, but analysis of the stones is necessary for identification of the complete chemical composition.
574:. Dalmatians have a decreased rate of urate hepatic transport, leading to only about 30 to 40 percent conversion of urate to
1044:
Osborne, Carl A.; Lulich, Jody P. (February 2007). "Changing trends in composition of feline uroliths and urethral plugs".
925:
582:
or endstage liver disease also have increased uric acid excretion in the urine due to reduced conversion of uric acid to
26:
734:
in appearance. There is possibly an increased incidence associated with dogs on diets that have a large amount of corn
405:
783:. In male cats, stones lodge where the urethra narrows in the penis. Recurrent cases can be treated surgically with a
1008:
870:
1169:
808:
415:
There is no recommended diet to dissolve calcium oxalate stones. For prevention a diet low in protein and
81:. Stones can form in any part of the urinary tract in dogs and cats, but unlike in humans, stones of the
1193:
597:
Urate stones can be dissolved using a diet with reduced purines that alkalinizes and dilutes the urine.
1143:
971:
889:
352:
stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. Two types naturally occur, calcium oxalate monohydrate, or
455:. Rabbits are prone to hypercalciuria due to intestinal absorption of calcium not being dependent on
237:
stones are also known as magnesium ammonium phosphate stones due to their chemical composition - MgNH
30:
X-ray of a single, large bladder stone in a dog with a bladder located more to the rear than is usual
779:
creates a permanent opening in the urethra proximal to the area where most stones lodge, behind the
1233:
570:
are genetically predisposed to the formation of urate stones because of an altered metabolism of
473:
266:
Dissolution of the struvite stones depends on acidification of the urine through diet or urinary
170:
74:
832:
469:
90:
1228:
1223:
784:
1104:"Evaluation of the association between sex and risk of forming urate uroliths in Dalmatians"
85:
are less common and do not often cause significant disease, although they can contribute to
393:
138:
8:
743:
579:
451:. They are the most common stone in male dogs. Calcium oxalate stones are also common in
428:
409:
318:
1084:
930:
Proceedings of the 29th World
Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association
751:
677:
1125:
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866:
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134:
110:
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333:(pregnant ferrets may be especially predisposed). For frequency in cats, see below.
1115:
1068:
747:
440:
283:
183:
314:). Prevention of struvite stones is with a similar diet with milder restrictions.
839:
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19:
This article is about bladder stone in animals. For bladder stone in humans, see
1120:
1103:
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401:
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86:
578:, compared with greater than 90 percent conversion in other breeds. Dogs with
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998:
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20:
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plugs in cats are usually composed of struvite crystals and organic matter.
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When symptoms indicate bladder stones, the first step is usually to take an
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448:
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322:
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are a common occurrence in animals, especially in domestic animals such as
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329:. They are the most commonly reported bladder stone in female dogs and in
772:
685:
598:
341:
384:
O). Their appearance can be rough, smooth, spiculated (needle-like), or
214:
is also useful for identifying bladder stones. Crystals identified in a
432:
369:
353:
275:
215:
178:
34:
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is necessary. In male dogs with recurrent urinary tract obstruction a
787:, which removes the penis and creates a new opening for the urethra.
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661:
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594:. Urate stones make up about six percent of all stones in the cat.
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Certain dog breeds are predisposed to struvite stones, including
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removed. Small stones in female dogs may possibly be removed by
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resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine
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158:
1144:"Feline Urolithiasis and Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease"
1001:
Ferrets, Rabbits, and
Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery
427:
Dog breeds possibly prone to calcium oxalate stones include
949:
730:) stones form in acidic to neutral urine. They are usually
591:
388:. Calcium oxalate stones form more readily in animals with
62:
58:
1102:
Albasan H, Lulich J, Osborne C, Lekcharoensuk C (2005).
999:
Hillyer, Elizabeth V.; Quesenberry, Katherin E. (1997).
464:
Frequency of struvite and calcium oxalate stones in cats
166:
1043:
137:
and the inability to urinate. This condition causes
69:, has been reported as well. The stones form in the
680:. In Newfoundlands, cystinuria is inherited as an
270:. Special diets for dissolution also have reduced
861:Ettinger, Stephen J.; Feldman, Edward C. (1995).
1215:
1058:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
742:hulls. Dog breeds possibly predisposed include
1031:Role of Diet in Feline and Canine Urolithiasis
994:
992:
1174:Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings School
813:Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings School
125:Bladder stones may cause blood in the urine (
845:
255:assume the shape of the bladder or urethra.
989:
691:
923:
566:(especially males) and to a lesser extent
46:X-ray of a struvite bladder stone in a cat
1119:
917:
842:("Evening Express", Aberdeen, 31/01/2009)
336:
73:in varying size and numbers secondary to
65:. Occurrence in other species, including
966:
964:
962:
960:
884:
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863:Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine
688:trait and found primarily in male dogs.
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340:
257:
225:
41:
33:
25:
1168:Team, Clinical Nutrition (2017-07-26).
1003:(1st ed.). W.B. Saunders Company.
948:
865:(4th ed.). W.B. Saunders Company.
684:trait, but in the other breeds it is a
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1024:
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368:O), and calcium oxalate dihydrate, or
133:, especially in male animals, causing
1170:"Dietary treatment of bladder stones"
1028:
957:
879:
809:"Dietary treatment of bladder stones"
120:
1167:
518:) stones, usually ammonium urate (NH
1017:
538:) or sodium urate monohydrate (Na·C
13:
1048:. Advanstar Communications: 38–40.
953:. Advanstar Communications: 6S–7S.
718:
699:, also known as hydroxyapatite (Ca
221:
14:
1245:
1194:"Struvite Bladder Stones in Dogs"
624:
38:X-ray of bladder stones in a dog
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149:, and death within a few days.
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404:, which can also be caused by
1:
794:
926:"Nutrition and Urolithiasis"
757:
754:, and Miniature Schnauzers.
400:. Hypercalcaemia results in
201:
152:
16:Common occurrence in animals
7:
1148:The Merck Veterinary Manual
976:The Merck Veterinary Manual
894:The Merck Veterinary Manual
833:Giant tortoise cheats death
306:(high blood pressure), and
10:
1250:
1121:10.2460/javma.2005.227.565
93:. Types of stones include
77:, dietary influences, and
18:
924:Buffington, Tony (2004).
392:, which can be caused by
176:The stones form around a
135:urinary tract obstruction
890:"Urolithiasis: Overview"
692:Calcium phosphate stones
470:Minnesota Urolith Center
474:University of Minnesota
182:, which can consist of
171:urinary tract infection
838:July 26, 2011, at the
672:, Yorkshire Terriers,
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346:
345:Calcium oxalate stones
337:Calcium oxalate stones
263:
231:
91:chronic kidney disease
47:
39:
31:
1073:10.1136/vr.152.20.625
1029:Zoran, Debra (2006).
972:"Canine Urolithiasis"
785:perineal urethrostomy
494:
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286:to this diet include
261:
229:
45:
37:
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777:scrotal urethrostomy
744:German Shepherd Dogs
580:portosystemic shunts
429:Miniature Schnauzers
396:or certain types of
319:Miniature Schnauzers
139:acute kidney failure
752:Labrador Retrievers
682:autosomal recessive
410:hyperparathyroidism
1108:J Am Vet Med Assoc
765:urohydropropulsion
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437:Yorkshire Terriers
406:Cushing's syndrome
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264:
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157:Oversaturation of
121:Signs and symptoms
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40:
32:
748:Golden Retrievers
697:Calcium phosphate
441:Miniature Poodles
422:Potassium citrate
394:Addison's disease
284:Contraindications
262:Struvite crystals
184:white blood cells
111:calcium phosphate
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1229:Cat diseases
1224:Dog diseases
1201:. Retrieved
1197:
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1152:. Retrieved
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815:. 2017-07-26
812:
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646:renal tubule
628:
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495:Urate stones
487:Urate stones
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300:pancreatitis
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143:hyperkalemia
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50:
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773:urethrotomy
599:Allopurinol
433:Lhasa Apsos
1218:Categories
1203:2019-12-20
1179:2019-12-20
1154:2007-04-14
982:2007-04-14
935:2006-07-16
900:2007-04-14
819:2020-02-08
795:References
686:sex linked
670:Chihuahuas
662:Dachshunds
621:) stones.
564:Dalmatians
370:weddellite
354:whewellite
276:phosphorus
268:acidifiers
216:urinalysis
769:cystotomy
758:Treatment
732:jackstone
584:allantoin
576:allantoin
560:uric acid
457:vitamin D
445:Shih Tzus
386:jackstone
280:magnesium
202:Diagnosis
153:Mechanism
127:hematuria
75:infection
67:tortoises
1130:16117063
1089:33483919
1081:12790167
914:785-797.
836:Archived
781:os penis
724:Silicate
656:contain
603:xanthine
568:Bulldogs
481:Urethral
417:oxalates
235:Struvite
188:bacteria
115:silicate
95:struvite
79:genetics
55:uroliths
1061:Vet Rec
740:soybean
630:Cystine
588:ammonia
572:purines
472:at the
331:ferrets
272:protein
131:urethra
107:cystine
1150:. 2006
1128:
1087:
1079:
1007:
978:. 2006
896:. 2006
869:
736:gluten
676:, and
447:, and
398:cancer
325:, and
278:, and
252:urease
147:sepsis
113:, and
83:kidney
1085:S2CID
658:thiol
654:2-MPG
640:COOH)
632:((SCH
500:Urate
310:(low
208:x-ray
179:nidus
159:urine
103:urate
1126:PMID
1077:PMID
1005:ISBN
867:ISBN
726:(SiO
711:(OH)
652:and
636:CHNH
592:urea
586:and
468:The
372:(CaC
356:(CaC
89:and
63:cats
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