75:
28:
2587:
20:
2611:
2599:
88:, which in turn are eaten perhaps by fish, which then may be eaten by bigger fish, large birds, animals, or humans. The substances become increasingly concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in
199:
and other organizations. DDT is one of the least soluble chemicals known and accumulates progressively in adipose tissue, and as the fat is consumed by predators, the amounts of DDT biomagnify. A well known example of the harmful effects of DDT biomagnification is the significant decline in North
232:
do biomagnify in nature. For other contaminants, bioconcentration and bioaccumulation account for their high concentrations in organism tissues. More recently, Gray reached a similar substances remaining in the organisms and not being diluted to non-threatening concentrations. The success of top
83:
Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby substances such as pesticides or heavy metals work their way into lakes, rivers and the ocean, and then move up the food chain in progressively greater concentrations as they are incorporated into the diet of aquatic organisms such as
284:. Organisms, particularly those subject to naturally high levels of exposure to metals, have mechanisms to sequester and excrete metals. Problems arise when organisms are exposed to higher concentrations than usual, which they cannot excrete rapidly enough to prevent damage. Persistent
519:
EPA (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency). 1997. Mercury Study Report to Congress. Vol. IV: An Assessment of Exposure to Mercury in the United States . EPA-452/R-97-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards and Office of Research and
78:
Biomagnification is the buildup of concentration of a substance (x) in a food chain. For example the DDT concentration in parts per million increases with trophic level. Concentrations build up in organism's fat and tissue. Predators accumulate higher levels than prey.
188:
have higher concentrations of mercury in their tissue than could be accounted for by direct exposure alone. For example, herring contains mercury at approximately 0.01 parts per million (ppm) and shark contains mercury at greater than 1 ppm.
164:). Methylmercury is one of the most harmful mercury molecules. It is efficiently absorbed, but only very slowly excreted by organisms. Bioaccumulation and bioconcentration result in buildup in the adipose tissue of successive trophic levels:
415:
Landrum, PF and SW Fisher, 1999. Influence of lipids on the bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of organic contaminants in aquatic organisms. Chapter 9 in MT Arts and BC Wainman. Lipids in fresh water ecosystems. Springer Verlag, New
137:
is also a process that occurs to all trophic levels in an aquatic environment; it is the opposite of biomagnification, thus when a pollutant gets smaller in concentration as it progresses up a food web.
200:
American populations of predatory birds such as bald eagles and peregrine falcons due to DDT caused eggshell thinning in the 1950s. DDT is now a banned substance in many parts of the world.
510:
Croteau, M., S. N. Luoma, and A. R Stewart. 2005. Trophic transfer of metals along freshwater food webs: Evidence of cadmium biomagnification in nature. Limnol. Oceanogr. 50 (5): 1511-1519.
643:"Trophic transfer, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of non-essential hazardous heavy metals and metalloids in food chains/webs—Concepts and implications for wildlife and human health"
208:
In a review, a large number of studies, Suedel et al. concluded that although biomagnification is probably more limited in occurrence than previously thought, there is good evidence that
31:
In this scenario, a pond has been contaminated with toxic waste. Further up the food chain, the concentration of the contaminant increases, sometimes resulting in the top consumer dying.
172:, larger fish, etc. Anything which eats these fish also consumes the higher level of mercury the fish have accumulated. This process explains why predatory fish such as
583:
Suedel, B.C., Boraczek, J.A., Peddicord, R.K., Clifford, P.A. and Dillon, T.M., 1994. Trophic transfer and biomagnification potential of contaminants in
119:, and is the increase in the concentration of a substance in certain tissues of organisms' bodies due to absorption from food and the environment.
273:
specific detoxification and excretion mechanisms, as there has been no selection pressure from them. These substances are consequently known as "
241:) in North America following the ban on DDT use in agriculture is testament to the importance of recognizing and responding to biomagnification.
1463:
716:
559:
485:
1607:
1677:
131:
Thus, bioconcentration and bioaccumulation occur within an organism, and biomagnification occurs across trophic (food chain) levels.
1249:
1214:
606:
195:
is a pesticide known to biomagnify, which is one of the most significant reasons it was deemed harmful to the environment by the
23:
Biomagnification is a process causing the concentration of a substance (crosses) to increase at higher levels of the food chain.
2562:
1687:
1415:
555:
539:
495:
400:
2280:
1692:
613:
1880:
1633:
1456:
1297:
709:
426:
Campbell, Linda M.; Norstrom, Ross J.; Hobson, Keith A.; Muir, Derek C. G.; Backus, Sean; Fisk, Aaron T. (2005-12-01).
2501:
969:
596:
Gray, J.S., 2002. Biomagnification in marine systems: the perspective of an ecologist. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 45: 46–52.
2615:
366:
213:
1430:
70:
Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or excretion of the substance – mainly due to water-insolubility.
1712:
1425:
1292:
1004:
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2476:
2097:
1970:
2143:
1742:
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702:
1229:
1575:
313:
274:
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1932:
823:
395:. Vol. 1 (7th ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 154–155.
1997:
1717:
1204:
921:
818:
428:"Mercury and other trace elements in a pelagic Arctic marine food web (Northwater Polynya, Baffin Bay)"
691:
Fisk AT, Hoekstra PF, Borga K,and DCG Muir, 2003. Biomagnification. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46 (4): 522-524
427:
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1937:
1400:
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331:
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250:
217:
1441:
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2012:
1875:
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1505:
1362:
1327:
1047:
1014:
989:
285:
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1900:
1835:
1770:
1332:
1120:
828:
808:
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2007:
1870:
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1638:
1595:
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1580:
1337:
1317:
1173:
1163:
1105:
1100:
936:
788:
434:. Contaminants in Canadian Arctic Biota and Implications for Human Health. 351–352: 247–263.
2642:
2379:
2188:
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2072:
2067:
2022:
1920:
1890:
1885:
1737:
1600:
1590:
1135:
974:
763:
435:
67:– where the substance's concentration increases progressively as it moves up a food chain.
8:
2591:
2338:
2328:
2266:
2238:
2213:
2077:
2047:
1992:
1905:
1795:
1780:
1727:
1560:
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1377:
1307:
1239:
838:
74:
439:
27:
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2526:
2333:
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2002:
1965:
1707:
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1485:
1410:
1312:
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1234:
1168:
1115:
926:
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833:
758:
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2440:
2138:
2107:
1895:
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1530:
1395:
1372:
1110:
886:
798:
783:
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748:
662:
584:
535:
491:
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451:
396:
343:
325:
297:
281:
225:
153:
674:
563:
447:
2491:
2425:
2318:
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1955:
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1865:
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1732:
1668:
1648:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1515:
1347:
1287:
959:
901:
813:
773:
654:
443:
269:
are not easily degraded because organisms lack previous exposure and have thus not
238:
123:
58:
Persistence – where the substance cannot be broken down by environmental processes.
47:
658:
2506:
2486:
2369:
2228:
2087:
2057:
2052:
2042:
1975:
1960:
1840:
1820:
1702:
1570:
1476:
1367:
1277:
1219:
803:
729:
356:
104:", an important distinction is drawn between the two, and with bioconcentration.
101:
642:
2445:
2399:
2394:
2364:
2343:
2208:
2032:
1985:
1915:
1910:
1805:
1672:
1545:
1352:
1342:
1322:
1125:
1090:
1029:
906:
861:
753:
2631:
2557:
2455:
2308:
2233:
1209:
1183:
1140:
1130:
1085:
1052:
944:
778:
733:
666:
455:
361:
262:
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161:
127:
is defined as occurring when uptake from the water is greater than excretion.
116:
64:
2450:
2218:
2203:
1860:
1830:
1775:
1658:
1623:
1500:
999:
463:
258:
46:, is the increase in concentration of a substance, e.g a pesticide, in the
2552:
2384:
1510:
1057:
1019:
994:
984:
949:
896:
876:
484:
Freedman, Bill (2021). Nemeh, Katherine H.; Longe, Jacqueline L. (eds.).
165:
146:
134:
85:
2547:
2289:
2223:
1800:
1765:
1405:
1357:
1302:
1272:
1178:
1095:
1039:
916:
866:
234:
142:
61:
51:
2435:
2128:
2082:
1810:
1254:
1224:
1024:
979:
954:
891:
881:
856:
848:
793:
724:
371:
337:
221:
173:
304:, can have a wide variety of adverse health effects across species.
2430:
2183:
2112:
1643:
1471:
1150:
1062:
1009:
964:
587:. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 136: 21–89.
157:
19:
2567:
2173:
1980:
1850:
1845:
1472:
1420:
1080:
725:
301:
293:
270:
229:
92:
because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted.
2389:
181:
169:
253:, also known as organochlorines, and inorganic compounds like
141:
Many chemicals that bioaccumulate are highly soluble in fats (
2409:
2404:
2258:
534:(Richard M. ed.). New York, NY: Gale. pp. 118–200.
185:
177:
289:
425:
319:
209:
196:
192:
265:
and not easily degraded. Novel organic substances like
490:. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Gale. pp. 594–597.
249:Two common groups that are known to biomagnify are
16:Process of progressive accumulation in food chain
2629:
50:of organisms at successively higher levels in a
100:Although sometimes used interchangeably with "
2274:
1457:
710:
560:United States Environmental Protection Agency
244:
530:Edwards, Clive A. (2004). Stapleton (ed.).
307:
280:Metals are not degradable because they are
2281:
2267:
1678:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
1464:
1450:
717:
703:
54:. This increase can occur as a result of:
1576:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
1215:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
483:
393:The Wildlife Techniques Manual: Research
160:, it is absorbed by algae (generally as
73:
26:
18:
1608:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
641:Ali, Hazrat; Khan, Ezzat (2019-08-18).
640:
529:
2630:
2563:List of extremely hazardous substances
1416:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
2262:
1445:
698:
390:
2598:
1431:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
647:Human and Ecological Risk Assessment
614:United Nations Environment Programme
479:
477:
475:
473:
156:is only present in small amounts in
2610:
1881:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
13:
1634:Ecological effects of biodiversity
322:(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).
14:
2659:
2502:Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
970:Generalist and specialist species
685:
470:
203:
2609:
2597:
2586:
2585:
1693:Occupancy–abundance relationship
487:The Gale Encyclopedia of Science
432:Science of the Total Environment
367:Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene
90:contaminated air, water, or food
1713:Relative abundance distribution
1426:Plant defense against herbivory
1293:Competitive exclusion principle
1005:Mesopredator release hypothesis
634:
607:"Persistent Organic Pollutants"
599:
590:
448:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.02.043
2573:Occupational safety and health
2477:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
2288:
1298:Consumer–resource interactions
577:
548:
523:
513:
504:
419:
409:
384:
1:
2144:Biological data visualization
1971:Environmental niche modelling
1698:Population viability analysis
659:10.1080/10807039.2018.1469398
377:
275:persistent organic pollutants
1629:Density-dependent inhibition
616:. 2007-09-26. Archived from
562:. 1972-12-31. Archived from
391:Silvy, Nova J., ed. (2012).
334:(polychlorinated biphenyls).
314:Persistent organic pollutant
95:
7:
2098:Liebig's law of the minimum
1933:Resource selection function
824:Metabolic theory of ecology
350:
224:, and the organic forms of
10:
2664:
1998:Niche apportionment models
1718:Relative species abundance
922:Primary nutritional groups
819:List of feeding behaviours
311:
245:Substances that biomagnify
145:) and insoluble in water (
2581:
2535:
2522:2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak
2469:
2418:
2352:
2296:
2247:
2179:Ecosystem based fisheries
2121:
2021:
1946:
1819:
1791:Interspecific competition
1756:
1683:Minimum viable population
1616:
1541:Maximum sustainable yield
1526:Intraspecific competition
1521:Effective population size
1484:
1401:Anti-predator adaptations
1386:
1265:
1192:
1149:
1071:
1038:
935:
912:Photosynthetic efficiency
847:
741:
233:predatory-bird recovery (
2512:Consumption of Tide Pods
2497:Niigata Minamata disease
2324:Environmental toxicology
2169:Ecological stoichiometry
2134:Alternative stable state
308:Novel organic substances
251:chlorinated hydrocarbons
44:biological magnification
2360:Acceptable daily intake
2314:Occupational toxicology
2013:Ontogenetic niche shift
1876:Ideal free distribution
1786:Ecological facilitation
1536:Malthusian growth model
1506:Consumer-resource model
1363:Paradox of the plankton
1328:Energy systems language
1048:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1015:Optimal foraging theory
990:Heterotrophic nutrition
2517:Visakhapatnam gas leak
2461:Whole bowel irrigation
2159:Ecological forecasting
2103:Marginal value theorem
1901:Landscape epidemiology
1836:Cross-boundary subsidy
1771:Biological interaction
1121:Microbial intelligence
809:Green world hypothesis
556:"DDT Ban Takes Effect"
80:
32:
24:
2482:2007 pet food recalls
2164:Ecological humanities
2063:Ecological energetics
2008:Niche differentiation
1871:Habitat fragmentation
1639:Ecological extinction
1586:Small population size
1338:Feed conversion ratio
1318:Ecological succession
1250:San Francisco Estuary
1164:Ecological efficiency
1106:Microbial cooperation
312:Further information:
77:
30:
22:
2380:Fixed-dose procedure
2189:Evolutionary ecology
2154:Ecological footprint
2149:Ecological economics
2073:Ecological threshold
2068:Ecological indicator
1938:Source–sink dynamics
1891:Land change modeling
1886:Insular biogeography
1738:Species distribution
1477:Modelling ecosystems
1136:Microbial metabolism
975:Intraguild predation
764:Biogeochemical cycle
730:Modelling ecosystems
152:For example, though
2339:In vitro toxicology
2329:Forensic toxicology
2239:Theoretical ecology
2214:Natural environment
2078:Ecosystem diversity
2048:Ecological collapse
2038:Bateman's principle
1993:Limiting similarity
1906:Landscape limnology
1728:Species homogeneity
1566:Population modeling
1561:Population dynamics
1378:Trophic state index
440:2005ScTEn.351..247C
2543:Biological warfare
2527:List of poisonings
2334:Medical toxicology
2304:Aquatic toxicology
2250:Outline of ecology
2199:Industrial ecology
2194:Functional ecology
2058:Ecological deficit
2003:Niche construction
1966:Ecosystem engineer
1743:Species–area curve
1664:Introduced species
1479:: Other components
1411:Deimatic behaviour
1313:Ecological network
1245:North Pacific Gyre
1230:hydrothermal vents
1169:Ecological pyramid
1116:Microbial food web
927:Primary production
872:Foundation species
585:aquatic ecosystems
81:
33:
25:
2625:
2624:
2441:Chelation therapy
2256:
2255:
2139:Balance of nature
1896:Landscape ecology
1781:Community ecology
1723:Species diversity
1659:Indicator species
1654:Gradient analysis
1531:Logistic function
1439:
1438:
1396:Animal coloration
1373:Trophic mutualism
1111:Microbial ecology
902:Photoheterotrophs
887:Myco-heterotrophy
799:Ecosystem ecology
784:Carrying capacity
749:Abiotic component
541:978-0-02-865700-4
497:978-0-02-867717-0
402:978-1-4214-0159-1
344:Monomethylmercury
326:Hexachlorobenzene
282:chemical elements
239:peregrine falcons
2655:
2613:
2612:
2601:
2600:
2589:
2588:
2492:Minamata disease
2426:Activated carbon
2375:Biomagnification
2319:Entomotoxicology
2283:
2276:
2269:
2260:
2259:
1956:Ecological niche
1928:selection theory
1748:Umbrella species
1733:Species richness
1669:Invasive species
1649:Flagship species
1556:Population cycle
1551:Overexploitation
1516:Ecological yield
1466:
1459:
1452:
1443:
1442:
1348:Mesotrophic soil
1288:Climax community
1220:Marine food webs
1159:Biomagnification
960:Chemoorganotroph
814:Keystone species
774:Biotic component
719:
712:
705:
696:
695:
679:
678:
653:(6): 1353–1376.
638:
632:
631:
629:
628:
622:
611:
603:
597:
594:
588:
581:
575:
574:
572:
571:
552:
546:
545:
532:Pollution A to Z
527:
521:
517:
511:
508:
502:
501:
481:
468:
467:
423:
417:
413:
407:
406:
388:
124:Bioconcentration
40:bioamplification
38:, also known as
36:Biomagnification
2663:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2577:
2531:
2507:Seveso disaster
2487:Bhopal disaster
2465:
2414:
2370:Bioaccumulation
2348:
2292:
2287:
2257:
2252:
2243:
2229:Systems ecology
2117:
2088:Extinction debt
2053:Ecological debt
2043:Bioluminescence
2024:
2017:
1986:marine habitats
1961:Ecological trap
1942:
1822:
1815:
1758:
1752:
1708:Rapoport's rule
1703:Priority effect
1644:Endemic species
1612:
1571:Population size
1487:
1480:
1470:
1440:
1435:
1388:
1382:
1368:Trophic cascade
1278:Bioaccumulation
1261:
1188:
1145:
1067:
1034:
931:
843:
804:Ecosystem model
737:
723:
688:
683:
682:
639:
635:
626:
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620:
609:
605:
604:
600:
595:
591:
582:
578:
569:
567:
554:
553:
549:
542:
528:
524:
518:
514:
509:
505:
498:
482:
471:
424:
420:
414:
410:
403:
389:
385:
380:
357:Mercury in fish
353:
316:
310:
267:organochlorines
247:
206:
109:Bioaccumulation
102:bioaccumulation
98:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2661:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2607:
2595:
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2579:
2578:
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2575:
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2565:
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2555:
2550:
2545:
2539:
2537:
2536:Related topics
2533:
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2529:
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2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2473:
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2458:
2453:
2448:
2446:Gastric lavage
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2400:Toxicity class
2397:
2395:Toxic capacity
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2365:Acute toxicity
2362:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2344:Toxicogenomics
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
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2248:
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2244:
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2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2209:Microecosystem
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2108:Thorson's rule
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
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2033:Assembly rules
2029:
2027:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1918:
1916:Patch dynamics
1913:
1911:Metapopulation
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1827:
1825:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1806:Storage effect
1803:
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1768:
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1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1688:Neutral theory
1685:
1680:
1675:
1673:Native species
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
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1605:
1604:
1603:
1598:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1546:Overpopulation
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
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1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
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1482:
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1398:
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1384:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1353:Nutrient cycle
1350:
1345:
1343:Feeding frenzy
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1323:Energy quality
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1283:Cascade effect
1280:
1275:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
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1190:
1189:
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1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1126:Microbial loop
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1091:Lithoautotroph
1088:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1073:Microorganisms
1069:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1030:Prey switching
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
941:
939:
933:
932:
930:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
907:Photosynthesis
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
862:Chemosynthesis
859:
853:
851:
845:
844:
842:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
754:Abiotic stress
751:
745:
743:
739:
738:
722:
721:
714:
707:
699:
693:
692:
687:
686:External links
684:
681:
680:
633:
598:
589:
576:
547:
540:
522:
512:
503:
496:
469:
418:
408:
401:
382:
381:
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369:
364:
359:
352:
349:
348:
347:
341:
335:
329:
323:
309:
306:
246:
243:
205:
204:Current status
202:
180:or birds like
129:
128:
120:
97:
94:
72:
71:
68:
59:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2660:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2638:Ecotoxicology
2636:
2635:
2633:
2618:
2617:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2558:Hazard symbol
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2523:
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2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
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2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2456:Hemoperfusion
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
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2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
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2361:
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2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
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2310:
2309:Ecotoxicology
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2251:
2246:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:Urban ecology
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
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2147:
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2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:Kleiber's law
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
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2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
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1945:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1927:
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1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
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1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:Foster's rule
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
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1572:
1569:
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1534:
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1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
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1491:
1489:
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1474:
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1462:
1460:
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1448:
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1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
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1409:
1407:
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1402:
1399:
1397:
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1385:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
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1336:
1334:
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1324:
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1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
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1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1256:
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1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1184:Trophic level
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1141:Phage ecology
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1131:Microbial mat
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1086:Bacteriophage
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1053:Decomposition
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
1000:Mesopredators
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
945:Apex predator
943:
942:
940:
938:
934:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
854:
852:
850:
846:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
779:Biotic stress
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
746:
744:
740:
735:
731:
727:
720:
715:
713:
708:
706:
701:
700:
697:
690:
689:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
623:on 2007-09-26
619:
615:
608:
602:
593:
586:
580:
566:on 2014-08-12
565:
561:
557:
551:
543:
537:
533:
526:
516:
507:
499:
493:
489:
488:
480:
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476:
474:
465:
461:
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453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
422:
412:
404:
398:
394:
387:
383:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
362:Methylmercury
360:
358:
355:
354:
345:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
321:
318:
317:
315:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
255:methylmercury
252:
242:
240:
236:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
201:
198:
194:
190:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
162:methylmercury
159:
155:
150:
148:
144:
139:
136:
132:
126:
125:
121:
118:
117:trophic level
114:
110:
107:
106:
105:
103:
93:
91:
87:
76:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
56:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
29:
21:
2614:
2602:
2590:
2451:Hemodialysis
2374:
2219:Regime shift
2204:Macroecology
1925:
1921:
1861:Edge effects
1831:Biogeography
1776:Commensalism
1624:Biodiversity
1501:Allee effect
1240:kelp forests
1193:Example webs
1158:
1058:Detritivores
897:Organotrophs
877:Kinetotrophs
829:Productivity
650:
646:
636:
625:. Retrieved
618:the original
601:
592:
579:
568:. Retrieved
564:the original
550:
531:
525:
520:Development.
515:
506:
486:
431:
421:
411:
392:
386:
286:heavy metals
279:
259:heavy metals
248:
207:
191:
151:
140:
133:
130:
122:
112:
108:
99:
89:
82:
43:
39:
35:
34:
2643:Food chains
2616:WikiProject
2553:Food safety
2385:Lethal dose
1856:Disturbance
1759:interaction
1581:Recruitment
1511:Depensation
1303:Copiotrophs
1174:Energy flow
1096:Lithotrophy
1040:Decomposers
1020:Planktivore
995:Insectivore
985:Heterotroph
950:Bacterivore
917:Phototrophs
867:Chemotrophs
839:Restoration
789:Competition
277:" or POPs.
261:. Both are
235:bald eagles
166:zooplankton
147:hydrophobic
135:Biodilution
86:zooplankton
2632:Categories
2548:Carcinogen
2419:Treatments
2290:Toxicology
2224:Sexecology
1801:Parasitism
1766:Antibiosis
1601:Resistance
1596:Resilience
1486:Population
1406:Camouflage
1358:Oligotroph
1273:Ascendency
1235:intertidal
1225:cold seeps
1179:Food chain
980:Herbivores
955:Carnivores
882:Mixotrophs
857:Autotrophs
736:components
627:2022-12-08
570:2014-08-10
378:References
288:, such as
263:lipophilic
143:lipophilic
65:energetics
62:Food chain
52:food chain
2648:Pollution
2470:Incidents
2436:Cathartic
2129:Allometry
2083:Emergence
1811:Symbiosis
1796:Mutualism
1591:Stability
1496:Abundance
1308:Dominance
1266:Processes
1255:tide pool
1151:Food webs
1025:Predation
1010:Omnivores
937:Consumers
892:Mycotroph
849:Producers
794:Ecosystem
759:Behaviour
667:1080-7039
456:0048-9697
372:Toxaphene
338:Toxaphene
222:toxaphene
174:swordfish
96:Processes
2592:Category
2431:Antidote
2353:Concepts
2184:Endolith
2113:Xerosere
2025:networks
1841:Ecocline
1387:Defense,
1063:Detritus
965:Foraging
834:Resource
675:90028179
464:16061271
351:See also
168:, small
158:seawater
2604:Commons
2568:Mutagen
2174:Ecopath
1981:Habitat
1851:Ecotype
1846:Ecotone
1823:ecology
1821:Spatial
1757:Species
1617:Species
1488:ecology
1473:Ecology
1421:Mimicry
1389:counter
1333:f-ratio
1081:Archaea
769:Biomass
742:General
734:Trophic
726:Ecology
436:Bibcode
302:arsenic
298:mercury
294:cadmium
271:evolved
230:arsenic
226:mercury
154:mercury
111:occurs
48:tissues
2390:Poison
2297:Fields
1205:Rivers
1101:Marine
673:
665:
538:
494:
462:
454:
399:
328:(HCB).
300:, and
186:eagles
182:osprey
178:sharks
170:nekton
113:within
2410:Venom
2405:Toxin
2122:Other
2023:Other
1976:Guild
1948:Niche
1200:Lakes
671:S2CID
621:(PDF)
610:(PDF)
416:York.
1210:Soil
663:ISSN
536:ISBN
492:ISBN
460:PMID
452:ISSN
397:ISBN
332:PCBs
290:lead
228:and
218:PCBs
184:and
176:and
149:).
655:doi
444:doi
320:DDT
257:or
214:DDE
210:DDT
197:EPA
193:DDT
42:or
2634::
1671:/
1475::
732::
728::
669:.
661:.
651:25
649:.
645:.
612:.
558:.
472:^
458:.
450:.
442:.
430:.
296:,
292:,
237:,
220:,
216:,
212:,
115:a
2282:e
2275:t
2268:v
1926:K
1924:/
1922:r
1465:e
1458:t
1451:v
718:e
711:t
704:v
677:.
657::
630:.
573:.
544:.
500:.
466:.
446::
438::
405:.
346:.
340:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
