785:, plundering, razing the villages and killing all men encountered. Flaminius, in charge of the nearest Roman army, set off in pursuit. Hannibal arranged an ambush on the north shore of Lake Trasimene and trapped the Romans. With the Carthaginians attacking unexpectedly from the flank and the rear, possibly in poor visibility, there was no chance for the Romans to form even a rudimentary fighting line and they were defeated after three hours of hard fighting. The trap failed to enclose the 6,000 Romans at the front of the column, who escaped; later in the day they were surrounded by pursuing Carthaginians and surrendered. Thus nearly all 25,000 Romans in Flaminius's army were killed or captured. This destruction of an entire army as a result of an ambush by another army is widely considered a unique occurrence. Several days later the Carthaginians wiped out the entire cavalry force of the second Roman army, who were not yet aware of the earlier disaster.
834:
1371:
these signals on their flank and to their rear, but could not see their enemy, which caused confusion. It would have taken several hours for the Romans to convert their formation into a battle array, even if they had known which direction to face. As it was, with the
Carthaginians attacking unexpectedly from the flank and the rear, possibly with poor visibility, there was no chance to form even a rudimentary fighting line. Some Romans fled while others clustered into groups of various sizes, ready to engage the enemy on all sides. The fugitives and many of the impromptu Roman groups were rapidly cut down or captured. Other groups of Romans put up a stiff fight, especially in the centre, where the attacking Gauls suffered heavy casualties before beating down the trapped Romans after three hours of heavy combat.
1346:
subsequent unreadiness for battle. As
Flaminius was expecting battle, the Romans probably marched in three parallel columns, which was their habit before a battle as this was relatively quicker to manoeuvre into a battle line compared with a single line of march. This swiftness was relative, as forming an army up in battle order was a complicated affair which would take several hours under any circumstances. The Romans would have had a screen of light infantry out to their front and, to a lesser extent, their flank, as skirmishing was usual before a battle with the armies' respective light troops shielding their close-order colleagues while they formed up. Flaminius did not send out cavalry scouts to make a more distant reconnaissance; Roman armies of the time rarely did so.
946:
1080:
1355:
48:
1146:
6607:
6473:
5632:
5565:
5434:
4817:
4419:
1400:
1324:
687:
3468:
1342:
The
Carthaginians avoided both of these and took up positions on the reverse slopes of the hills. The Carthaginian cavalry were positioned furthest to the west, the north-Italian Gallic infantry to their east and the experienced African and Iberian infantry furthest east, relatively close to their camp. Modern historians place the bulk of the many Carthaginian light infantry either around the defile and its mouth or as reinforcing the Gauls in the centre of the Carthaginian line.
1316:
3848:
1286:; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat. Both Iberia and Gaul provided experienced infantry: unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. Most of the African infantry would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a
1259:
694:
1438:, to the Adriatic coast, continuing their devastation and plundering of the territory they crossed and the killing of any adult men captured; the Gauls were especially brutal in this respect. Contemporary reports claim that the Carthaginian soldiers accumulated so much booty that they had to cease looting because they could not carry any more. The army then marched south into
1101:), plundering the countryside, looting the plentiful stocks of food, razing the villages and small towns, and killing out of hand all adult men encountered. Hannibal learned that one Roman army was at Arretium and was eager to bring it to battle, before it could be reinforced: Hannibal surmised the Romans would have another army on the east coast.
1302:
reinforced by local Gauls. In 216 BC, the
Carthaginians, not having been reinforced since crossing the Apennines, had 40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. It is usually assumed that more than 50,000 fought at Lake Trasimene. In any event, the Carthaginian army was considerably larger than the Roman.
1429:
The Roman prisoners were badly treated by the
Carthaginians, but the captured Latin allies were treated well and many were freed and sent back to their cities in the hope that they would speak highly of Carthaginian martial prowess and of their own treatment. Hannibal hoped some of these allies could
1242:
and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies, but sometimes consisted of two Roman and two allied legions. Allied legions had a larger attached complement of
1108:
points out that as they passed through territory devastated by the
Carthaginians, there would have been a feeling of military failure and humiliation – the army existed to protect its homeland – and that the small farmers of the legions and their landowner officers would
1345:
On the morning of 21 June the Romans set off very early and marched eastward along the northern edge of the lake. Ancient accounts state that a thick morning mist near the lake limited visibility, but some modern historians have suggested this was either invented or exaggerated to excuse the Romans'
1341:
Once it was dark, Hannibal sent the components of his army on night marches behind the hills to the north of the lake to take up positions from which they could ambush the Roman army. Night marches are notoriously difficult and often result in units becoming lost in the dark or alerting their enemy.
1523:
notes that "It is the only instance in history of lying in ambush with the whole of a large army". Historian Robert O'Connell writes that it was "the only time an entire large army was effectively swallowed and destroyed by such a maneuver." The historian Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Battle of
1390:
on the promise of being disarmed and freed; "with a garment apiece" according to Livy. Hannibal disapproved and only applied this to the allied captives, while selling the Romans into slavery. Many of the
Carthaginian infantry, especially the Libyans, equipped themselves with captured Roman armour.
1370:
The leading Romans made contact with the most easterly of the
Carthaginians, probably some of the African or Iberian close-order infantry and the signal was given for all of the Carthaginians to advance, possibly by the sounding of trumpets. According to some ancient accounts, the Romans could hear
1385:
The trap failed to close on the 6,000 Romans at the front of the column, who were possibly also those most prepared for battle, and they pushed their way out of the defile against little opposition. Realising that they could not affect the battle behind them, they marched on. Later in the day they
1416:
The second Roman army, originally positioned on the
Adriatic coast and commanded by Gnaeus Geminus, had been marching west, intending to join up with Flaminius. Unaware that the destruction of Flaminius's army had left the Carthaginians able to manoeuvre freely, Geminus's entire cavalry force of
1301:
The numbers fielded by the
Carthaginians are not known, but an approximation can be made. Hannibal had arrived in Italy with 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry, and had fought at the Trebia in December 218 BC with 31,000 and 11,000 respectively. In the wake of this victory, he was further heavily
1075:
coast; they would be able to block Hannibal's possible advance into central Italy and be well positioned to move north to operate in Cisalpine Gaul. In spite of their losses, the Romans fielded twenty-two legions in 217 BC, ten more than in 218 BC. The Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul
1587:
If the Romans had been in a single column, it would have stretched for more than 8 kilometres (5 mi) along the lake shore, probably much more. This is not compatible with ancient accounts of the battle and it is difficult to see how the whole army could have been enveloped under these
1413:, 15,000 were killed and 10,000 scattered. The usually reliable Polybius has 15,000 killed and most of the rest captured. Polybius reports losses of 1,500 killed for the Carthaginians, most of them Gauls; Livy gives 2,500 killed on the day and "many" who subsequently died of their wounds.
1338:. To the north of the road were a range of low hills that came closer to the lake towards the east, steadily reducing the open ground between them and the lake. The Carthaginians made camp where the hills were closest to the lake, near the defile. This was clearly visible to the Romans.
1468:" of avoiding pitched conflict, relying instead on low-level harassment to wear the invader down while Rome rebuilt its military strength. Hannibal was left largely free to ravage Apulia for the next year, until the Romans ended the dictatorship and elected
1070:
in preparation for marching north later in the year. Two armies – of four legions each, two Roman and two allied, but with stronger than usual cavalry contingents – were formed. One was stationed at Arretium and one on the
1417:
4,000 was scouting ahead when it was surprised by the Carthaginians a few days after Trasimene. Nearly 2,000 were killed in the first clash; the balance were surrounded and captured the next day. Geminus withdrew his infantry back to Ariminum (modern
1187:
providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard
1382:. The trapped portion of the Roman army collapsed. Men attempted to swim across the lake and drowned; others waded out until the water was up to their necks and the Carthaginian cavalrymen swam their horses out to chop at their exposed heads.
2842:
979: – the survivors of the 37 with which he had left Iberia – in Cisalpine Gaul. The Romans had already withdrawn to their winter quarters and were astonished by Hannibal's appearance.
933:(modern northern Italy), antagonised by the founding of several Roman settlements on traditionally Gallic territory, attacked the Romans, capturing several towns and repeatedly ambushing a Roman relief force. The
1109:
have taken this despoliation as an intense provocation. The Romans gained the impression, possibly fostered by Hannibal, that the Carthaginians were fleeing south before them; according to the ancient historian
1333:
The shoreline has changed since, but at the time of the battle, the road led along the north shore of the lake then turned south, still along the lakeshore, before climbing away from the lake through a
1378:, who otherwise paints a poor picture of Flaminius, recorded two centuries later that he was active and valiant in attempting to rally his army and organise a defence before being cut down by a Gaul,
323:
358:
1243:
cavalry than Roman ones. At Lake Trasimene, the Romans fielded four legions – two Roman and two made up of allies – for a total of approximately 25,000 men.
5412:
5113:
1519:, Hannibal planned and executed "the greatest ambush in history". The ambush and destruction of one army by another is widely considered a unique occurrence. Military historian
637:
595:
3447:
393:
3442:
353:
1491:, the son of the Scipio who had been wounded at Ticinus, invaded the Carthaginian homeland, defeated the Carthaginians in two major battles and won the allegiance of the
632:
545:
483:
373:
418:
1206:; they carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword and a 90-centimetre (3 ft) circular shield. The balance were equipped as
318:
3437:
1409:
The ancient sources are unclear as to the fate of the approximately 25,000 Romans known to have been engaged. According to the contemporary annalist and senator
781:, but were surprised when a Carthaginian army more than 50,000 strong crossed the range by a difficult but unguarded route. The Carthaginians moved south into
237:
4336:
1042:
were selected and Sempronius then returned to Placentia to see out his term to 15 March. The consuls-elect recruited further legions, both from Rome and its
540:
622:
5822:
5738:
493:
473:
468:
398:
94:
550:
368:
5616:
565:
363:
1561:"Shock" troops are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before or immediately upon contact.
1274:
Carthage usually recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many would be from North Africa – these were frequently referred to as
5965:
5827:
5140:
5088:
6660:
1524:
Lake Trasimene as one of the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war, the others being
1484:
describes this as "Rome's greatest military disaster". Subsequently, the Carthaginians campaigned in southern Italy for a further 13 years.
1104:
Once he learned that he had been bypassed, Flaminius, the commander of the Roman army at Arretium, set off in pursuit. The modern historian
859:. The war lasted for 23 years until the Carthaginians were defeated. Five years later an army commanded by the leading Carthaginian general
5832:
3893:
3326:
6375:
6355:
1374:
According to Polybius, Flaminius was completely surprised and provided no effective leadership. The openly pro-Roman ancient historian
1007:
230:
4291:
6443:
5488:
6630:
5621:
3489:
1030:
When news of the defeat at the Trebia reached Rome, it caused great alarm. This calmed once Sempronius arrived to preside over the
983:
6031:
5525:
3529:
1469:
805:
686:
6365:
1097:
unopposed, surprising the Romans by taking a difficult but unguarded route. The Carthaginians moved south into Etruria (modern
5892:
5611:
3407:
3281:
3259:
3240:
3221:
3202:
3180:
3161:
3110:
3087:
3064:
3041:
3018:
2997:
2975:
2956:
2937:
2911:
2885:
2862:
2831:
1117:, but they closed to less than a day's march behind their opponents. The Carthaginians bypassed the Roman-garrisoned city of
223:
1031:
6313:
3412:
867:(modern south-east Spain) which he greatly expanded and turned into a quasi-monarchical, autonomous territory ruled by the
1495:
kingdoms of North Africa. Hannibal and the remnants of his army were recalled from Italy to confront him. They met at the
6655:
6360:
6264:
5503:
3833:
3427:
833:
838:
The approximate extent of territory controlled by Rome and Carthage immediately before the start of the Second Punic War
3638:
3558:
3494:
3352:
968:
820:
in 216 BC, resulting in a third and even worse disaster for Rome; it was followed by thirteen more years of war.
759:
702:
627:
276:
6370:
5760:
3499:
3212:Ñaco del Hoyo, Toni (2015) . "Roman Economy, Finance, and Politics in the Second Punic War". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
1457:
1076:
recognised the Carthaginians as the dominant force and sent plentiful supplies and many recruits to Hannibal's camp.
797:
6395:
6302:
5262:
1113:, they anticipated an easy victory. The Romans were pursuing so rapidly that they were unable to carry out proper
6122:
5473:
5098:
4240:
3886:
3319:
1039:
728:
165:
57:
4161:
6112:
5519:
5498:
3823:
3509:
1476:
as consuls in 216 BC. These more aggressive commanders offered battle to Hannibal, who accepted and won a
1139:
6413:
2947:
Erdkamp, Paul (2015) . "Manpower and Food Supply in the First and Second Punic Wars". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
6456:
6438:
6086:
5118:
3670:
3633:
413:
383:
6380:
5977:
5596:
5535:
5365:
5175:
3367:
3008:
303:
6650:
6433:
5810:
5713:
5252:
5011:
3828:
3715:
3700:
3685:
3665:
872:
478:
453:
433:
408:
937:
reinforced their army in Cisalpine Gaul while also preparing armies to invade Carthaginian territories.
6645:
6635:
6289:
5552:
5395:
5267:
5157:
3915:
3879:
3780:
3690:
3312:
659:
555:
443:
3152:
Lomas, Kathryn (2015) . "Rome, Latins, and Italians in the Second Punic War". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
6522:
6451:
6026:
5882:
5815:
5041:
4984:
3760:
3548:
3190:
1481:
612:
590:
5943:
2966:
Fronda, Michael P. (2015) . "Hannibal: Tactics, Strategy, and Geostrategy". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
1319:
Hannibal's ambush at Lake Trasimene. From the Department of History, United States Military Academy.
975:
of the native tribes. Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of
6563:
6283:
6068:
5775:
5302:
5103:
4834:
4384:
4037:
3902:
3818:
3775:
3553:
3298:
1447:
1035:
945:
654:
298:
271:
6170:
1014:
lured Sempronius and his army out of their camp and onto ground of Hannibal's choosing, where the
910:
in Iberia. A little later Rome made a separate treaty of association with the independent city of
63:
6512:
6385:
6041:
5989:
5692:
5483:
5390:
5277:
4912:
4263:
3770:
3695:
3645:
3628:
3618:
3608:
3588:
3032:
Koon, Sam (2015) . "Phalanx and Legion: the "Face" of Punic War Battle". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
1239:
750:
and Carthage early in 218 BC. Hannibal, ruler of the Carthaginian territories in south-east
649:
438:
388:
378:
348:
328:
47:
6428:
4852:
6550:
6418:
6063:
5872:
5867:
5797:
5687:
5530:
5402:
5135:
4565:
4516:
4459:
4404:
4258:
3740:
3720:
3657:
3603:
3514:
3392:
2925:
2850:
1520:
1022:
by the Carthaginians, but 10,000 under Sempronius fought their way to the safety of Placentia.
560:
503:
343:
847:
was fought from 264 to 241 BC between Carthage and Rome: these two main powers of the western
6541:
6423:
6097:
6073:
5928:
5407:
5292:
5190:
5165:
4757:
4636:
4590:
4521:
4486:
3680:
3623:
3452:
3053:
1473:
1410:
1279:
809:
617:
448:
428:
4722:
4230:
6517:
6390:
6330:
6183:
6117:
5960:
5948:
5792:
5601:
5360:
5355:
5257:
5217:
5021:
4917:
4907:
4900:
4454:
3813:
3578:
3573:
3362:
1525:
1252:
1079:
1015:
771:
530:
308:
293:
5547:
1050:
and Sicily against the possibility of Carthaginian raids or invasion; placed garrisons at
8:
6579:
6507:
6335:
6325:
6296:
6164:
5997:
5938:
5508:
5417:
5317:
5307:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5227:
5222:
5207:
5202:
5123:
4979:
4857:
4802:
4727:
4151:
4115:
3852:
3735:
3543:
1153:
1150:
907:
864:
716:
607:
498:
3129:
2900:
796:
city-states there. News of the defeat caused a panic in Rome and led to the election of
6276:
5933:
5733:
5718:
5513:
5468:
5463:
5312:
4862:
4474:
3790:
3710:
3705:
3649:
3593:
3457:
3417:
3387:
3124:
2985:
1516:
1335:
1105:
1094:
919:
891:
851:
in the 3rd century BC struggled for supremacy primarily on the Mediterranean island of
778:
513:
463:
458:
333:
1354:
6196:
5857:
5805:
5787:
5728:
5350:
5287:
5282:
5212:
5108:
5068:
5063:
5046:
5016:
4682:
4626:
4620:
4469:
4446:
4268:
4198:
4156:
3765:
3755:
3730:
3725:
3568:
3538:
3504:
3422:
3377:
3357:
3277:
3255:
3236:
3217:
3198:
3176:
3157:
3136:
3106:
3099:
3083:
3060:
3037:
3014:
2993:
2971:
2952:
2933:
2907:
2881:
2858:
2827:
1176:
995:
972:
915:
585:
570:
508:
488:
288:
266:
3272:(2015) . "Roman Strategy and Aims in the Second Punic War". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
6502:
6237:
5953:
5697:
5606:
5327:
5322:
5130:
5073:
5056:
5026:
4957:
4732:
4511:
4389:
4316:
4136:
4012:
3859:
3598:
3524:
3432:
3269:
3144:
3116:
3070:
3024:
2917:
2868:
1529:
1488:
1477:
1295:
1291:
1267:
1263:
1011:
999:
956:
817:
732:
338:
247:
169:
143:
39:
6189:
6058:
6640:
5918:
5272:
5232:
5170:
4273:
4208:
4062:
3805:
3785:
3750:
3745:
3675:
3613:
3563:
3484:
3382:
3372:
3344:
1465:
1215:
1019:
964:
844:
801:
664:
580:
575:
535:
525:
423:
5970:
3467:
1503:
BC and Hannibal was decisively defeated. As a consequence, Carthage agreed to a
6224:
6158:
5913:
5672:
5540:
5345:
5340:
5051:
5004:
4922:
4867:
4595:
4501:
4464:
4311:
4173:
4007:
3795:
3402:
3397:
1496:
1461:
1282:
infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting
1207:
1122:
1114:
991:
930:
860:
793:
763:
747:
736:
669:
148:
87:
20:
3250:
Rawlings, Louis (2015) . "The War in Italy, 218–203". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
1552:
This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances, or, rarely, even more.
766:(northern Italy) later that year. The Romans rushed reinforcements north from
6624:
6572:
6257:
6217:
6203:
5862:
5677:
5452:
4999:
4994:
4967:
4895:
4792:
4326:
4248:
3997:
3977:
3940:
3476:
3173:
Hannibal's Odyssey: Environmental Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia
3140:
2895:
2846:
2819:
1570:
The Spanish used a heavy throwing spear that the Romans later adopted as the
1456:
The populace of Rome fell into a panic when word of the defeat was received.
1275:
1235:
1145:
1003:
998:. He was soundly beaten and personally wounded. The Romans retreated to near
848:
789:
403:
109:
96:
6210:
4533:
3304:
6318:
6008:
6002:
5908:
5903:
5842:
5723:
5078:
4952:
4927:
4879:
4872:
4797:
4712:
4348:
4283:
4141:
4079:
4002:
3960:
1504:
1386:
were surrounded by pursuing Carthaginians and surrendered to a force under
1315:
976:
934:
883:
and territorial depth, which encouraged it to resist future Roman demands.
856:
813:
6243:
6557:
6140:
6079:
5898:
5852:
5837:
5765:
5493:
4972:
4777:
4672:
4479:
4215:
4146:
4052:
3970:
3955:
3233:
The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman Republic
2857:. Vol. VIII. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–80.
1480:, where some 70,000 Romans were killed or captured; the modern historian
1399:
1055:
899:
6595:
4652:
1323:
982:
The Romans went on the attack and the local Roman commander, the consul
777:
The following spring, the Romans positioned an army on each side of the
6092:
5923:
5782:
5770:
5682:
5591:
5180:
4932:
4600:
4575:
4554:
4496:
4358:
4331:
4047:
3927:
3336:
1450:
1278: – which provided several types of fighters, including:
1211:
1197:
967:, in charge of Carthaginian interests in Iberia. The Carthaginian army
914:, well south of the Ebro. In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal
903:
724:
5847:
6102:
6015:
5031:
4989:
4962:
4772:
4717:
4701:
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4353:
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4253:
4220:
4074:
4017:
3992:
2824:
The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean
1443:
1431:
1227:
1189:
971:
in October, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain and the
3871:
2855:
The Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C
6250:
4752:
4747:
4615:
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3935:
1387:
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1258:
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911:
895:
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876:
720:
215:
160:
53:
4697:
6535:
5982:
5478:
5370:
4767:
4737:
4692:
4677:
4662:
4657:
4610:
4580:
4303:
4110:
4105:
4042:
3982:
3945:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2114:
2112:
1492:
1287:
1223:
1219:
1193:
1184:
1118:
1098:
1067:
1051:
987:
887:
868:
782:
740:
1434:. The Carthaginians continued their march through Etruria, then
6586:
6231:
6052:
5036:
4942:
4787:
4742:
4687:
4647:
4631:
4605:
4549:
4394:
4321:
4225:
4193:
4183:
4131:
4032:
3965:
1439:
1435:
1418:
1231:
1125:. Hannibal decided this was a suitable spot to turn and fight.
955:
Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern
890:
until his death in 228 BC. He was succeeded by his son-in-law,
852:
767:
751:
2541:
2466:
2454:
2309:
2136:
2124:
2109:
1942:
1708:
4947:
4937:
4782:
4762:
4707:
4667:
4641:
4585:
4084:
2796:
2558:
2556:
2519:
2517:
2381:
2379:
2377:
2375:
1846:
1672:
1573:
1283:
1043:
926:
2784:
2502:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
1995:
1993:
1648:
1010:
was redeployed to the north and joined with Scipio's force.
804:
of avoiding major battles, the next year the Romans elected
4544:
4203:
4188:
4168:
4069:
3950:
2427:
1375:
960:
816:. These more aggressive commanders engaged Hannibal at the
755:
3101:
Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War
2760:
2748:
2580:
2553:
2514:
2490:
2403:
2391:
2372:
2333:
2167:
2068:
2056:
1978:
1918:
1858:
1732:
1720:
1054:
and other places for similar reasons; built a fleet of 60
1006:
and awaited reinforcement. The Roman army in Sicily under
4178:
3254:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 299–319.
3216:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 376–392.
3156:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 339–356.
2628:
2444:
2442:
2239:
2203:
2179:
2034:
2032:
1990:
1834:
1761:
1759:
1744:
1684:
1093:
BC, probably in early May, the Carthaginians crossed the
792:
in the hope of winning over some of the ethnic Greek and
2191:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2005:
1824:
1822:
1807:
1660:
1600:
3036:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 77–94.
2951:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 58–76.
2878:
Hannibal's Last Battle: Zama & the Fall of Carthage
2640:
2568:
2439:
2362:
2360:
2345:
2321:
2029:
1906:
1894:
1756:
1507:
which stripped it of most of its territory and power.
4435:
2712:
2664:
2652:
2616:
2415:
2263:
2261:
2215:
2155:
2092:
2080:
2044:
2017:
1966:
1930:
1870:
1819:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1612:
2772:
2736:
2724:
2700:
2676:
2604:
2592:
2529:
2297:
2285:
2273:
1882:
1696:
1624:
1179:
were liable for military service and would serve as
3082:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
2990:
The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–14 BC
2688:
2357:
1954:
1636:
1222:. They were divided into three ranks, of which the
875:gained Carthage silver mines, agricultural wealth,
3128:
3098:
3052:
2899:
2478:
2258:
2227:
1442:, in the hope of winning over some of the ethnic
1290:, usually forming two or three lines. Specialist
743:, and resulted in a heavy defeat for the Romans.
6622:
1328:The north shore of Lake Trasimene, from the lake
1121:and on 20 June marched along the north shore of
693:
1535:
2880:. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword.
1404:A Carthaginian cavalryman, as depicted in 1891
1018:took place. Most of the Romans were killed or
735:. The battle took place on the north shore of
3887:
3334:
3320:
3276:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 280–298.
3230:
3211:
2970:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 242–259.
2802:
2790:
906:as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian
231:
3123:
3010:Mastering the West: Rome and Carthage at War
2766:
2074:
2984:
2754:
2586:
2562:
2547:
2523:
2508:
2496:
2472:
2460:
2385:
2339:
2315:
2252:
2209:
2185:
2173:
2149:
2130:
2118:
2062:
1984:
1948:
1924:
1864:
1738:
1726:
1714:
1690:
1678:
1606:
1571:
1515:According to the modern military historian
1394:
1201:
1156:, which was used by Roman infantry between
6429:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
6376:International Congress of Maritime Museums
6356:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
5648:
3894:
3880:
3327:
3313:
3268:
1999:
1852:
1750:
1359:An Iberian warrior from a bas-relief made
706:Site of the battle within modern day Italy
238:
224:
6489:
6444:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
3175:. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press.
963:in May 218 BC, leaving his brother,
940:
3249:
3059:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
2646:
1398:
1353:
1322:
1314:
1270:(famous for the skill of their slingers)
1257:
1251:For broader coverage of this topic, see
1144:
1138:For broader coverage of this topic, see
1078:
994:against the Carthaginian cavalry at the
944:
832:
6414:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
3170:
3096:
3080:The First Punic War: A Military History
3077:
2946:
2894:
2840:
2818:
2718:
2670:
2574:
2448:
2433:
2421:
2409:
2397:
2351:
2327:
2291:
2279:
2221:
2197:
2161:
2050:
2038:
2023:
2011:
1972:
1912:
1900:
1876:
1828:
1813:
1789:
1777:
1765:
1702:
1630:
1618:
1464:by the Roman Assembly and adopted the "
788:The Carthaginians then marched towards
6623:
6366:European Association of Archaeologists
2965:
2658:
2634:
2622:
2103:
2086:
1801:
916:besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum
6488:
5647:
5622:Pompey's campaign against the pirates
5580:
5450:
5449:
4832:
4434:
3913:
3901:
3875:
3308:
3292:
3189:
3151:
3050:
3006:
2924:
2902:Spain: An Oxford Archaeological Guide
2875:
2778:
2742:
2730:
2706:
2694:
2682:
2610:
2598:
2535:
2366:
2303:
2233:
1960:
1888:
1840:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1349:
1310:
1226:also carried two javelins, while the
950:Hannibal's route from Iberia to Italy
219:
16:217 BC battle of the Second Punic War
6661:Battles involving the Roman Republic
3031:
2484:
2267:
1936:
1058:; and, established supply depots at
245:
6361:Archaeological Institute of America
3105:. Warminster: Aris & Phillips.
3055:The Art of War in the Western World
3013:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2932:. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press.
1084:1704 French bust depicting Hannibal
986:, personally led a strong force of
731:on 21 June 217 BC, during the
13:
1128:
855:and its surrounding waters and in
14:
6672:
6371:Institute of Nautical Archaeology
5761:Coastal defence and fortification
5136:Roman circumnavigation of Britain
4436:Navigation, and ports and harbors
1458:Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus
798:Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus
19:For the World War II battle, see
6605:
6471:
6396:Society for American Archaeology
5630:
5563:
5432:
4815:
4417:
3847:
3846:
3466:
800:as dictator. Impatient with his
692:
685:
46:
6631:Battles of the Second Punic War
5828:Phoenician discovery of America
3495:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
3131:Strategy: The Indirect Approach
1581:
1564:
1555:
1546:
1246:
1170:. The cheek guards are missing.
770:but were badly defeated at the
60:at the Battle of Lake Trasimene
5520:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1140:Roman army of the mid-Republic
879:, military facilities such as
1:
6439:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
5114:Phoenician maritime expansion
3299:Polybius' and Livy's accounts
3274:A Companion to the Punic Wars
3252:A Companion to the Punic Wars
3231:O'Connell, Robert L. (2010).
3214:A Companion to the Punic Wars
3154:A Companion to the Punic Wars
3034:A Companion to the Punic Wars
2968:A Companion to the Punic Wars
2949:A Companion to the Punic Wars
1510:
1360:
1164:
1157:
823:
6381:Nautical Archaeology Society
1594:
1536:Notes, citations and sources
1424:
7:
6434:Museum of Ancient Seafaring
5811:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
5617:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
5474:Indus–Mesopotamia relations
4833:
3914:
2906:. Oxford University Press.
1262:Modern interpretation of a
746:War had broken out between
10:
6677:
6656:Battles involving Carthage
6290:Phoenician Ship Expedition
5581:
5131:Pytheas' voyage to Britain
5124:Circumnavigation of Africa
3235:. New York: Random House.
3195:Carthage Must be Destroyed
2876:Carey, Brian Todd (2007).
2811:
1250:
1154:A Montefortino-type helmet
1137:
1025:
828:
754:, marched an army through
18:
6603:
6495:
6484:
6469:
6404:
6346:
6149:
6133:
5881:
5816:Samothrace temple complex
5751:
5706:
5665:
5658:
5654:
5643:
5628:
5587:
5576:
5561:
5459:
5445:
5430:
5383:
5336:
5189:
5156:
5149:
5087:
4888:
4845:
4841:
4828:
4813:
4532:
4445:
4441:
4430:
4415:
4367:
4302:
4239:
4124:
4093:
3926:
3922:
3909:
3842:
3804:
3523:
3475:
3464:
3343:
3097:Lazenby, John F. (1998).
1305:
959:) and marched north into
898:in 221 BC. In 226 BC the
324:Crossing of the Apennines
257:
210:25,000 killed or captured
192:
179:
154:
137:
69:
45:
37:
32:
5104:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
3301:side by side in English.
1657:, pp. 219–220, 225.
1540:
1489:Publius Cornelius Scipio
1395:Casualties and follow up
1294:were recruited from the
1238:instead. Both legionary
1133:
713:Battle of Lake Trasimene
33:Battle of Lake Trasimene
6386:RPM Nautical Foundation
6123:Surviving ancient ships
6042:Marsala Punic shipwreck
3781:Great Plains (Bagradas)
6419:Giza Solar boat museum
5873:Underwater exploration
5868:Underwater archaeology
5833:Pre-Columbian theories
5688:John Sinclair Morrison
5649:Research and education
5099:Austronesian Expansion
3171:Mahaney, W.C. (2008).
3078:Lazenby, John (1996).
3051:Jones, Archer (1987).
3007:Hoyos, Dexter (2015).
2849:; Frederiksen, M. W.;
2843:"The Second Punic War"
2841:Briscoe, John (2006).
1572:
1406:
1367:
1330:
1320:
1271:
1220:short thrusting swords
1202:
1172:
1086:
952:
941:Carthage invades Italy
840:
155:Commanders and leaders
6490:Legend and literature
6448:Viking ship museums:
6424:Grand Egyptian Museum
6184:Austronesian replicas
6159:Heyerdahl expeditions
6069:Caligula's Giant Ship
5929:Dover Bronze Age Boat
4591:Berenice Troglodytica
1402:
1357:
1326:
1318:
1261:
1148:
1082:
1034:in the usual manner.
948:
925:Meanwhile, the major
836:
201:1,500 or 2,500 killed
193:Casualties and losses
110:43.19750°N 12.08500°E
64:Joseph-Noël Sylvestre
6391:Sea Research Society
5793:Maritime archaeology
5602:Ameinias the Phocian
5597:Mediterranean piracy
3559:Crossing of the Alps
2436:, pp. 180, 182.
1843:, pp. 100, 107.
1669:, pp. 222, 225.
1253:Military of Carthage
1016:Battle of the Trebia
918:, which led Rome to
772:Battle of the Trebia
703:class=notpageimage|
277:Crossing of the Alps
129:Carthaginian victory
5484:Maritime Jade Route
4637:Kaveri Poompattinam
3197:. London: Penguin.
3135:. London: Penguin.
3125:Liddell Hart, Basil
2992:. London: Phoenix.
2986:Goldsworthy, Adrian
2845:. In Astin, A. E.;
2826:. London: Pimlico.
2637:, pp. 247–248.
2550:, pp. 21, 189.
2475:, pp. 187–188.
2463:, pp. 57, 187.
2412:, pp. 180–182.
2400:, pp. 180–181.
2318:, pp. 177–178.
2152:, pp. 186–187.
2133:, pp. 185–186.
2121:, pp. 184–185.
1951:, pp. 179–180.
1855:, pp. 283–284.
1717:, pp. 144–145.
1681:, pp. 143–144.
1453:of southern Italy.
1421:) on the Adriatic.
1185:better-off minority
908:sphere of influence
865:Carthaginian Iberia
602:Sicily and Sardinia
106: /
86:The north shore of
77:21 June 217 BC
6651:Ambushes in Europe
6032:Bajo de la Campana
5734:Peter Throckmorton
5719:Jean-Yves Empereur
5693:William L. Rodgers
5514:Maritime Silk Road
3650:Claw of Archimedes
3458:Treaty of Lutatius
3293:External resources
2926:Dodge, Theodore A.
2803:Ñaco del Hoyo 2015
1517:Basil Liddell Hart
1407:
1368:
1364: 200 BC
1350:Springing the trap
1331:
1321:
1311:Setting the ambush
1272:
1173:
1168: AD 100
1161: 300 BC
1106:Adrian Goldsworthy
1087:
1032:consular elections
1002:, fortified their
953:
886:Hamilcar ruled as
841:
779:Apennine Mountains
739:, to the south of
715:was fought when a
115:43.19750; 12.08500
6646:210s BC conflicts
6636:History of Umbria
6618:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6480:
6479:
6467:
6466:
6087:Madrague de Giens
5806:Temple of Isthmia
5802:Maritime temples
5788:Marine navigation
5747:
5746:
5739:Shelley Wachsmann
5729:J. Richard Steffy
5639:
5638:
5572:
5571:
5441:
5440:
5428:
5427:
5379:
5378:
5109:Ocean exploration
4824:
4823:
4811:
4810:
4470:Rutter (nautical)
4426:
4425:
4413:
4412:
4269:Mortise and tenon
3903:Ancient seafaring
3869:
3868:
3283:978-1-405-17600-2
3270:Zimmermann, Klaus
3261:978-1-1190-2550-4
3242:978-1-4000-6702-2
3223:978-1-1190-2550-4
3204:978-0-14-101809-6
3182:978-1-59333-951-7
3163:978-1-1190-2550-4
3112:978-0-85668-080-9
3089:978-0-8047-2673-3
3066:978-0-252-01380-5
3043:978-1-1190-2550-4
3020:978-0-19-986010-4
2999:978-0-304-36642-2
2977:978-1-405-17600-2
2958:978-1-1190-2550-4
2939:978-0-306-81362-7
2913:978-0-19-285300-4
2887:978-1-84415-635-1
2864:978-0-521-23448-1
2833:978-0-7126-6608-4
2767:Liddell Hart 1967
2511:, pp. 21–22.
2200:, pp. 22–25.
2075:Liddell Hart 1967
2014:, pp. 61–62.
1939:, pp. 86–87.
1816:, pp. 43–44.
1478:victory at Cannae
1008:Sempronius Longus
996:Battle of Ticinus
973:guerrilla tactics
678:
677:
354:Nuceria Alfaterna
214:
213:
133:
132:
6668:
6609:
6608:
6503:Ark of bulrushes
6486:
6485:
6475:
6474:
6113:Oldest surviving
5823:Nusantao network
5698:Chester G. Starr
5663:
5662:
5656:
5655:
5645:
5644:
5634:
5633:
5607:Cilician pirates
5578:
5577:
5567:
5566:
5504:Sa Huynh-Kalanay
5499:Iron Age Britain
5447:
5446:
5436:
5435:
5154:
5153:
4843:
4842:
4830:
4829:
4819:
4818:
4733:Ptolemais Theron
4443:
4442:
4432:
4431:
4421:
4420:
4013:Single-outrigger
3924:
3923:
3911:
3910:
3896:
3889:
3882:
3873:
3872:
3860:Military history
3850:
3849:
3824:Port of Carthage
3660:
3653:
3652:
3532:
3525:Second Punic War
3470:
3408:Bagradas (Tunis)
3329:
3322:
3315:
3306:
3305:
3287:
3265:
3246:
3227:
3208:
3186:
3167:
3148:
3145:Internet Archive
3143:– via the
3134:
3120:
3117:Internet Archive
3115:– via the
3104:
3093:
3074:
3071:Internet Archive
3069:– via the
3058:
3047:
3028:
3025:Internet Archive
3023:– via the
3003:
2981:
2962:
2943:
2921:
2918:Internet Archive
2916:– via the
2905:
2891:
2872:
2869:Internet Archive
2867:– via the
2837:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2776:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2755:Goldsworthy 2006
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2692:
2686:
2680:
2674:
2668:
2662:
2656:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2587:Goldsworthy 2006
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2563:Goldsworthy 2006
2560:
2551:
2548:Goldsworthy 2006
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
2524:Goldsworthy 2006
2521:
2512:
2509:Goldsworthy 2006
2506:
2500:
2497:Goldsworthy 2006
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2473:Goldsworthy 2006
2470:
2464:
2461:Goldsworthy 2006
2458:
2452:
2446:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2386:Goldsworthy 2006
2383:
2370:
2364:
2355:
2349:
2343:
2340:Goldsworthy 2006
2337:
2331:
2325:
2319:
2316:Goldsworthy 2006
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2256:
2253:Goldsworthy 2006
2250:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2210:Goldsworthy 2006
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2186:Goldsworthy 2006
2183:
2177:
2174:Goldsworthy 2006
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2150:Goldsworthy 2006
2147:
2134:
2131:Goldsworthy 2006
2128:
2122:
2119:Goldsworthy 2006
2116:
2107:
2101:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2063:Goldsworthy 2006
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1988:
1985:Goldsworthy 2006
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1949:Goldsworthy 2006
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1925:Goldsworthy 2006
1922:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1865:Goldsworthy 2006
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1739:Goldsworthy 2006
1736:
1730:
1727:Goldsworthy 2006
1724:
1718:
1715:Goldsworthy 2006
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1691:Goldsworthy 2006
1688:
1682:
1679:Goldsworthy 2006
1676:
1670:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1607:Goldsworthy 2006
1604:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1502:
1430:be persuaded to
1365:
1362:
1296:Balearic Islands
1268:Balearic Islands
1205:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1092:
1012:Numidian cavalry
969:crossed the Alps
902:established the
818:Battle of Cannae
760:crossed the Alps
733:Second Punic War
696:
695:
689:
596:2nd New Carthage
561:1st New Carthage
252:
250:
249:Second Punic War
240:
233:
226:
217:
216:
185:More than 50,000
174:
121:
120:
118:
117:
116:
111:
107:
104:
103:
102:
99:
71:
70:
50:
40:Second Punic War
30:
29:
6676:
6675:
6671:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6666:
6665:
6621:
6620:
6619:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6491:
6476:
6472:
6463:
6406:
6400:
6348:
6347:Institutes and
6342:
6297:Viking replicas
6238:Balangay Voyage
6151:
6145:
6129:
5884:
5877:
5753:
5743:
5702:
5650:
5635:
5631:
5626:
5583:
5568:
5564:
5559:
5455:
5437:
5433:
5424:
5375:
5332:
5185:
5145:
5090:
5083:
4884:
4837:
4820:
4816:
4807:
4683:Mueang Phra Rot
4537:
4528:
4437:
4422:
4418:
4409:
4363:
4337:Triangular sail
4298:
4235:
4209:Sail components
4120:
4089:
4063:Tessarakonteres
3918:
3905:
3900:
3870:
3865:
3838:
3806:Third Punic War
3800:
3761:Carteia (naval)
3656:
3644:
3643:
3528:
3527:
3519:
3471:
3462:
3433:Drepana (siege)
3345:First Punic War
3339:
3335:Battles of the
3333:
3295:
3290:
3284:
3262:
3243:
3224:
3205:
3183:
3164:
3113:
3090:
3067:
3044:
3021:
3000:
2978:
2959:
2940:
2914:
2888:
2865:
2834:
2814:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2789:
2785:
2777:
2773:
2765:
2761:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2681:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2609:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2554:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2522:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2495:
2491:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2447:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2384:
2373:
2365:
2358:
2350:
2346:
2338:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2314:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2290:
2286:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2259:
2251:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2148:
2137:
2129:
2125:
2117:
2110:
2102:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2000:Zimmermann 2015
1998:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1853:Zimmermann 2015
1851:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1764:
1757:
1751:Zimmermann 2015
1749:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1713:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1665:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1582:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1538:
1513:
1500:
1466:Fabian strategy
1427:
1405:
1397:
1366:
1363:
1352:
1329:
1313:
1308:
1256:
1249:
1236:thrusting spear
1171:
1167:
1160:
1143:
1136:
1131:
1129:Opposing forces
1090:
1085:
1040:Gaius Flaminius
1028:
965:Hasdrubal Barca
951:
943:
894:, then his son
845:First Punic War
839:
831:
826:
802:Fabian strategy
762:and arrived in
729:Gaius Flaminius
709:
708:
707:
705:
699:
698:
697:
681:
680:
679:
674:
253:
248:
246:
244:
207:
170:
166:Gaius Flaminius
114:
112:
108:
105:
100:
97:
95:
93:
92:
91:
51:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6674:
6664:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6616:
6615:
6612:
6611:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6599:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6583:
6576:
6569:
6561:
6554:
6547:
6539:
6529:
6528:
6527:
6526:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6505:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6482:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6459:
6454:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6410:
6408:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6352:
6350:
6344:
6343:
6341:
6340:
6339:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6316:
6308:
6307:
6306:
6294:
6293:
6292:
6287:
6280:
6272:Mediterranean
6270:
6269:
6268:
6261:
6254:
6247:
6240:
6235:
6228:
6225:Alingano Maisu
6221:
6214:
6207:
6200:
6193:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6168:
6155:
6153:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6143:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6127:
6126:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6107:
6106:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6083:
6076:
6074:De Meern ships
6071:
6066:
6061:
6056:
6046:
6045:
6044:
6036:
6035:
6034:
6029:
6021:
6020:
6019:
6012:
6005:
6000:
5992:
5987:
5986:
5985:
5975:
5974:
5973:
5968:
5958:
5957:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5944:Cape Gelidonya
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5889:
5887:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5779:
5778:
5768:
5763:
5757:
5755:
5749:
5748:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5710:
5708:
5707:Archaeologists
5704:
5703:
5701:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5673:David Blackman
5669:
5667:
5660:
5652:
5651:
5641:
5640:
5637:
5636:
5629:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5612:Jewish pirates
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5574:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5562:
5560:
5558:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5545:
5544:
5543:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5438:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5425:
5423:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5387:
5385:
5381:
5380:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5298:Lake Trasimene
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5199:Mediterranean:
5195:
5193:
5187:
5186:
5184:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5162:
5160:
5151:
5147:
5146:
5144:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5121:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5095:
5093:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5008:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4976:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4905:
4904:
4903:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4860:
4855:
4849:
4847:
4839:
4838:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4541:
4539:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4502:Maritime pilot
4499:
4489:
4484:
4483:
4482:
4472:
4467:
4465:Portolan chart
4462:
4457:
4451:
4449:
4439:
4438:
4428:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4371:
4369:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4245:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4038:Oared warships
4035:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3932:
3930:
3920:
3919:
3907:
3906:
3899:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3876:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3856:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3810:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3756:Carteia (land)
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3671:2nd Beneventum
3668:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3654:
3636:
3634:1st Beneventum
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3584:Lake Trasimene
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3533:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3481:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3368:Lipari Islands
3365:
3360:
3355:
3349:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3332:
3331:
3324:
3317:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3282:
3266:
3260:
3247:
3241:
3228:
3222:
3209:
3203:
3191:Miles, Richard
3187:
3181:
3168:
3162:
3149:
3121:
3111:
3094:
3088:
3075:
3065:
3048:
3042:
3029:
3019:
3004:
2998:
2982:
2976:
2963:
2957:
2944:
2938:
2922:
2912:
2896:Collins, Roger
2892:
2886:
2873:
2863:
2851:Ogilvie, R. M.
2847:Walbank, F. W.
2838:
2832:
2820:Bagnall, Nigel
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2805:, p. 377.
2795:
2793:, p. 119.
2791:O'Connell 2010
2783:
2781:, p. 299.
2771:
2759:
2757:, p. 222.
2747:
2745:, p. 315.
2735:
2733:, p. 310.
2723:
2711:
2709:, p. 279.
2699:
2687:
2685:, p. 277.
2675:
2663:
2661:, p. 247.
2651:
2649:, p. 309.
2639:
2627:
2625:, p. 246.
2615:
2613:, p. 343.
2603:
2601:, p. 270.
2591:
2589:, p. 191.
2579:
2577:, p. 183.
2567:
2565:, p. 190.
2552:
2540:
2538:, p. 271.
2528:
2526:, p. 189.
2513:
2501:
2499:, p. 188.
2489:
2477:
2465:
2453:
2451:, p. 182.
2438:
2426:
2414:
2402:
2390:
2388:, p. 187.
2371:
2356:
2354:, p. 180.
2344:
2342:, p. 185.
2332:
2330:, p. 192.
2320:
2308:
2306:, p. 107.
2296:
2284:
2272:
2257:
2238:
2226:
2214:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2176:, p. 287.
2166:
2154:
2135:
2123:
2108:
2106:, p. 244.
2091:
2089:, p. 248.
2079:
2067:
2065:, p. 184.
2055:
2043:
2041:, p. 176.
2028:
2016:
2004:
2002:, p. 285.
1989:
1987:, p. 181.
1977:
1965:
1953:
1941:
1929:
1927:, p. 173.
1917:
1915:, p. 173.
1905:
1903:, p. 172.
1893:
1891:, p. 108.
1881:
1869:
1867:, p. 170.
1857:
1845:
1833:
1818:
1806:
1804:, p. 252.
1794:
1782:
1770:
1768:, p. 221.
1755:
1753:, p. 283.
1743:
1741:, p. 151.
1731:
1729:, p. 145.
1719:
1707:
1695:
1693:, p. 144.
1683:
1671:
1659:
1647:
1645:, p. 220.
1635:
1623:
1621:, p. 157.
1611:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1588:circumstances.
1580:
1563:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1521:Theodore Dodge
1512:
1509:
1499:in October 202
1497:Battle of Zama
1426:
1423:
1403:
1396:
1393:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1327:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1248:
1245:
1208:heavy infantry
1177:Roman citizens
1152:
1149:The bowl of a
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1123:Lake Trasimene
1115:reconnaissance
1083:
1036:Gnaeus Geminus
1027:
1024:
992:light infantry
984:Publius Scipio
949:
942:
939:
931:Cisalpine Gaul
873:This expansion
861:Hamilcar Barca
837:
830:
827:
825:
822:
806:Lucius Paullus
790:southern Italy
764:Cisalpine Gaul
737:Lake Trasimene
721:Hannibal Barca
701:
700:
691:
690:
684:
683:
682:
676:
675:
673:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
646:
645:
641:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
604:
603:
599:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
522:
521:
517:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
414:2nd Beneventum
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
384:1st Beneventum
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
314:Lake Trasimene
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
285:
284:
280:
279:
274:
269:
263:
262:
258:
255:
254:
243:
242:
235:
228:
220:
212:
211:
208:
206:
205:
202:
198:
195:
194:
190:
189:
186:
182:
181:
177:
176:
163:
157:
156:
152:
151:
146:
140:
139:
135:
134:
131:
130:
127:
123:
122:
88:Lake Trasimene
85:
83:
79:
78:
75:
67:
66:
43:
42:
35:
34:
28:
27:
21:Trasimene Line
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6673:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6598:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6588:
6584:
6582:
6581:
6577:
6575:
6574:
6573:Metamorphoses
6570:
6568:
6566:
6565:The Histories
6562:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6553:
6552:
6548:
6546:
6544:
6543:The Histories
6540:
6538:
6537:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6500:
6498:
6497:
6494:
6487:
6483:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6403:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6353:
6351:
6345:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6305:
6304:
6300:
6299:
6298:
6295:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6285:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6267:
6266:
6262:
6260:
6259:
6258:Marumaru Atua
6255:
6253:
6252:
6248:
6246:
6245:
6241:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6233:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6222:
6220:
6219:
6218:Samudra Raksa
6215:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6206:
6205:
6204:Te Au o Tonga
6201:
6199:
6198:
6194:
6192:
6191:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6182:
6178:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6167:
6166:
6162:
6161:
6160:
6157:
6156:
6154:
6148:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6132:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6110:
6108:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6088:
6084:
6082:
6081:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6064:Blackfriars I
6062:
6060:
6059:Arles Rhône 3
6057:
6055:
6054:
6050:
6049:
6047:
6043:
6040:
6039:
6037:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6024:
6022:
6018:
6017:
6013:
6011:
6010:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5984:
5981:
5980:
5979:
5976:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5962:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5880:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5863:Thalassocracy
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5848:Shell middens
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5803:
5801:
5799:
5798:Naval warfare
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5756:
5750:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5711:
5709:
5705:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5678:Lionel Casson
5676:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5646:
5642:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5586:
5579:
5575:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5549:
5546:
5542:
5539:
5538:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5509:Incense trade
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5458:
5454:
5448:
5444:
5419:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5413:South America
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5386:
5382:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5361:Sailing ships
5359:
5357:
5356:Oared vessels
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5338:
5335:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5278:Cape Hermaeum
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5192:
5188:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5155:
5152:
5148:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5092:
5089:Migration and
5086:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4906:
4902:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4896:Ancient Egypt
4894:
4893:
4891:
4889:Civilizations
4887:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4831:
4827:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4535:
4531:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4433:
4429:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4301:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4264:Clinker built
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4249:Boat building
4247:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4092:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3998:Navis lusoria
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3892:
3890:
3885:
3883:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3862:
3861:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3845:
3844:
3841:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3589:Ager Falernus
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3477:Mercenary War
3474:
3469:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3413:Cape Hermaeum
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3330:
3325:
3323:
3318:
3316:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3285:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3095:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2904:
2903:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2804:
2799:
2792:
2787:
2780:
2775:
2769:, p. 26.
2768:
2763:
2756:
2751:
2744:
2739:
2732:
2727:
2721:, p. 50.
2720:
2715:
2708:
2703:
2697:, p. 68.
2696:
2691:
2684:
2679:
2673:, p. 86.
2672:
2667:
2660:
2655:
2648:
2647:Rawlings 2015
2643:
2636:
2631:
2624:
2619:
2612:
2607:
2600:
2595:
2588:
2583:
2576:
2571:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2549:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2510:
2505:
2498:
2493:
2487:, p. 87.
2486:
2481:
2474:
2469:
2462:
2457:
2450:
2445:
2443:
2435:
2430:
2424:, p. 63.
2423:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2394:
2387:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2369:, p. 58.
2368:
2363:
2361:
2353:
2348:
2341:
2336:
2329:
2324:
2317:
2312:
2305:
2300:
2293:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2270:, p. 80.
2269:
2264:
2262:
2255:, p. 32.
2254:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2235:
2230:
2224:, p. 61.
2223:
2218:
2212:, p. 50.
2211:
2206:
2199:
2194:
2188:, p. 48.
2187:
2182:
2175:
2170:
2164:, p. 23.
2163:
2158:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2132:
2127:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2088:
2083:
2077:, p. 45.
2076:
2071:
2064:
2059:
2053:, p. 60.
2052:
2047:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2026:, p. 72.
2025:
2020:
2013:
2008:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1986:
1981:
1975:, p. 58.
1974:
1969:
1963:, p. 57.
1962:
1957:
1950:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1879:, p. 98.
1878:
1873:
1866:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1842:
1837:
1831:, p. 71.
1830:
1825:
1823:
1815:
1810:
1803:
1798:
1792:, p. 41.
1791:
1786:
1780:, p. 47.
1779:
1774:
1767:
1762:
1760:
1752:
1747:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1716:
1711:
1705:, p. 13.
1704:
1699:
1692:
1687:
1680:
1675:
1668:
1663:
1656:
1651:
1644:
1639:
1633:, p. 97.
1632:
1627:
1620:
1615:
1609:, p. 82.
1608:
1603:
1599:
1584:
1576:
1575:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1545:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1482:Richard Miles
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1422:
1420:
1414:
1412:
1411:Fabius Pictor
1401:
1392:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1356:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1337:
1325:
1317:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1254:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1089:In spring 217
1081:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:; reinforced
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
980:
978:
977:war elephants
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
947:
938:
936:
932:
928:
923:
922:on Carthage.
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
849:Mediterranean
846:
835:
821:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
786:
784:
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
727:commanded by
726:
722:
718:
714:
704:
688:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
643:
642:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
605:
601:
600:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
519:
518:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
419:Campi Veteres
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
394:2nd Casilinum
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
359:1st Casilinum
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
329:Ager Falernus
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
286:
282:
281:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
264:
260:
259:
256:
251:
241:
236:
234:
229:
227:
222:
221:
218:
209:
203:
200:
199:
197:
196:
191:
187:
184:
183:
178:
175:
173:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
153:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
136:
128:
125:
124:
119:
89:
84:
81:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
65:
61:
59:
55:
49:
44:
41:
36:
31:
26:
22:
6594:
6585:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6556:
6551:On the Ocean
6549:
6542:
6534:
6531:Literature:
6319:
6301:
6282:
6275:
6265:Aotearoa One
6263:
6256:
6249:
6242:
6230:
6223:
6216:
6209:
6202:
6195:
6188:
6175:
6171:
6163:
6150:Experimental
6118:Museum ships
6085:
6078:
6051:
6023:Phoenician:
6014:
6009:Leontophoros
6007:
5971:Butuan boats
5966:Pontian boat
5904:Dufuna canoe
5843:Shipbuilding
5754:and theories
5724:Boris Rankov
5518:
5451:Economy and
5351:Incendiaries
5297:
5198:
4985:Indus Valley
4953:Tarumanagara
4880:Ubaid period
4798:Wadi al-Jarf
4713:Ostia Antica
4317:Fore-and-aft
4284:Shipbuilding
4259:Carvel built
4241:Construction
4199:Steering oar
4080:Sailing ship
4003:Obelisk ship
3961:Dugout canoe
3858:
3851:
3829:2nd Nepheris
3819:1st Nepheris
3721:New Carthage
3716:2nd Tarentum
3701:2nd Herdonia
3691:Upper Baetis
3686:1st Herdonia
3666:1st Tarentum
3604:Silva Litana
3583:
3515:Leptis Parva
3448:2nd Mt. Eryx
3443:1st Mt. Eryx
3393:Cape Ecnomus
3273:
3251:
3232:
3213:
3194:
3172:
3153:
3130:
3100:
3079:
3054:
3033:
3009:
2989:
2967:
2948:
2929:
2901:
2877:
2854:
2823:
2798:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2750:
2738:
2726:
2719:Briscoe 2006
2714:
2702:
2690:
2678:
2671:Lazenby 1998
2666:
2654:
2642:
2630:
2618:
2606:
2594:
2582:
2575:Bagnall 1999
2570:
2543:
2531:
2504:
2492:
2480:
2468:
2456:
2449:Bagnall 1999
2434:Bagnall 1999
2429:
2422:Lazenby 1998
2417:
2410:Bagnall 1999
2405:
2398:Bagnall 1999
2393:
2352:Bagnall 1999
2347:
2335:
2328:Bagnall 1999
2323:
2311:
2299:
2294:, p. 8.
2292:Bagnall 1999
2287:
2282:, p. 9.
2280:Bagnall 1999
2275:
2236:, p. 1.
2229:
2222:Lazenby 1998
2217:
2205:
2198:Bagnall 1999
2193:
2181:
2169:
2162:Bagnall 1999
2157:
2126:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2051:Lazenby 1996
2046:
2039:Bagnall 1999
2024:Erdkamp 2015
2019:
2012:Lazenby 1998
2007:
1980:
1973:Lazenby 1996
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1920:
1913:Bagnall 1999
1908:
1901:Bagnall 1999
1896:
1884:
1877:Lazenby 1998
1872:
1860:
1848:
1836:
1829:Erdkamp 2015
1814:Lazenby 1998
1809:
1797:
1790:Lazenby 1998
1785:
1778:Briscoe 2006
1773:
1766:Mahaney 2008
1746:
1734:
1722:
1710:
1703:Collins 1998
1698:
1686:
1674:
1662:
1650:
1638:
1631:Bagnall 1999
1626:
1619:Lazenby 1996
1614:
1602:
1583:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1514:
1505:peace treaty
1486:
1460:was elected
1455:
1428:
1415:
1408:
1384:
1373:
1369:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1300:
1273:
1247:Carthaginian
1234:ranks had a
1192:, served as
1174:
1103:
1088:
1056:quinqueremes
1044:Latin allies
1029:
981:
954:
935:Roman Senate
924:
885:
857:North Africa
842:
787:
776:
745:
719:force under
717:Carthaginian
712:
710:
660:Great Plains
644:North Africa
556:Upper Baetis
479:2nd Tarentum
454:2nd Herdonia
434:1st Herdonia
409:1st Tarentum
344:Silva Litana
319:Umbrian Lake
313:
204:Many wounded
171:
138:Belligerents
52:
38:Part of the
25:
6558:Argonautica
6545:(Herodotus)
6508:Flood myths
6405:Museums and
6349:conferences
6314:Vital Alsar
6152:archaeology
5961:Austronesia
5954:Hjortspring
5949:Rochelongue
5899:Pesse canoe
5853:Ship burial
5838:Sea Peoples
5771:Lighthouses
5766:Grave goods
5714:George Bass
5494:Spice trade
5091:exploration
4913:Philippines
4908:Austronesia
4901:Old Kingdom
4778:Trincomalee
4728:Prosphorion
4673:Myos Hormos
4517:Micronesian
4508:By region:
4480:Lighthouses
4288:By region:
4053:Quinquereme
3978:Kunlun ship
3971:Penteconter
3956:Dragon boat
3624:Decimomannu
3438:Mount Ercte
2659:Fronda 2015
2635:Fronda 2015
2623:Fronda 2015
2104:Fronda 2015
2087:Fronda 2015
1802:Fronda 2015
1451:city states
1280:close-order
1212:body armour
1200:, known as
1198:skirmishers
920:declare war
900:Ebro Treaty
810:Gaius Varro
723:ambushed a
618:Decimomannu
591:2nd Carteia
586:1st Carteia
489:2nd Petelia
449:Sapriportis
369:1st Petelia
113: /
6625:Categories
6567:(Polybius)
6211:Hawaiʻiloa
6093:Nemi ships
5978:Black Sea
5924:Khufu ship
5885:and relics
5783:Marine art
5776:Alexandria
5683:Fik Meijer
5666:Historians
5553:Indo-Roman
5366:Greek navy
5268:Salamis II
5258:Hellespont
5218:Artemisium
5208:Nile Delta
5171:Achaemenid
5064:Achaemenid
4933:Langkasuka
4928:Micronesia
4846:Prehistory
4773:Sounagoura
4601:Chittagong
4576:Barbarikon
4555:Alexandria
4497:Pilot boat
4447:Navigation
4279:Sewn-plank
4274:Lashed-lug
4152:Figurehead
4125:Components
4094:Propulsion
4048:Quadrireme
4029:Polyremes
4008:Outriggers
3814:Lake Tunis
3579:Ebro River
3363:Agrigentum
3337:Punic Wars
2779:Dodge 2004
2743:Miles 2011
2731:Miles 2011
2707:Miles 2011
2695:Carey 2007
2683:Miles 2011
2611:Lomas 2015
2599:Miles 2011
2536:Miles 2011
2367:Carey 2007
2304:Hoyos 2015
2234:Jones 1987
1961:Carey 2007
1889:Hoyos 2015
1841:Hoyos 2015
1667:Miles 2011
1655:Miles 2011
1643:Miles 2011
1526:the Trebia
1511:Evaluation
1487:In 204 BC
1224:front rank
1214:, a large
1175:Most male
929:tribes in
904:Ebro River
863:landed in
824:Background
725:Roman army
638:Agrigentum
541:Illiturgis
531:Ebro River
309:Victumulae
101:12°05′06″E
98:43°11′51″N
62:(1882) by
6580:Geography
6518:Gilgamesh
6407:memorials
6331:Viracocha
6244:Faʻafaite
6197:Sarimanok
6103:Yassi Ada
6016:Syracusia
5939:Canaanite
5914:Moor Sand
5384:By region
5346:Grappling
5318:Naulochus
5308:Myonessus
5263:Echinades
5248:Arginusae
5243:Cynossema
5228:Naupactus
5223:Eurymedon
5057:Classical
5032:Phoenicia
5027:Mycenaean
4990:Tamilakam
4973:Polynesia
4963:Srivijaya
4758:Satingpra
4718:Palembang
4702:Cattigara
4644:(Kadaram)
4627:Jambukola
4621:Guangzhou
4562:(Podouke)
4560:Arikamedu
4522:Polynesia
4455:Celestial
4368:Armaments
4354:Spritsail
4312:Crab claw
4254:Careening
4221:Sternpost
4075:Reed boat
4018:Catamaran
3993:Multihull
3776:2nd Utica
3771:1st Utica
3736:Grumentum
3696:2nd Capua
3676:1st Capua
3544:Lilybaeum
3530:(Battles)
3428:Lilybaeum
3141:470715409
2928:(2004) .
2485:Koon 2015
2268:Koon 2015
1937:Koon 2015
1595:Citations
1425:Aftermath
1266:from the
1240:sub-units
1190:legionary
1183:, with a
1095:Apennines
1000:Placentia
957:Cartagena
892:Hasdrubal
881:shipyards
655:2nd Utica
650:1st Utica
608:Lilybaeum
499:Grumentum
439:2nd Capua
424:1st Capua
304:Placentia
58:Flaminius
6596:Tākitimu
6499:Legend:
6457:Roskilde
6336:Tangaroa
6277:Olympias
6251:Gaualofa
6190:Hōkūleʻa
6165:Kon-Tiki
5998:Ashkelon
5934:Uluburun
5893:Earliest
5659:Scholars
5541:shipping
5341:Boarding
5253:Mytilene
5238:Syracuse
5203:Alashiya
5166:Egyptian
5150:Military
5141:Timeline
5119:Sardinia
5042:Carthage
4958:Kalingga
4918:Sa Huỳnh
4853:Timeline
4803:Zanzibar
4753:Sarapion
4748:Rhacotis
4678:Martaban
4623:(Canton)
4616:Godavaya
4611:Giao Chỉ
4581:Barygaza
4571:Avalites
4492:Piloting
4380:Catapult
4375:Ballista
4349:Mast-aft
4162:Planking
4101:Paddling
4058:Hexareme
4023:Trimaran
3988:Longship
3936:Balangay
3853:Category
3834:Carthage
3791:Insubria
3741:Metaurus
3711:Canusium
3706:Numistro
3646:Heat ray
3639:Syracuse
3629:3rd Nola
3619:2nd Nola
3609:1st Nola
3594:Geronium
3539:Saguntum
3500:Carthage
3490:Bagradas
3418:Panormus
3388:Tyndaris
3353:Treaties
3193:(2011).
3127:(1967).
2988:(2006).
2930:Hannibal
2898:(1998).
2853:(eds.).
2822:(1999).
1493:Numidian
1462:dictator
1388:Maharbal
1380:Ducarius
1292:slingers
1181:infantry
1111:Polybius
1073:Adriatic
1064:Arretium
1060:Ariminum
1052:Tarentum
1048:Sardinia
1020:captured
912:Saguntum
896:Hannibal
877:manpower
628:Syracuse
623:Leontini
514:Insubria
504:Metaurus
474:Caulonia
469:Manduria
464:Canusium
459:Numistro
389:3rd Nola
379:2nd Nola
349:1st Nola
334:Geronium
267:Saguntum
180:Strength
161:Hannibal
144:Carthage
82:Location
56:Beheads
54:Ducarius
6536:Odyssey
6513:Genesis
6310:Others
6109:Lists:
6098:Marausa
6048:Roman:
6038:Punic:
6003:Kyrenia
5994:Greek:
5990:Marsala
5983:Sinop D
5858:Tacking
5592:History
5479:Meluhha
5469:Fishing
5464:Whaling
5371:Ramming
5293:Aegates
5288:Drepana
5283:Ecnomus
5213:Salamis
5201:
5191:Battles
5069:Nabatea
5052:Archaic
5022:Nuragic
5012:Somalia
4863:Oceania
4858:Britain
4835:History
4768:Socotra
4738:Qandala
4723:Piraeus
4693:Muziris
4663:Madurai
4658:Manthai
4596:Canopus
4566:Arsinoe
4538:harbors
4487:History
4475:Coastal
4405:Sambuca
4390:Dolphin
4304:Rigging
4116:Poling
4106:Sailing
4043:Trireme
3983:Liburna
3946:Coracle
3916:Vessels
3766:Crotona
3731:Petelia
3726:Baecula
3681:Silarus
3658:Sambuca
3569:Ticinus
3505:The Saw
3453:Aegates
3423:Drepana
3378:Thermae
3358:Messana
2812:Sources
1470:Paullus
1288:phalanx
1276:Libyans
1264:slinger
1210:, with
1203:velites
1196:-armed
1194:javelin
1119:Cortona
1099:Tuscany
1068:Etruria
1026:Prelude
988:cavalry
888:viceroy
869:Barcids
829:Pre-war
814:consuls
783:Etruria
741:Cortona
571:Baecula
509:Crotona
494:Venusia
429:Silarus
399:Lucania
289:Ticinus
261:Prelude
172:†
90:, Italy
6641:217 BC
6587:Aeneid
6303:Viking
6284:Regina
6053:Alkedo
5909:Abydos
5883:Wrecks
5752:Topics
5582:Piracy
5536:Greece
5396:Odisha
5328:Actium
5323:Mycale
5158:Navies
5047:Greece
5037:Olmecs
5005:Pandya
4980:Minoan
4943:Champa
4923:Lapita
4868:Remote
4788:Tyndis
4743:Quilon
4688:Muscat
4653:Lothal
4648:Korkai
4632:Jeddah
4606:Essina
4550:Adulis
4460:Charts
4395:Harpax
4385:Corvus
4359:Square
4327:Settee
4322:Lateen
4231:Tiller
4226:Strake
4194:Rudder
4184:Paddle
4132:Anchor
4111:Towing
4033:Bireme
3966:Galley
3941:Bangka
3599:Cannae
3574:Trebia
3280:
3258:
3239:
3220:
3201:
3179:
3160:
3139:
3109:
3086:
3063:
3040:
3017:
2996:
2974:
2955:
2936:
2910:
2884:
2861:
2830:
1530:Cannae
1501:
1448:Italic
1440:Apulia
1436:Umbria
1432:defect
1419:Rimini
1336:defile
1306:Battle
1284:spears
1228:second
1216:shield
1091:
927:Gallic
853:Sicily
794:Italic
768:Sicily
752:Iberia
633:Himera
551:Orongi
520:Iberia
339:Cannae
299:Mutina
294:Trebia
188:25,000
168:
126:Result
6523:Greek
6326:Abora
6320:Ivlia
6232:Saina
6176:Ra II
6134:Sites
5919:Dokos
5531:Egypt
5453:trade
5418:Rafts
5403:Japan
5391:India
5303:Chios
5273:Mylae
5233:Olpae
5181:Roman
5176:Greek
5074:Aksum
5000:Chera
4995:Chola
4968:Sunda
4948:Kutai
4938:Kedah
4783:Tulum
4763:Sidon
4708:Opone
4698:Óc Eo
4668:Malao
4642:Kedah
4586:Basra
4534:Ports
4512:Inuit
4332:Tanja
4292:Egypt
4142:Cabin
4085:Tomol
3928:Types
3786:Cirta
3751:Sucro
3746:Ilipa
3614:Ibera
3564:Cissa
3554:Rhone
3549:Malta
3510:Tunis
3485:Utica
3398:Aspis
3383:Sulci
3373:Mylae
1574:pilum
1541:Notes
1474:Varro
1444:Greek
1232:third
1134:Roman
665:Cirta
613:Malta
581:Sucro
576:Ilipa
566:Baria
546:Munda
536:Ibera
526:Cissa
484:Locri
374:Cumae
364:Hamae
283:Italy
272:Rhone
6452:Oslo
6174:and
6080:Isis
6027:Gozo
5548:Rome
5526:Maya
5408:Rome
5313:Nile
5079:Rome
5017:Maya
4873:Near
4793:Tyre
4545:Aden
4344:Junk
4216:Stem
4204:Sail
4189:Rope
4174:Mast
4169:Keel
4157:Hull
4147:Deck
4070:Raft
3951:Dhow
3796:Zama
3648:and
3403:Adys
3278:ISBN
3256:ISBN
3237:ISBN
3218:ISBN
3199:ISBN
3177:ISBN
3158:ISBN
3137:OCLC
3107:ISBN
3084:ISBN
3061:ISBN
3038:ISBN
3015:ISBN
2994:ISBN
2972:ISBN
2953:ISBN
2934:ISBN
2908:ISBN
2882:ISBN
2859:ISBN
2828:ISBN
1528:and
1472:and
1446:and
1376:Livy
1230:and
1218:and
1163:and
1062:and
1038:and
1004:camp
990:and
961:Gaul
843:The
808:and
756:Gaul
748:Rome
711:The
670:Zama
444:Rome
404:Arpi
149:Rome
74:Date
5489:Tin
4536:and
4400:Ram
4179:Oar
4137:Bow
1066:in
812:as
6627::
6172:Ra
6141:H3
5895::
2555:^
2516:^
2441:^
2374:^
2359:^
2260:^
2241:^
2138:^
2111:^
2094:^
2031:^
1992:^
1821:^
1758:^
1532:.
1361:c.
1298:.
1165:c.
1158:c.
871:.
774:.
758:,
4704:)
4700:(
3895:e
3888:t
3881:v
3328:e
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1142:.
239:e
232:t
225:v
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