Aurangzeb - Knowledge

2492: 3406: 3394: 2164: 3524: 1058: 4143: 425: 733: 2127: 2782: 2763: 11834:

commands. Other scholars have pointed out additional temple demolitions not counted by Eaton, such as two orders to destroy the Somanatha Temple in 1659 and 1706 (the existence of a second order suggests that the first was never carried out). Aurangzeb also oversaw temple desecrations. For example, in 1645 he ordered mihrabs (prayer niches, typically located in mosques) erected in Ahmedabad's Chintamani Parshvanath Temple, built by the Jain merchant Shantidas. Even adding in such events, however, to quote Eaton, "the evidence is almost always fragmentary, incomplete, or even contradictory". Given this, there were probably more temples destroyed under Aurangzeb than we can confirm (perhaps a few dozen in total?), but here we run into a dark curtain drawn across an unknown past.

1834:, a military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials. The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted. The collectors were mandated to be Muslims. A majority of modern scholars reject that religious bigotry influenced the imposition; rather, realpolitik – economic constraints as a result of multiple ongoing battles and establishment of credence with the orthodox Ulemas – are held to be primary agents. 2548: 851:. This event precipitated a family crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately but rather three weeks later. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects. Shah Jahan was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became a 3635: 2476: 2794: 3176: 2210: 1821: 698: 3430: 2748: 2594: 3780: 3295: 3775:

accurately estimated. Alamgir's moving capital alone-a city of tents thirty miles in circumference, two hundred and fifty bazaars, with half a million camp followers, fifty thousand camels, and thirty thousand elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus grain and wealth ... Not only famine, but bubonic plague arose ... Even Alamgir had ceased to understand the purpose for it all by ... 1705. The emperor was nearing ninety by then ... "I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing," the dying old man confessed to his son in February 1707.

2023: 1015:, explains that "The loyalties of seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of the family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides." Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of the princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara. 2112: 3280:, used guerrilla tactics to take control of three Adil Shahi forts formerly under his father's command. With these victories, Shivaji assumed de facto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Adil Shahis, gaining weapons, forts, and territory. Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Adil Shahi attack, and Shivaji personally killed the Adil Shahi general, Afzal Khan. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Adil Shahi territories. Shivaji went on to neutralise Mughal power in the region. 2578: 1838:

be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among the masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats. The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed.

3949:, author Haroon Khalid writes that, "Aurangzeb is presented as a hero who fought and expanded the frontiers of the Islamic empire" and "is imagined to be a true believer who removed corrupt practices from religion and the court, and once again purified the empire." The academic Munis Faruqui also opines that the "Pakistani state and its allies in the religious and political establishments include him in the pantheon of premodern Muslim heroes, especially lauding him for his militarism, personal piety, and seeming willingness to accommodate Islamic morality within state goals." 6527:

day."/26/ This order, though not mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official guidebooks of the reign./27/ Although the possibility of an evasion of government orders through payment of bribes existed, later European travelers record that sati was not much practiced by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. As Ovington says in his Voyage to Surat: "Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almost laid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces. And now it is

2563: 1999: 3261: 1079:. The victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist the emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily concocted army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the 2096: 9175:, pp. 124, 126: "In November 1659, shortly after his formal coronation, Aurangzeb sent ... a diplomatic mission to Mecca ... entrusted with 630.000 rupees for the Sharif families of Mecca and Medina ... Aurangzeb sent another mission to Mecca in 1662 ... with presents worth 660,000 rupees ... Aurangzeb also sent considerable amount of money, through his own agents, to Mecca. In 1666 ... alms and offerings; ... six years later ... several lakhs of rupees; the money was to be spent in charity in Mecca and Medina." 1987: 3752: 3418: 2860: 13138: 3446: 3560: 9498:, pp. 332–333: "Aurangzeb, who seized the Peacock throne from Shahjahan, was equally unwilling to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the Khilafat. Hostile towards the Ottomans, the Emperor took every opportunity to support the opponents of the Ottoman regime. He cordially welcomed two rebel Governors of Basra and gave them and their dependents high mansabs in the imperial service. Aurangzeb also did not respond to Sultan Suleiman II's friendly overtures." 1948: 790: 2936:, reportedly the largest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process. When news of the capture reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armed attack against the English-governed city of Bombay, though he finally agreed to compromise after the Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at £600,000 by the Mughal authorities. Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the English East India Company's 1626: 982: 2514:, or workshops for the artisans, particularly in textiles flourished by "employing hundreds of embroiderers, who were superintended by a master". He further writes how "Artisans manufacture of silk, fine brocade, and other fine muslins, of which are made turbans, robes of gold flowers, and tunics worn by females, so delicately fine as to wear out in one night, and cost even more if they were well embroidered with fine needlework". 4016:, also looking at the textbooks, and while noting that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation", contrasts him with Aurangzeb, who "appears in different textbooks of Social Studies and Urdu language as an orthodox and pious Muslim copying the Holy Quran and sewing caps for his livelihood." This image of Aurangzeb is not limited to Pakistan's official historiography. 3701: 3041: 1041:(Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether the challengers were taking advantage of the situation. 3716: 11017:

also successfully used bribery to set the tribal chiefs against each other, thus fomenting so much mutual suspicion that they were too busy fighting each other to fight the Mughal Empire. This worked up to a point. But the resulting legacy of mistrust between the tribes destroyed any prospect that unified political institutions might slowly emerge or that the laws and government of the settled regions might be adopted.

13095: 13083: 891:

Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to the surprise of the opposing force commander. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to

2011: 15221: 2176: 3590: 11805:, p. 115: citing a 2000 study, writes "Aurangzeb was perhaps no more culpable than most of the sultans before him; they desecrated the temples associated with Hindu power, not all temples. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of eighty destructions." 3291:. But in a daring raid on the governor's palace in Pune during a midnight wedding celebration, led by Shivaji himself, the Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son and Shivaji maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off three fingers of his hand. Shaista Khan, however, survived and was re-appointed the administrator of Bengal going on to become a key commander in the war against the Ahoms. 2825:. The Sultan wished to gain his support in possible future expulsions of Dutch and English trading ships, as he was concerned with how they might impact the economy of the Maldives. However, as Aurangzeb did not possess a powerful navy and had no interest in providing support to Ibrahim in a possible future war with the Dutch or English, the request came to nothing. 13071: 6700:

win over the theologians. A principal factor was the popular revulsion against his treatment of his brothers, Murad and Dara, both of whom had the reputation of being liberal patrons of the poor and needy. Aurangzeb was shocked when as the time of his second coronation in 1659, the chief qazi refused to crown him since his father was still alive.

3507:) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati. Although much weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by brilliant uses of the terrain, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces – its navy. 10841:, Gobind Singh opposes the emperor not because he is a Muslim, but condemns him because he had betrayed Islam by his deceit, unscrupulousness and intolerance. 'You, who profess belief in the one God and the Koran do not have at heart an atom of faith in them... You neither recognise any God, nor do you have any respect for Prophet Mohammed.' 1732:. As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of the Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of 7984:) used to be stamped on gold and silver coins, and such coins were constantly touched with the hands and feet of men; Aurangzib said that it would be better to stamp some other words ... The Emperor liked it and ordered that one face ... should be stamped with this verse and the other with the name of the mint-city and the year. 9260:... Aurangzeb and Dara Shukoh participated in Aceh's trade, and Aurangzeb even exchanged presents with Aceh's sultan in 1641. For two decades after the Dutch conquest of Portuguese Melaka in 1641, the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by restricting Muslim trade to Aceh. Angered by 2382: 3492:, who refused to pay further indemnity to the Mughals and during the wars that continued the Mughals suffered great hardships. Munnawar Khan emerged as a leading figure and is known to have supplied food to vulnerable Mughal forces in the region near Mathurapur. Although the Mughals under the command of Syed Firoz Khan the 8655:, (New York: George Braziller, 1978), pp. 112–113. "In spite of his later austerity, which turned him against music, dance, and painting, a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for 'Alamgir. Perhaps the painters realized that he might close the workshops and therefore exceeded themselves in his behalf". 3837: – which Aurangzeb had held at bay, inflicting high human and monetary costs even on his own empire – consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, seizing power from the weak emperor. Within decades of Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Emperor had little power beyond the walls of Delhi. 2620:. Historian Naimur Rahman Farooqi writes that, "By 1694, Aurangzeb's ardour for the Sharifs of Mecca had begun to wane; their greed and rapacity had thoroughly disillusioned the Emperor ... Aurangzeb expressed his disgust at the unethical behavior of the Sharif who appropriated all the money sent to the 1051:, where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh. 8333:

Shayista Khan ... was appointed governor in 1664 and swept the region clean of Portuguese and Arakanese pirates ... in 1666, he recaptured the port of Chittagong ... from the king of Arakan. A strategic outpost, Chittagong would remain the principal commercial port of call before entering the waters

7696:

In early 1670, soon after the ring-leader of these rebellions had been captured near Mathura, Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of the city's Keshava Deva temple and built an Islamic structure ('īd-gāh) on its site ... Nine years later, the emperor ordered the destruction of several prominent temples

5755:

marched in the direction of Bijapur and on reaching Bidar laid siege to it ... The Qiladar of the fort was Sidi Marjan ... were helped by an explosion of powder magazine in the fortress ... Sidi Marjan and two of his sons were badly burnt ... Thus was the fort of Bidar taken after a siege of 27 days

3919:

such as gambling, fornication, and consumption of alcohol and narcotics. At the same time, some historians question the historical authenticity of the claims of his critics, arguing that his destruction of temples has been exaggerated, and noting that he built more temples than he destroyed, paid for

3326:

left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji, Shivaji's successor.

1087:

Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of

1001:

says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity the real arbiters". The contest for power was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was

521:

Under Aurangzeb's emperorship, the Mughals reached its greatest extent with their territory spanning nearly the entire Indian subcontinent. His reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed

97: 3845:

Aurangzeb's rule has been the subject of both praise and controversy. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, and he ruled over a population estimated to be over 158 million subjects. His critics argue that his ruthlessness and religious

3342:

and their Maratha forces fought individual battles against the forces of the Mughal Empire. Territory changed hands repeatedly during the years (1689–1707) of interminable warfare. As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great

3210:, in order to avenge his father Gokula's death, plundered Akbar's tomb of its gold, silver and fine carpets, opened Akbar's grave and dragged his bones and burned them in retaliation. Jats also shot off the tops of the minarets on the gateway to Akbar's Tomb and melted down two silver doors from the 1841:

Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for the maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction. Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association

1837:

Aurangzeb also enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to

1727:

Historian Katherine Brown has noted that "The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in the popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy." The subject has also resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended

3310:

and fought off all attempts to relieve it. Foreseeing defeat, Shivaji agreed to terms. Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit Aurangzeb at Agra, giving him a personal guarantee of safety. Their meeting at the Mughal court did not go well, however. Shivaji felt slighted at the way he was received, and

2624:

for his own use, thus depriving the needy and the poor." According to English traveller named John Fryar, Aurangzeb also consider that despite his enormous power on land, it is cheaper to establish reciprocal relation with the naval forces of Portuguese empire to secure the sea interest of ships in

1110:

and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja the governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to

542:

Aurangzeb was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy. His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism

11016:

The situation deteriorated and matters came to a head in 1675, at the time of the last great Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb. He launched a terrible scorched earth policy, sending thousands of soldiers into the valleys, burning, despoiling, smashing villages and killing as many tribesmen as possible. He

6699:

Although Aurangzeb had not raised the slogan of defending Islam before the battle of Samugarh with Dara, and had tried to befriend the Rajput rajas as we have seen, there were a number of factors which make it necessary for Aurangzeb to present himself as the defender of the sharia, and to try and

3860:

religious tax on non-Muslims, doubling of custom duties on Hindus while abolishing it for Muslims, executions of Muslims and non-Muslims alike, and destruction of temples eventually led to numerous rebellions. G. N. Moin Shakir and Sarma Festschrift argue that he often used political opposition as

3800:

near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. He had only 300 rupees with him which were later given to charity as per his instructions and he prior to his death requested not to spend extravagantly on his funeral but to keep it simple. His modest open-air

972:

was captured by the Mughals and Aurangzeb continued his advance. Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather

11739:

Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace

10581:

left Dacca on 1st November 1661 ... the Mughal army entered the capital of Kuch Bihar on 19th December ... The kingdom was annexed to the Mughal empire ... Mir Jumla set out for the conquest of Assam on 4th January, 1662 ... triumphantly marched into Garh-gaon the Ahom capital on 17th March. Raja

3774:

The conquest of the Deccan, to which Aurangzeb devoted the last twenty-six years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of fruitless, chess-game warfare ... The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be imagined or

3685:

was particularly disastrous. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebels and partially suppressed the revolt, although they never

3669:

Aurangzeb's incursions into the Pashtun areas were described by Khushal Khan Khattak as "Black is the Mughal's heart towards all of us Pathans". Aurangzeb employed the scorched earth policy, sending soldiers who massacred, looted and burnt many villages. Aurangzeb also proceeded to use bribery to

3586:, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bagadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675. 3378:

was sacked twice by the Marathas during the reign of Aurangzeb and the valuable port was in ruins. Matthew White estimates that about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands

2421:

Aurangzeb was not as involved in architecture as his father. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the position of the Mughal Emperor as chief architectural patron began to diminish. However, Aurangzeb did endow some significant structures. Catherine Asher terms his architectural period as an "Islamization" of

1926:

In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located. Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources,

1137:

On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan. This was the first prominent execution of Aurangzeb based on accusations of being influenced by Hinduism, however some sources argue it was done for political reasons. Aurangzeb had his allied brother

1083:

in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne. "After the defeat of Dara, Shah

6741:

More importantly, though, the fact that Aurangzeb did not order a universal ban on music lends support to the idea that his regime was less intolerant and repressive than has been widely believed in the past...Thus, the overwhelming evidence against a ban on musical practice in Aurangzeb's reign

3816:

Brown writes that after his death, "a string of weak emperors, wars of succession, and coups by noblemen heralded the irrevocable weakening of Mughal power". She notes that the populist but "fairly old-fashioned" explanation for the decline is that there was a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppression.

890:

tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign,

938:

revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. This led the Deccan region to return to prosperity.

865:

In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat. His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability.

914:

which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at the extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John

11833:

Nobody knows the exact number of temples demolished or pillaged on Aurangzeb's orders, and we never will. Richard Eaton, the leading authority on the subject, puts the number of confirmed temple destructions during Aurangzeb's rule at just over a dozen, with fewer tied to the emperor's direct

6526:

Aurangzeb was most forthright in his efforts to stop sati. According to Manucci, on his return from Kashmir in December, 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt." Manucci adds that "This order endures to this

9957: 8266:

Bernier reported that the emperor Aurangzeb inspected his contingents of cavalry every day. During these inspections, "the King takes pleasure also in having the blades of cutlasses tried on dead sheep, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up. Young Omrahs, Mansebdars and

1751:

or secular decrees could supersede sharia. The chief qazi refusing to crown him in 1659, Aurangzeb had a political need to present himself as a "defender of the sharia" due to popular opposition to his actions against his father and brothers. Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies,

1002:

around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences – Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative – but, as historians

2691:

and the Mughal Empire had long clashed over Kandahar, an outpost on the distant frontier of their two empires. Control of the city swung back and forth. Aurangzeb led two unsuccessful campaigns to recapture it 1649 and 1652. Mughal attempts died down after 1653 amidst internal rivalries.

2699:

sent an embassy in 1661. Aurangzeb received the ambassador warmly and they exchanged gifts. A return embassy sent by Aurangzeb to Persia in 1664 was poorly treated. Tensions over Kandahar rose again. There were cross border raids, but hostilities subsided after Abbas II's death in 1666.

2289:

hill over 400 ft high with an enormous eight-mile long wall enclosing the city. The main gates of Golconda had the ability to repulse any war elephant attack. Although the Qutbshahis maintained the impregnability of their walls, at night Aurangzeb and his infantry erected complex

1675: 2944:

by a rioting mob), and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured. The Lords Justices of England offered a bounty for Every's apprehension, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. However, Every successfully eluded capture.

933:

and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation. Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan to extend to the Deccan the

1895:

at Varanasi, which was established by Raja Man Singh, whose grandson Jai Singh was believed to have facilitated Shivaji's escape. After the Jat rebellion in Mathura (early 1670), which killed the patron of the town-mosque, Aurangzeb suppressed the rebels and ordered for the city's

2652:

trying to disrupt the trade in Aceh to make their own Malaka trade lucrative, Aurangzeb threatened the Dutch with retaliation against any losses in Gujarat due to Dutch intervention. This effort were caused due to VOC realization that Muslim tradings were damaging to the VOC. The

2907:. In 1690, realising the war was not going favourably for them, the Company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys prostrated themselves before the emperor, agreed pay a large indemnity, and promise to refrain from such actions in the future. 2762: 7509:

he kept changing his policies depending on the needs of the situation ... he had put a brake on the construction of new temples but the repair and maintenance of old temples was permitted. He also generously donated jagirs to many temples to win the sympathies of the people ...

2258:(the ruler of Bijapur) who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals could not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort, mainly because of the superior usage of cannon batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on 4 September 1686 and commanded the 3535:

sect, obeying the commands of an old toothless woman (according to Mughal accounts), organised a revolt in the agricultural heartlands of the Mughal Empire. The Satnamis were known to have shaved off their heads and even eyebrows and had temples in many regions of

1010:

say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects the fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology." Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at

3472:

The Mughals set out in November 1661. Within weeks they occupied the capital of Kuch Behar, which they annexed. Leaving a detachment to garrison it, the Mughal army began to retake their territories in Assam. Mir Jumla II advanced on Garhgaon, the capital of the

526:

as the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of the strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of

543:

and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors.

4482:

Regarding the tokenistic aspect of Shah Jahan's actions to strengthen Islam in his empire, Satish Chandra says, "We may conclude that Shah Jahan tried to effect a compromise. While formally declaring the state to be an Islamic one, showing respect to the

3884:

Multiple interpretations of Aurangzeb's life and reign over the years by critics have led to a very complicated legacy. Some argue that his policies abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his introduction of the

3318:

or the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom in 1674. Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son, Sambhaji. Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail.

1126:

With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal

11736:, pp. 398–399. According to Abraham Eraly, "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed" and later "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705. 1070:

in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition the empire once they had gained control of it. The two armies clashed at

2458:

Aurangzeb was more heavily involved in the repair and maintenance of previously existing structures. The most important of these were mosques, both Mughal and pre-Mughal, which he repaired more of than any of his predecessors. He patronised the

3510:

The battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the

2781: 3405: 9380:... 1660s the VOC backed down and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh, Perak, and Kedah without restriction.ll Another important trading community in Aceh consisted of Indians from the Coromandel Coast who had been prominent in Malay ... 6806:

learnt that in Multan and Thatta in Sind, and especially at Varanasi, Brahmins attracted a large number of Muslims to their discourses. Aurangzeb ... ordered the governors of all these provinces 'to demolish the schools and temples of the

2037:

should not be stamped on coins, as done in former times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feet of people. His coins had the name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other:

1799:. Aurangzeb had also banned the celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported. 7619: 3833:, the second son of Aurangzeb. Both because of Aurangzeb's over-extension and because of Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a period of terminal decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah occupied the throne, the 2507:

The textile industry in the Mughal Empire emerged very firmly during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and was particularly well noted by Francois Bernier, a French physician of the Mughal Emperor. Francois Bernier writes how

1065:

After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at

3023:

requested Aurangzeb to open Russo-Mughal trade relations in the late 17th century. In 1696 Aurangzeb received his envoy, Semyon Malenkiy, and allowed him to conduct free trade. After staying for six years in India, and visiting

725:, who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the 634:, as part of their father's pardon deal. After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in the ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in 2126: 1694:

a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival. Aurangzeb was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint,

513:

in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the

4035:

was of the view that there was greater degree of freedom under Mughal rule than the British rule and asks that "in Aurangzeb's time a Shivaji could flourish. Has one hundred and fifty years of the British rule produced any

3727:

By 1689, the conquest of Golconda, Mughal victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, with a population estimated to be over 158 million. But this supremacy was short-lived.

660:

stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of

3543:

The Satnamis believed they were invulnerable to Mughal bullets and believed they could multiply in any region they entered. The Satnamis initiated their march upon Delhi and overran small-scale Mughal infantry units.

2533:, in which fabrics are painted or block-printed, was a technique that originally came from Persia. Francois Bernier provided some of the first, impressive descriptions of the designs and the soft, delicate texture of 678:

Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against the elephant was documented in Persian and

2446:

upon Aurangzeb's decree. Its architecture displays clear inspiration from the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb also provided and repaired urban structures like fortifications (for example a wall around Aurangabad, many of whose

3662:. The Safi tribes retaliated against the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the 2202:, Aurangzeb established direct control over that part of the empire and loyal subjects such as Deldan Namgyal agreed to pledge tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also known to have constructed a Grand Mosque in 3670:

turn the Pashtun tribes against each other, with the aim that they would distract a unified Pashtun challenge to Mughal authority, and the impact of this was to leave a lasting legacy of mistrust among the tribes.

1736:, although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, and Aurangzeb took the change still further. Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than 3795:

Even when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely. He died at his military camp in

2298:. Eventually, Aurangzeb and his forces managed to penetrate the walls by capturing a gate, and their entry into the fort led Abul Hasan Qutb Shah to surrender; he died after twelve years of Mughal imprisonment. 2441:

Most of Aurangzeb's building activity revolved around mosques, but secular structures were not neglected. The Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, the mausoleum of Rabia-ud-Daurani, was constructed by his eldest son

4513:; more links at the bottom of that page. For Muslim historian's record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns, from 1193 to 1729 AD, see Richard Eaton (2000), "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", 3817:

Although Aurangzeb died without appointing a successor, he instructed his three sons to divide the empire among themselves. His sons failed to reach a satisfactory agreement and fought against each other in a

2547: 2491: 6531:

very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all; /27/ Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib (Calcutta, 1916), III, 92. /28/ John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat (London, 1929), p.

1922:

was similarly treated, after it was found that its ruler had built it to hide revenues from the state; however desecration of mosques are rare due to their complete lack of political capital contra temples.

3747:

complex in Delhi. However, his constant warfare, especially with the Marathas, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful personal spending and opulence of his predecessors.

997:, the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. Historian 2195:

It is reported that Aurangzeb always inspected his cavalry contingents every day, while testing his cutlasses sheep carcass, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up, in one strike.

3214:. Aurangzeb appointed Mohammad Bidar Bakht as commander to crush the Jat rebellion. On 4 July 1688, Raja Ram Jat was captured and beheaded. His head was sent to Aurangzeb as proof of his beheading. 2641:. Aurangzeb, and his brother, Dara Shikoh, participated with Aceh trade and Aurangzeb himself also exchanging presents with the Sultan of Aceh in 1641. In that year, it is recorded the daughter of 3551:

of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. Aurangzeb wrote Islamic prayers and drew designs that were sewn into the army's flags. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion.

3393: 2281:, which was then probably the world's most productive diamond mine, and an important economic asset. In 1687, Aurangzeb led his grand Mughal army against the Deccan Qutbshahi fortress during the 929:(land grants) were moved there as a consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from 675:

Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance.

3203:. By the year 1670 20,000 Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat, Gokula's personal fortune amounted to 93,000 gold coins and hundreds of thousands of silver coins. 2837:. He often supported the Ottoman Empire's enemies, extending cordial welcome to two rebel Governors of Basra, and granting them and their families a high status in the imperial service. Sultan 9878:

The whole country was soon occupied by the imperialists, anarchy and slaughter were let loose upon the doomed state; all great towns in the village were pillaged; the temples were thrown down

1927:

counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign. Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed.

4487:, and observing its injunctions in his personal life, he did not reject any of the liberal measures of Akbar. ... Shah Jahan's compromise was based not on principle but on expediency." 10994:'Black is the Mughal's heart towards all us Pathans', complained the Pushto poet Khushal Khan Khattak about Aurangzeb's incursions in the tribal regions of the northwest frontier of India. 10673: 10419:

Kulkarni, G. T. "Some Observations on the Medieval History of the Deccan." Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, vol. 34, no. 1/4, 1974, pp. 101–102. JSTOR,

3359:

in Tamil Nadu. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution. He thus lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in

2680:'s Uzbek ruler was the first to recognise him in 1658 and requested for a general alliance, he worked alongside the new Mughal Emperor since 1647, when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh. 8267:

Gourze-berdars or mace bearers, exercise their skill and put forth all their strength to cut through the four feet, which are fastened together, and the body of the sheep at one blow."...

3618:, which accused Aurangzeb of cruelty and betraying Islam. The letter caused him much distress and remorse. Guru Gobind Singh's formation of Khalsa in 1699 led to the establishment of the 2095: 3366:

Aurangzeb's shift from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency in the Deccan region shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. There were conflicts between Marathas and Mughals in

12349: 11740:

Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), p. 115)

1914:

were not affected. In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels. The

1636:

Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half, to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the Mughal era. Many of them were

5264: 1134:. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. 641:

As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies,

3809:, Maharashtra expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who was a disciple of 671:

If the fight had ended fatally for me it would not have been a matter of shame. Death drops the curtain even on emperors; it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did!

9948:, p. 131: Crisis arose in the north among the Jat agriculturists dissatisfied with punitive imperial taxation ... The first to rebel against the Mughals were the Hindu Jats. 7141: 1783:

of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims. Aurangzeb also ordered subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the

2359:. This had the effect of dispersing the court atelier to other regional courts. Being religious he encouraged Islamic calligraphy. His reign also saw the building of the Lahore 1891:

Contemporary court-chronicles mention hundreds of temple which were demolished by Aurangzab or his chieftains, upon his order. In September 1669, he ordered the destruction of

993:. This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There was no Mughal tradition of 2475: 2111: 2089:

sect of Musta'lī Islam Syedna Qutubkhan Qutubuddin was executed by Aurangzeb, then governor of Gujarat, for heresy; on 27 Jumadil Akhir 1056 AH (1648 AD), Ahmedabad, India.

11766:

To start with, Aurangzeb gradually transformed the system of governance as per the dictates of Shariah ... He curbed practices of gambling, drinking, music and prostitution

2321:, the personal physician to Aurangzeb, observed Mughal gun-carriages each drawn by two horses, an improvement over the bullock-drawn gun-carriages used elsewhere in India. 1724:

was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign.

424: 1795:

bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's

10501: 4031:

wrote that, due to his reversal of the cultural and religious syncretism of the previous Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb acted "more as a Moslem than an Indian ruler", while

7753: 2994:

reinforcements arrived to bolster the Tibetan position. At the same time, however, a letter was sent from the governor of Kashmir claiming the Mughals had defeated the

501:

as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the

10626:

Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations", in Barpujari, H. K., The Comprehensive History of Assam 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 148–256

5769: 3429: 2541:, which were very valued for their warmth and comfort among the Mughals, and how these textiles and shawls eventually began to find their way to France and England. 1146:. Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666. 8468: 7514:

include the ones from the temples of Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain), Balaji temple (Chitrakut), Umanand temples (Guwahati) and Jain temples of Shatrunjaya. Also there are

8168: 4012:

where we can read that, under Aurangzeb, "Pakistan spirit gathered in strength", while his death "weakened the Pakistan spirit." Another historian from Pakistan,

4685:

In gold there is no more type. In silver some other types like Abu al Muzaffar Muhiuddin/ Muhammad (and date) / Bahadur Alamgir/ Aurangzeb/ Badshah Ghazi or ...

15343: 9109: 8878: 3060:, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or opposition, gave them both recognition and military experience. 1906:. In 1672–73, Aurangzeb ordered the resumption of all grants held by Hindus throughout the empire, though this was not followed absolutely in regions such as 2841:'s friendly postures were ignored by Aurangzeb. The Sultan urged Aurangzeb to wage holy war against Christians. However, Aurangzeb were granted as patron of 11352: 3934:

celebrations, musics, and also abolished the customs of bowing and kissing the ground which were done by his predecessors, practically adhering practice of

2294:

that allowed them to scale the high walls. During the eight-month siege the Mughals faced many hardships including the death of their experienced commander

778:, posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, 12710: 7273: 7710: 3523: 968:(governor or captain) of the fortified city, Sidi Marjan, was mortally wounded when a gunpowder magazine exploded. After twenty-seven days of fighting, 12447: 10163: 4568: 2406: 12225: 895:. By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at a late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain. 3465:

took advantage of the disturbed conditions in the Mughal Empire, had invaded imperial dominions. For three years they were not attacked, but in 1660

1012: 692: 3930:

has compilled that the opinions from Islamic scholarly community towards Aurangzeb were positive for the emperor general attitude such as abolished

3673:

After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority in the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important

11409:

Some follow the Indian line that Aurangzeb was a straight-up bigot, whereas others view him as one of the few truly righteous Muslim rulers of old.

9723: 9558:"Asia Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Asia | Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World" 81: 65: 56: 3496:

at Guwahati were overrun by two Ahom armies in 1667, but they continued to hold and maintain presence in their eastern territories even after the

2747: 2163: 1057: 12984: 10697: 4040:

and Shivaji?" Other historians also noting that there are Hindu temples built during Aurangzeb reign, while he also employed significantly more

3920:

their maintenance, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and

2793: 12954: 12360:. Cambridge Library Collection – Perspectives from the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. 2013. pp. 174–180. 11940:

Modern Asian Studies 1988, p. 308; Cambridge University Press Online Journals. Asia Shah Jahan, 1975, p. 131, Henry Miers Elliot – Mogul Empire

3503:

The battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 between the Mughal empire (led by the Kachwaha king, Raja Ramsingh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by

2434:

in Lahore, which is today one of the largest mosques in the Indian subcontinent. The mosque he constructed in Srinagar is still the largest in

11847: 6340: 3009:

in 1690, seeking assistance in driving out "Qirkhiz infidels" (meaning the Buddhist Dzungars), who "had acquired dominance over the country".

1752:

contradictory accounts exist. Historian Katherine Brown has argued that Aurangzeb never imposed a complete ban on music. He sought to codify

5272: 4651:... Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I ( Conqueror of the Universe ) , more commonly known as Aurangzeb , the 6th Mughal Emperor ruled from 1658 to 13487: 11292:

Sohoni, P., 2016. A Tale of Two Imperial Residences: Aurangzeb's Architectural Patronage. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2), pp. 63–69.

10615:

owing to his illness, which daily increased. At Baritalā he embarked in a boat and glided down the river toward Dacca, dying on 31st March.

3736:, says that "... the highpoint of imperial centralisation under emperor Aurangzeb coincided with the start of the imperial downfall." 2305:

making skills advanced during the 17th century. One of the most impressive Mughal cannons is known as the Zafarbaksh, which is a very rare

2731:'s letter which urged the protection of French merchants from various rebels in the Deccan. In response to the letter, Aurangzeb issued a 1760:. It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible. 9078: 2695:

Upon ascending the throne, Aurangzeb was eager to obtain diplomatic recognition from the Safavids to bolster the legitimacy of his rule.

1669: 7364: 7356: 7337: 3363:. He travelled a long distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and eventually died at the age of 88, still fighting the Marathas. 1967:

Aurangzeb's exchequer raised a record £100 million in annual revenue through various sources like taxes, customs and land revenue,

923:

Aurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two

15517: 15512: 12390: 4142: 828:, however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at the end of a long siege. At some point, Aurangzeb married 732: 12969: 15497: 13472: 7697:

in Rajasthan that had become associated with imperial enemies. These included temples in Khandela ... Jodhpur ... Udaipur and Chitor.

6166:

Shah Jahan and his paradise on earth: the story of Shah Jahan's creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals

11293: 10582:

Jayadhwaj ... had fled .. The spoils ... 82 elephants, 3 lakhs of rupees in cash, ... over a thousand bots, and 173 stores of paddy.

7133: 539:

activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments.

9744: 9510:, p. 151: "Suleiman II even solicited Aurangzeb's support against the Christians and urged him to wage holy war against them." 3818: 1720:

Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travellers record that

2771:, was a French physician and traveller, who for 12 years was the personal physician of Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in 13127: 3417: 958:). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Aurangzeb advanced against the Sultan of Bijapur and 907: 11202: 4864:

The Different aspects of Islamic culture: Islam in the World today; Retrospective of the evolution of Islam and the Muslim world

2022: 1656:, making it the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled 15462: 15348: 14198: 14077: 13427: 13422: 13295: 9610:(2009). "Piracy in the Public Sphere: The Henry Every Trials and the Battle for Meaning in Seventeenth-Century Print Culture". 3481:, had fled before his approach. The Mughals captured 82 elephants, 300,000 rupees in cash, 1000 ships, and 173 stores of rice. 8007: 4889: 3158:

was the warrior from Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and established his own kingdom in

15487: 15482: 12889: 12822: 12765: 12744: 12690: 12666: 12645: 12566: 12545: 12514: 12488: 12431: 12373: 12333: 12259: 12081: 12053: 12028: 11966: 11826: 11759: 11733: 11709: 11684: 11657: 11630: 11603: 11572: 11545: 11513: 11486: 11459: 11432: 11395: 11362: 11270: 11240: 11136: 11102: 10987: 10944: 10887: 10862: 10830: 10805: 10756: 10707: 10650: 10519: 10478: 10444: 10404: 10374: 10344: 10250: 10127: 10084: 9981: 9909: 9836: 9809: 9782: 9692: 9665: 9534: 9366: 9326: 9286: 9246: 9199: 9150: 9061: 9028: 8966: 8862: 8835: 8761: 8729: 8676: 8576: 8534: 8444: 8357: 8326: 8292: 8210: 8152: 8111: 8084: 8054: 8017: 7939: 7899: 7869: 7842: 7773: 7558: 7502: 7471: 7444: 7417: 7382: 7233: 7102: 7013: 6952: 6922: 6895: 6869: 6799: 6763: 6692: 6658: 6612: 6467: 6434: 6377: 6350: 6323: 6248: 6104: 6052: 6017: 5970: 5910: 5853: 5801: 5706: 5631: 5533: 5399: 5374: 5349: 5300: 5216: 5157: 5124: 5091: 5058: 4985: 4960: 4899: 4872: 4838: 4761: 4733: 3980: 1939:, using this wealth to establish bases and fortifications in India, particularly in the Carnatic, Deccan, Bengal and Lahore. 1084:

Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara."

9340:... backed out and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh and other southern ports without restriction.74 According to S ... 8982: 7796: 5505:

Sir Charles Fawcett: The Travels of the Abbarrn India and the Near East, 1672 to 1674 Hakluyt Society, London, 1947, p. 167.

3287:

in Golconda to recover forts lost to the Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in

2845:, and sending the Sherif at that time with richly laden mission, which at that time were under the jurisdiction of Ottoman. 2787:

Map of the Mughal Empire by Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718) of Venice, who served as Royal Geographer to Louis XIV of France.

2562: 15472: 15467: 13631: 8347: 4496:

It has however been argued that the Mughal emperor had political motives for this particular execution. See the article on

3488:, in March 1663, Mir Jumla II died of natural causes. Skirmishes continued between the Mughals and Ahoms after the rise of 2974:

dispatched an embassy to India in 1664–65 to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire.

11953: 8692: 3578:, like his predecessors was opposed to forced conversion of the local population as he considered it wrong. Approached by 3311:

insulted Aurangzeb by refusing imperial service. For this affront he was detained, but managed to effect a daring escape.

2063:

was executed by Aurangzeb. In a sham trial, he was found guilty of murder and violence, atrocities against the Muslims of

770:, the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the 15477: 15269: 14882: 12142:... الطنطاوي بأنه "بقية الخلفاء الراشدين"، وقد كان على دراية كاملة بمخططات الهندوس والشيعة، خصوصا الأفغان منهم، فحارب ... 10005:"The Jats: Their Role & Contribution to the Socio-economic Life and Polity of North & North-west India, Volume 2" 8487: 6483: 3666:, where the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape. 1998: 3983:

drive, as "conceptually ... a spiritual descendent of Aurangzeb" because Zia had an orthodox, legalistic view of Islam.

3959:

of the thinker, says that "Iqbal considered that the life and activities of Aurangzeb constituted the starting point of

14181: 8666: 5584: 1111:

annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the

12812: 3355:. The Marathas also expanded further South into Southern India defeating the independent local rulers there capturing 2430:(Pearl Mosque), built for his personal use in the Red Fort complex of Delhi. He later ordered the construction of the 12931: 12910: 12866: 9960:

Quote: "In 1669 the demolition of Hindu temples and building of mosques in Mathura led to a Jat uprising under Gokla"

9933: 8794: 7163:

Khan, Iqtidar Alam (January–February 2001). "State in the Mughal India: Re-Examining the Myths of a Counter-Vision".

6410: 4637: 4302:(15 February 1638 – 26 May 1702). She poet and was imprisoned by her father. She never married or had children; With 4160:

The epithet Aurangzeb means 'Ornament of the Throne'. His chosen title Alamgir translates to Conqueror of the World.

3846:

bigotry made him unsuitable to rule the mixed population of his empire. Some critics assert that the persecution of

3114:

rebelled when Aurangzeb did not give permission to make the young Rathore prince the king and took direct command of

2927: 2838: 2577: 9117: 8176: 2355:

Aurangzeb had a more austere nature than his predecessors, and greatly reduced imperial patronage of the figurative

1690:

Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make

14751: 14123: 13804: 8886: 3960: 2885: 2867: 2854: 12963: 11304:

Brown, Katherine Butler (January 2007). "Did Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign".

6715:

Brown, Katherine Butler (January 2007). "Did Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign".

6544:

Brown, Katherine Butler (January 2007). "Did Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign".

5439:

Brown, Katherine Butler (January 2007). "Did Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign".

4000:

Beyond the individual appreciations, Aurangzeb is seminal to Pakistan's national self-consciousness, as historian

3634: 1971:

from 24 provinces. He had an annual yearly revenue of $ 450 million, more than ten times that of his contemporary

1709:, a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away. Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree: 729:

gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power.

15114: 13666: 13477: 13442: 13300: 11041: 10434: 4473:

Which is derived from his title, Abu al-Muzaffar Muhi-ad-Din Muhammad Bahadur Alamgir Aurangzeb Badshah al-Ghazi.

4248: 4027:(BJP), Hindutva proponents and some others outside Hindutva ideology regard Aurangzeb as Muslim zealot in India. 4005: 2983: 1817:

Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects.

1644:, who were his political allies. However, Aurangzeb encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam. 989:

The four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest,

314: 13105: 12701: 11988:

Haroon Khalid (1 October 2018), "In India and Pakistan, religion makes one country's hero the other's villain",

10727: 7290:

Husain, S.M. Azizuddin (1 July 2000). "Jizya – Its Reimposition During the Reign of Aurangzeb: An Examination".

7258: 14301: 14052: 13969: 13641: 13417: 12275:

Hasan, Farhat (16 May 2019). "Nationalist representations of the Mughal state: The views of Tilak and Gandhi".

11873: 10552:

Mir Jumla was appointed governor of Bengal (June 1660) and ordered to punish the kings of Kuch Bihar and Assam.

4712:

The Emperor's name and title were proclaimed in the pulpit as Abu al-Muzaffar Bahadur ' Alamgir Badshah i Ghazi

4336:(Persian: مهرالنسا بیگم; 28 September 1661 – 2 April 1706). Married once and had 2 sons; With Aurangabadi Mahal 4272: 3133:, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan, took over the administration of 3126:, resulting in the loss of Mughal power in the region and religious bitterness over the destruction of temples. 2704: 1131: 1026:. Later in the same campaign, Aurangzeb, in turn, rode against an army consisting of 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 825: 344: 4167:

Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I

15492: 15244: 14953: 14502: 14062: 12506:هندوستان ميں فارسى تاريخ نگارى: ٧١ويں صدى كے آخرى نصف سے ٨١ويں صدى كے پهلے نصف تک فارسى تاريخ نگارى كا ارتقاء 3646:

of Kabul, was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan allegedly molested a

3343:

cost in lives and money. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory – notably conquering

2209: 915:

Richards as the reasons for failure. A third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome.

782:, whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, 14597: 12454: 12098: 10772: 6991: 4575: 15522: 14995: 14455: 14006: 13285: 11424:

Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern South and Central Asia

7915: 3964: 3175: 3048:

Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs,

2277:), refused to surrender. He and his servicemen fortified themselves at Golconda and fiercely protected the 148: 6819: 6579: 697: 15314: 15132: 15085: 14769: 14378: 13779: 13676: 13120: 12834: 10143: 3955:, considered the spiritual founder of Pakistan, admired Aurangzeb. Iqbal Singh Sevea, in his book on the 3788: 951: 482: 12505: 11923: 9652:

The Pirates' Pact: The Secret Alliances Between History's Most Notorious Buccaneers and Colonial America

7207: 7076: 2593: 14846: 14662: 14420: 14231: 13876: 13858: 13646: 13137: 13061: 12775: 12597:"Effects of social reforms of shaykh Ahmad sirhindi (1564–1624) on Muslim society in the sub continent" 10292: 10266: 4346: 4260:(14 October 1643 – 27 February 1712). Mughal Emperor, conspired to overthrow his tounger brother; With 4217: 3294: 3137:, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping alive. 2601: 2438:. Aurangzeb had a palace constructed for himself in Aurangabad, which was extant till a few years ago. 477:) and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the 15319: 1820: 622:

In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother

15416: 14775: 14467: 14295: 13896: 13595: 13590: 13437: 13305: 13290: 12537:

Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent

12325: 11387: 10713: 9859: 7217: 7086: 5770:"Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh's fight for the throne was entwined with the rivalry of their two sisters" 4536:, Professor Muhammad al-Munajjid on his online correspondence has answered that he based his opinion 4077: 3548: 3457:

While Aurangzeb and his brother Shah Shuja had been fighting against each other, the Hindu rulers of

2150: 1862: 1845:

Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several

17: 15067: 7538: 7259:"The Afterlives of Aurangzeb: Jizya, Social Domination and the Meaning of Constitutional Secularism" 3779: 1142:

held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew

15401: 15186: 14983: 14929: 14917: 14870: 14692: 14437: 14361: 13990: 13585: 13560: 13500: 13467: 13412: 12736: 11379: 8909: 8138: 8003: 3563: 2888:. This war ended in disaster for the English after Aurangzeb in 1689 dispatched a large fleet from 2649: 1633:

Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors.

1450: 597: 157: 12046:

Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India

11006:

Omrani, Bijan (July 2009). "The Durand Line: History and Problems of the Afghan-Pakistan Border".

7583:

Subodh, Sanjay (2001). "Temples Rulers and Historians' Dilemma: Understanding the Medieval Mind".

6859: 5559: 5514:

M. S. Commissariat: Mandelslo's Travels In Western India, Asian Educational Services, 1995, p. 57.

3971:, the founder of Pakistan, to be the greatest Muslim since Aurangzeb. Pakistani-American academic 3095:

and tried to gain control of vast territories. In 1689, Aurangzeb's armies captured Shivaji's son

1986: 15254: 15191: 14965: 14905: 14899: 14792: 14763: 14644: 14461: 14396: 14390: 14319: 13924: 13868: 13697: 13565: 13555: 13447: 11674: 9799: 5962:

Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450–1850

4361: 3986: 3612:

in 1699, eight years before Aurangzeb's death. In 1705, Guru Gobind Singh sent a letter entitled

3249: 3240:

Vaishnavs in Braj were abandoned and their icons were taken to different regions or into hiding.

3032:, Agra, Delhi and other cities, Russian merchants returned to Moscow with valuable Indian goods. 1892: 1705:

stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of

1657: 15013: 3854:

and non-Muslims to impose practices of orthodox Islamic state, such as imposition of sharia and

3527:

Aurangzeb dispatched his personal imperial guard during the campaign against the Satnami rebels.

2914:

conducted one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal

2517:

He also explains the different techniques employed to produce such complicated textiles such as

1033:

After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with

15437: 15168: 14971: 14757: 14496: 14402: 14331: 14278: 14219: 14213: 14174: 13901: 13853: 13505: 13113: 10113: 9657: 9086: 8592:

Dasgupta, K. (1975). "How Learned Were the Mughals: Reflections on Muslim Libraries in India".

8198: 5341: 4778: 4672: 3065: 2937: 2426:. One of the earliest constructions after his accession was a small marble mosque known as the 2285:. The Qutbshahis had constructed massive fortifications throughout successive generations on a 2218: 1805:

has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of

1714:"in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt" 847:, suffered from burns when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in 11562: 11476: 11449: 11422: 11260: 10505: 10147: 9899: 9826: 9774: 8550: 8434: 8142: 8047:

Sikh Militancy in the Seventeenth Century: Religious Violence in Mughal and Early Modern India

7889: 7859: 7832: 7461: 6912: 6885: 6791: 6682: 6648: 6602: 6424: 6397: 6367: 6145: 6125: 6007: 5900: 5845: 5696: 5206: 4205:

Aurangzeb had at least 4 consorts in his harem, from wich he fathered 6 sons and 6 daughters:

2657:

issued by Aurangzeb caused the VOC to back down and allowed Indian sailors to pass into Aceh,

15162: 15120: 15097: 14959: 14911: 14858: 14698: 14668: 14526: 14225: 14000: 13954: 13916: 12656: 12608: 11903:. Beirut : Al-Mu'ssasah al-Jam'iyah al-Dirasat wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi. pp. 286–288 11647: 11503: 11126: 11092: 10975: 10931: 10795: 10334: 10117: 10074: 9682: 9465: 8522: 8282: 8101: 7885: 7434: 6508: 6313: 5960: 4862: 4824: 4327: 4024: 4019:

As of 2015, about 177 towns and villages of India have been named after Aurangzeb. Historian

3939: 3323: 3103: 2884:

that would grant them regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire, initiated the

2054: 1119:

armoured war elephants were routed by the forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to

478: 334: 15073: 12680: 10674:"PM Modi visits Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi on 400th Prakash Parab of Guru Teg Bahadur" 9766: 9649: 6783: 5837: 5333: 4951:

Events that formed the modern world: from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror

4820: 4269:(28 June 1653 – 20 June 1707). Overthrowen by his elder half-brother; With Dilras Banu Begum 1652:

Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing

942:

Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of

898:

Further unsuccessful military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of

15507: 15502: 15442: 15259: 15196: 15156: 15091: 15061: 15049: 15031: 14977: 14941: 14852: 14810: 14727: 14674: 14591: 14349: 14343: 14337: 14037: 13530: 12848: 7029:

Chandra, Satish (September 1969). "Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century".

6141: 4308: 3956: 3927: 3733: 3643: 3191:

began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of

3044:

Aurangzeb spent his reign crushing major and minor rebellions throughout the Mughal Empire.

2708: 2266: 1305: 844: 667:(brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied: 319: 30:

This article is about the sixth Mughal emperor. For the Indian movie of the same name, see

14603: 11265:. Vol. III. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 514. 10744: 4044:

in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and

2010: 8: 15406: 15144: 14989: 14745: 14520: 14313: 13818: 13717: 13575: 13550: 13278: 13247: 12964:

The great Aurangzeb is everybody's least favourite Mughal – Audrey Truschke | Aeon Essays

10181:

Creating a Community of Grace: A History of the Puṣṭi Mārga in Northern and Western India

9188:

Power Over Peoples Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400 to the Present

8374: 7711:"What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders)" 6398:

Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics

6092: 4351: 4333: 4330:(2 September 1651 – 17 February 1707). Married once and had a son; With Dilras Banu Begum 4321: 4282: 3976: 3938:

while still held to Hanafite creed. Apparently this view of Aurangzeb were influenced by

3740: 3497: 3335: 3233: 3155: 3141: 2728: 2448: 2427: 2423: 2396: 1972: 1936: 1870: 1757: 1683: 1044: 801: 456: 354: 349: 329: 74: 15201: 14260: 12021:

The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India

7760:, The New Cambridge History of India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 8, 6742:

suggests that the nature of his state was less orthodox, tyrannical and centralised than

2768: 2556:

manufactured in the Mughal Empire had highly influenced other cultures around the world.

2318: 15452: 15264: 15249: 15174: 15079: 14947: 14923: 14834: 14828: 14816: 14804: 14632: 14573: 14514: 14473: 14384: 14248: 13881: 13671: 13610: 13580: 13515: 13407: 13257: 13227: 13192: 12300: 12206: 12171: 11321: 11184: 11176: 11058: 9758: 9645: 9627: 9607: 8631: 8601: 8255: 7924: 7647: 7600: 7388: 7315: 7239: 7188: 7108: 7054: 6732: 6561: 6202: 5829: 5464: 4949: 4266: 4101: 4084: 3614: 3593: 3512: 3489: 3002: 2875: 2814: 2696: 2270: 2255: 2247: 1080: 1019: 1003: 646: 642: 528: 510: 339: 7960:

Maāsir-i-'Ālamgiri: A History of the Emperor Aurangzib 'Ālamgir (reign 1658–1707 A.D.)

7005: 2859: 2313:-casting technologies and the in-depth knowledge of the qualities of both metals. The 1054:

Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in the Deccan.

15457: 15304: 15274: 15150: 15025: 15019: 15001: 14798: 14739: 14686: 14449: 14167: 14143: 13964: 13959: 13939: 13906: 13784: 13712: 13651: 13605: 13600: 13570: 13525: 12927: 12906: 12885: 12862: 12818: 12761: 12740: 12686: 12662: 12641: 12583: 12562: 12541: 12510: 12484: 12427: 12398: 12369: 12329: 12304: 12292: 12255: 12175: 12077: 12049: 12024: 11962: 11822: 11755: 11729: 11705: 11680: 11653: 11626: 11599: 11568: 11541: 11509: 11482: 11455: 11428: 11391: 11358: 11325: 11266: 11236: 11206: 11188: 11132: 11098: 10983: 10940: 10883: 10858: 10826: 10801: 10752: 10703: 10646: 10602: 10572: 10543: 10515: 10474: 10440: 10400: 10370: 10340: 10300: 10274: 10246: 10123: 10080: 9977: 9929: 9905: 9832: 9805: 9778: 9767: 9762: 9688: 9661: 9650: 9631: 9586: 9530: 9471: 9362: 9322: 9282: 9242: 9229: 9195: 9146: 9057: 9024: 8962: 8931: 8858: 8831: 8800: 8790: 8767: 8757: 8725: 8672: 8652: 8572: 8530: 8440: 8408: 8396: 8353: 8322: 8288: 8247: 8206: 8148: 8107: 8103:

Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707 – 1813

8080: 8050: 8013: 7967: 7935: 7895: 7865: 7838: 7769: 7651: 7639: 7620:"Aurangzeb as Iconoclast? Vaishnava Accounts of the Krishna images' Exodus from Braj" 7592: 7554: 7498: 7467: 7440: 7413: 7392: 7378: 7319: 7307: 7243: 7229: 7180: 7112: 7098: 7046: 7009: 6948: 6918: 6891: 6865: 6861:

The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination

6795: 6784: 6759: 6736: 6688: 6654: 6608: 6565: 6463: 6430: 6406: 6373: 6346: 6319: 6244: 6100: 6048: 6013: 5966: 5938: 5906: 5849: 5838: 5833: 5797: 5746: 5702: 5627: 5592: 5529: 5468: 5456: 5395: 5370: 5345: 5334: 5296: 5212: 5163: 5153: 5130: 5120: 5097: 5087: 5064: 5054: 4981: 4956: 4895: 4868: 4834: 4790: 4757: 4729: 4676: 4633: 4316: 4303: 4229: 4209: 3912: 3810: 3708: 3695: 3605: 3597: 3583: 3575: 3567: 3111: 3087:

and, while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji and his forces attacked the Deccan,

2352:

and stringently observed the rituals of Islam, and "transcribe copies of the Quran."

2282: 2117: 2075: 1897: 1802: 1796: 1072: 1023: 1007: 829: 758:

in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of

506: 301: 280: 236: 215: 14159: 12878: 12154:

Jalal, Ayesha (February 1995). "Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining".

5756:... Sidi Marjan died of his wounds soon afterwards ... Aurangzeb arrived at Kalyani. 4324:(17 November 1647 – 9 April 1670). Never married or had any children; With Nawab Bai 4073:

1688 – Alamgirnama by Mirza Mohammed Qasim official biographer at Aurangzeb's court

3260: 15447: 15239: 15180: 15126: 14935: 14733: 14609: 14508: 13944: 13934: 13769: 13681: 13656: 13626: 13545: 13540: 13535: 13520: 13310: 13075: 12676: 12612: 12361: 12284: 12198: 12163: 11313: 11168: 11050: 10912: 10390: 10360: 10299:. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. pp. 323–324. 10047: 9926:

Contemporary Sources of the Mediaeval and Modern History of Bundelkhand (1531–1857)

9895: 9619: 9049: 9016: 8954: 8921: 8823: 8239: 7761: 7736: 7687: 7631: 7546: 7370: 7360: 7299: 7221: 7172: 7090: 7038: 7001: 6724: 6553: 6455: 5956: 5448: 4446: 4414: 4097: 4089: 4028: 3682: 3647: 3619: 3504: 3380: 3265: 3107: 2968: 2833:

Like his father, Aurangzeb was not willing to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the

2673: 2510: 2356: 2325: 2259: 2232: 2158: 1424: 1243: 1112: 1037:

in 1657. He was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of

767: 601: 497:

territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son

31: 11778: 7765: 6992:"Chapter Two : Indicism, Intoxication And Sobriety Among The 'Great Mughals'" 15294: 14822: 14615: 14133: 14057: 14042: 14032: 13995: 13929: 13891: 13774: 13749: 13510: 13382: 13367: 13273: 13212: 13149: 13135: 13000: 12921: 12900: 12843: 12779: 12755: 12730: 12577: 12535: 12365: 12319: 12124: 11816: 11620: 11589: 11535: 11256: 11228: 10746: 10678: 10640: 10594: 10564: 10535: 10511: 10468: 10394: 10364: 10240: 10100: 10060: 10043: 10030: 10017: 10004: 9971: 9863: 9580: 9521: 9353: 9316: 9300:... 1641 , his daughter , Sultanah Safiatuddin presented Aurangzeb with eight ... 9273: 9233: 9186: 9140: 8986: 8852: 8721:

Librarianship and Library Science in India: An Outline of Historical Perspectives

8719: 8505: 8316: 8074: 7963: 7919: 7809: 7407: 6939: 6842: 6402: 6238: 5791: 5618: 5290: 4919: 4697: 4627: 4238:. Second concubine of Aurangzeb; She was a dancing girl before entering the harem 4213: 4126: 4037: 4020: 3908: 3826: 3763: 3704: 3579: 3384: 3352: 3344: 3283:

In 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan, the

3222: 3069: 3020: 2991: 2953: 2949: 2842: 2634: 2613: 2482: 2431: 2364: 2360: 2329: 2240: 1874: 1729: 1706: 1143: 837: 824:, later known as Rahmat al-Nisa. That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to 779: 574: 556: 486: 463: 448: 381: 13432: 12979: 11159:

Richards, J. F. (1981). "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy".

10211:

The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire

8349:

A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century

3272:

In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu

2727:

In 1667, the French East India Company ambassadors Le Gouz and Bebert presented

15353: 15007: 14864: 14650: 14579: 14538: 14307: 14138: 14128: 14103: 14072: 13985: 13739: 13661: 13636: 13495: 13452: 13237: 13197: 13177: 13041: 12685:. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. 12099:"Review Article: Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society" 11898: 11036: 11032: 10797:

When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799

9557: 8696: 8243: 6779: 6598: 6392: 6003: 5896: 5692: 4915: 4497: 4356: 4276: 4257: 4235: 4032: 3952: 3892: 3866: 3834: 3830: 3655: 3537: 3411:

Aurangzeb leads his final expedition (1705), leading an army of 500,000 troops.

3360: 3255: 3076: 2800: 2638: 2466: 2401: 2295: 2214: 2184: 2154: 2132: 1806: 1788: 1696: 998: 959: 887: 783: 755: 589: 570: 455:

reached its greatest extent with territory spanning nearly the entirety of the

369: 324: 291: 113: 12167: 11317: 11172: 10916: 10903:

Morgenstierne, G. (1960). "Khushhal Khan – the national poet of the Afghans".

10273:. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. p. 321. 10119:

A Handbook to Agra and the Taj, Sikandra, Fatehpur-Sikri and the Neighbourhood

9590: 9053: 9020: 8958: 8827: 7635: 7550: 7225: 7211: 7094: 7080: 6728: 6557: 6459: 5452: 5134: 5101: 5068: 3751: 2381: 1022:

named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, who was

15431: 15411: 15373: 15309: 15299: 15206: 15055: 14876: 14656: 14047: 13457: 13357: 13222: 13217: 13202: 13141: 12402: 12296: 12288: 8935: 8412: 8251: 7971: 7643: 7596: 7374: 7311: 7303: 7184: 7050: 6121: 5596: 5460: 5329: 5167: 4794: 4680: 4312: 3307: 3237: 3206:

Gokula was caught and executed. But the Jats once again attempted rebellion.

3088: 2948:

In 1702, Aurangzeb sent Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the

2889: 2642: 2452: 2345: 2086: 1120: 1103: 1090: 1038: 994: 812:

In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small

722: 616: 502: 452: 418: 183: 179: 12587: 12226:"A capital road gone, Mughal king Aurangzeb lives in 177 towns and villages" 11262:

Civilization and Capitalism: 15th–18th Century: The Perspective of the World

11054: 10304: 10278: 9475: 8804: 8771: 6294:

The Taj and Its Environments: With 8 Illus. from Photos., 1 Map, and 4 Plans

4663:

Gul Rahim Khan (2021). "Silver Coins Hoard of the Late Mughals from Kohat".

15284: 14556: 14443: 14325: 14067: 13886: 13843: 13729: 13722: 13707: 13372: 13347: 13242: 13207: 13099: 13087: 12633: 12617: 12531: 11595: 11591:

Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – and Why They Fall

10971: 8926: 8555: 8134: 7999: 7691: 7490: 5942: 5750: 4533: 4299: 4045: 4001: 3921: 3896: 3651: 3474: 3466: 3328: 3207: 3149: 3145: 3084: 3017: 2932: 2863: 2688: 2391:, parts of which are believed to have been written in Aurangzeb's own hand. 2251: 2225: 1954: 1792: 1653: 1508: 1331: 1269: 1128: 743: 718: 657: 593: 523: 494: 401: 309: 11951: 11037:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 10880:

Fighting Words: Religion, Violence, and the Interpretation of Sacred Texts

10855:

Civil Society in Malerkotla, Punjab: Fostering Resilience Through Religion

10606: 10576: 10547: 7894:(Reprinted ed.). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 311. 4070:, written and performed on the London stage during the Emperor's lifetime. 3334:

In 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed Sambhaji. His successor

2998:

and conquered all of Tibet, a cause for celebration in Aurangzeb's court.

2719:, but refused to assist him in any military adventures against Aurangzeb. 535:

as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously

15043: 15037: 14638: 14490: 14272: 14254: 14118: 14027: 13838: 13789: 13754: 13377: 13362: 13352: 13342: 13337: 12973: 12803: 12579:

Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations

12554: 12069: 11848:"Biography of the Moghul ruler Aurangzeb; was he Salafi in his 'aqeedah?" 11088: 10967: 8070: 7539:"For Conquest and Governance: Legitimacy, Religion and Political Culture" 6937: 6504: 5965:(illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 22. 4067: 4062: 4013: 3972: 3968: 3915:

and the prohibition and supervision of behaviour and activities that are

3900: 3729: 3663: 3659: 3623: 3532: 3445: 3303: 3218: 3163: 3159: 3006: 2957: 2915: 2911: 2278: 2068: 1915: 1882: 1702: 1699:. He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him. 1482: 1139: 1107: 1075:

in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was chased through

990: 879: 833: 805: 775: 763: 738: 726: 714: 702: 663: 623: 498: 441: 411: 10320:

The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire

10226:

The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire

10196:

The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire

8910:"A Tale of Two Imperial Residences: Aurangzeb's Architectural Patronage" 8635: 8605: 8436:

Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800

8259: 8227: 7604: 7463:

Religion and Governance in England's Emerging Colonial Empire, 1601–1698

6653:(Second Reprint ed.). Har-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd. p. 350. 6650:

Medieval India: From Sultanate To The Mughals: Mughal Empire (1526–1748)

5548:

Ahmad, Fazl. Heroes of Islam. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraff, 1993. Print.

5265:"Prince Awrangzeb (Aurangzeb) facing a maddened elephant named Sudhakar" 4756:(1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. p. 7. 4540:

and Aurangzeb biography by Professor 'Abd al-Mun'im an-Nimr in his book

3608:, further militarised his followers, starting with the establishment of 3559: 2367:

in Aurangabad for his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani. Aurangzeb was considered a

14840: 14680: 14544: 14408: 14266: 14190: 14148: 14113: 14093: 13799: 13734: 13462: 13387: 13332: 13232: 13182: 13034: 12596: 12210: 12189:

Ali, Mubarak (September–October 1992). "Akbar in Pakistani Textbooks".

11062: 10745:

Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair; Christopher Shackle; Gurharpal Singh (2013).

10439:(1. publ. ed.). New York: Cambridge University. pp. 101–105. 10420: 8622:

Qadir, K.B.S.S.A. (1936). "The Cultural Influences of Islam in India".

8382: 7192: 7058: 6147:

The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911

5872:(in French). Centre d'Études de l'Inde et de l'Asie du Sud. 6 July 2016 4115: 3862: 3806: 3458: 3229: 3188: 3144:

was fought in the easternmost regions of the Mughal Empire against the

3049: 2995: 2986:, which was in the Mughal sphere of influence. Aurangzeb intervened on 2900: 2625:

Mughal territory, so he did not built an overtly massive naval forces.

2236: 1947: 1784: 1116: 1099: 1094:

of Gujarat. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the

1034: 955: 947: 759: 559: 467: 391: 203: 199: 131: 11752:

Muhammad Bin Qasim to General Pervez Musharraf: Triumphs, Tribulations

11180: 8473:– The Composite Mughal Cannon of Aurangzeb at Fort William in Kolkata" 6968: 4740:

Aurangzeb (1658–1707). Aurangzeb's rule, spanning a period of 49 years

4251:(30 December 1639 – 14 December 1676). Imprisoned by his father; With 3469:, the viceroy of Bengal, was ordered to recover the lost territories. 2848: 2645:, Sultanah Safiatuddin, has presented Aurangzeb with eight elephants. 789: 15289: 14585: 14550: 14532: 14355: 14108: 13949: 13833: 13794: 13051: 7931: 7804: 7333: 7129: 6995: 5869: 4830: 4261: 4252: 4223: 3931: 3822: 3802: 3784: 3720: 3211: 3123: 3029: 2977: 2971: 2834: 2443: 2188: 2064: 1858: 1842:

of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon.

1740:, the founder of the empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. 1027: 821: 631: 604:. Aurangzeb was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather 515: 451:, reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his emperorship, 259: 219: 141: 96: 12202: 11649:

Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813

9467:

Crafts and commerce in Orissa in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries

9235:

Leaves of the Same Tree Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka

8076:

Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras

7678:

Eaton, Richard (2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States".

7357:"Aurangzeb and Islam in India : 50 years of Mughal Realpolitik" 7176: 7042: 4978:

On Becoming an Indian Muslim: French Essays on Aspects of Syncretism

4777:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

3861:

pretext for religious persecution, and that, as a result, groups of

3642:

The Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet

2616:. He also sent alms in 1666 and 1672 to be distributed in Mecca and 2078:

was arrested on orders by Aurangzeb, found guilty of blasphemy by a

1625: 1106:. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals 981: 15378: 15138: 13848: 13702: 13252: 13172: 10101:

The World of To-day: The Marvels of Nature and the Creations of Man

9623: 8551:

Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700

5394:. Translated by Hamid, Enjum. Oxford University Press. p. 92. 5152:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 17–18. 3994: 3946: 3935: 3904: 3878: 3744: 3686:

managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route.

3371: 3096: 3053: 2941: 2893: 2822: 2369: 2291: 2274: 2102: 2060: 1919: 1878: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1637: 1211: 1123:(in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers. 1067: 943: 911: 882:, who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from 874:

In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of

605: 11094:

Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500–1700

8439:. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. pp. 351–352. 4180:

Aurangzeb had also been attributed various other titles including

3700: 3540:. They began a large-scale rebellion 75 miles southwest of Delhi. 3195:

and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by

3040: 2395:

The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to have patronised works of

15383: 15279: 13764: 13162: 12923: