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43:
671:(WWF) identifies twelve major habitat types of freshwater ecoregions: Large lakes, large river deltas, polar freshwaters, montane freshwaters, temperate coastal rivers, temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands, temperate upland rivers, tropical and subtropical coastal rivers, tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands, tropical and subtropical upland rivers, xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins, and oceanic islands. The freshwater major habitat types reflect groupings of ecoregions with similar biological, chemical, and physical characteristics and are roughly equivalent to biomes for terrestrial systems.
147:
ecoregions in 1976. The term was used widely in scholarly literature in the 1980s and 1990s, and in 2001 scientists at the U.S. conservation organization World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) codified and published the first global-scale map of Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World (TEOW), led by D. Olsen, E. Dinerstein, E. Wikramanayake, and N. Burgess. While the two approaches are related, the Bailey ecoregions (nested in four levels) give more importance to ecological criteria and climate zones, while the WWF ecoregions give more importance to biogeography, that is, the
321:
258:, and soils, and may or may not include the impacts of human activity (e.g. land use patterns, vegetation changes). There is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Another complication is that environmental conditions across an ecoregion boundary may change very gradually, e.g. the prairie-forest transition in the midwestern United States, making it difficult to identify an exact dividing boundary. Such transition zones are called
630:
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208:
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530:. Forty-three priority marine ecoregions were delineated as part of WWF's Global 200 efforts. The scheme used to designate and classify marine ecoregions is analogous to that used for terrestrial ecoregions. Major habitat types are identified: polar, temperate shelves and seas, temperate upwelling, tropical upwelling, tropical coral, pelagic (trades and westerlies), abyssal, and hadal (ocean trench). These correspond to the terrestrial
180:
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31:
366:
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A freshwater ecoregion is a large area encompassing one or more freshwater systems that contains a distinct assemblage of natural freshwater communities and species. The freshwater species, dynamics, and environmental conditions within a given ecoregion are more similar to each other than to those of
170:
In 2017, an updated terrestrial ecoregions dataset was released in the paper "An
Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm" led by E. Dinerstein with 48 co-authors. Using recent advances in satellite imagery the ecoregion perimeters were refined and the total number reduced to
159:
that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)". The specific goal of the authors was to support global biodiversity conservation by providing a "fourfold increase in resolution over that of
146:
The phrase "ecological region" was widely used throughout the 20th century by biologists and zoologists to define specific geographic areas in research. In the early 1970s, the term 'ecoregion' was introduced (short for ecological region), and R.G. Bailey published the first comprehensive map of U.S.
1342:
Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial
847:
David M. Olson, Eric
Dinerstein, Eric D. Wikramanayake, Neil D. Burgess, George V. N. Powell, Emma C. Underwood, Jennifer A. D'amico, Illanga Itoua, Holly E. Strand, John C. Morrison, Colby J. Loucks, Thomas F. Allnutt, Taylor H. Ricketts, Yumiko Kura, John F. Lamoreux, Wesley W. Wettengel, Prashant
983:
Robin Abell, Michele L. Thieme, Carmen
Revenga, Mark Bryer, Maurice Kottelat, Nina Bogutskaya, Brian Coad, Nick Mandrak, Salvador Contreras Balderas, William Bussing, Melanie L. J. Stiassny, Paul Skelton, Gerald R. Allen, Peter Unmack, Alexander Naseka, Rebecca Ng, Nikolai Sindorf, James Robertson,
154:
The TEOW framework originally delineated 867 terrestrial ecoregions nested into 14 major biomes, contained with the world's 8 major biogeographical realms. Subsequent regional papers by the co-authors covering Africa, Indo-Pacific, and Latin
America differentiate between ecoregions and bioregions,
1331:
Abell, R., M. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. Contreras-Balderas, W. Bussing, M. L. J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, G. R. Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, J. Higgins, T. J. Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, H. L.
98:
that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. In theory, biodiversity or conservation ecoregions are relatively large areas of land or water where the probability of encountering different species and communities at any given point remains relatively constant,
522:, clearly distinct from adjacent systems….In ecological terms, these are strongly cohesive units, sufficiently large to encompass ecological or life history processes for most sedentary species." They have been defined by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to aid in
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160:
the 198 biotic provinces of
Dasmann (1974) and the 193 units of Udvardy (1975)." In 2007, a comparable set of Marine Ecoregions of the World (MEOW) was published, led by M. Spalding, and in 2008 a set of Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (FEOW) was published, led by R. Abell.
106:
Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches. Firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible. Secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges; rather,
338:. It is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is "greater than the sum of its parts". There are many attempts to respond to ecosystems in an integrated way to achieve "multi-functional" landscapes, and various interest groups from
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According to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth.
945:
Mark D. Spalding, Helen E. Fox, Gerald R. Allen, Nick
Davidson, Zach A. Ferdaña, Max Finlayson, Benjamin S. Halpern, Miguel A. Jorge, Al Lombana, Sara A. Lourie, Kirsten D. Martin, Edmund McManus, Jennifer Molnar, Cheri A. Recchia, James Robertson (July 1, 2007).
273:'s work for the U.S. Forest Service, which uses a hierarchical classification that first divides land areas into very large regions based on climatic factors, and subdivides these regions, based first on dominant potential vegetation, and then by
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ecoregions were developed to aid in biodiversity conservation planning, and place a greater emphasis than the
Omernik or Bailey systems on floral and faunal differences between regions. The WWF classification defines an ecoregion as:
119:. Biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers, including physical (plate tectonics, topographic highs), climatic (latitudinal variation, seasonal range) and ocean chemical related (salinity, oxygen levels).
544:
In 2007, TNC and WWF refined and expanded this scheme to provide a system of comprehensive near shore (to 200 meters depth) Marine
Ecoregions of the World (MEOW). The 232 individual marine ecoregions are grouped into 62
553:, which represent the broad latitudinal divisions of polar, temperate, and tropical seas, with subdivisions based on ocean basins (except for the southern hemisphere temperate oceans, which are based on continents).
333:
The use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and management of
537:
The Global 200 classification of marine ecoregions is not developed to the same level of detail and comprehensiveness as that of the terrestrial ecoregions; only the priority conservation areas are listed.
401:
The eight realms follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, that separate the world's major plant and animal communities. Realm boundaries generally follow
1269:
Hermoso, Virgilio; Abell, Robin; Linke, Simon; Boon, Philip (2016). "The role of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation: challenges and opportunities in a rapidly changing world".
678:, a set of ecoregions identified by WWF whose conservation would achieve the goal of saving a broad diversity of the Earth's ecosystems, includes a number of areas highlighted for their freshwater
1332:
Lopez, R. E. d. Reis, J. G. Lundberg, M. H. Sabaj Perez, and P. Petry. (2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation.
984:
Eric Armijo, Jonathan V. Higgins, Thomas J. Heibel, Eric
Wikramanayake, David Olson, Hugo L. López, Roberto E. Reis, John G. Lundberg, Mark H. Sabaj Pérez, Paulo Petry (May 1, 2008).
682:
values. The Global 200 preceded Freshwater Ecoregions of the World and incorporated information from regional freshwater ecoregional assessments that had been completed at that time.
662:. Freshwater ecoregions are distinct from terrestrial ecoregions, which identify biotic communities of the land, and marine ecoregions, which are biotic communities of the oceans.
99:
within an acceptable range of variation (largely undefined at this point). Ecoregions are also known as "ecozones" ("ecological zones"), although that term may also refer to
1680:
1414:. Draft report. World Wildlife Fund-U.S., Wetlands International, Biodiversity Support Program, and United States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.,
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type, which are the major global plant communities determined by rainfall and climate. Forests, grasslands (including savanna and shrubland), and deserts (including
231:
that characterise that region". Omernik (2004) elaborates on this by defining ecoregions as: "areas within which there is spatial coincidence in characteristics of
905:
1481:
Busch, D.E. and J.C. Trexler. eds. 2003. Monitoring Ecosystems: Interdisciplinary approaches for evaluating ecoregional initiatives. Island Press. 447 pages.
820:
Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein (1998). The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions.
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969:
871:
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A similar system of identifying areas of the oceans for conservation purposes is the system of large marine ecosystems (LMEs), developed by the US
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approach or a holistic, "weight-of-evidence" approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the algorithmic approach is
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A map of Freshwater Ecoregions of the World, released in 2008, has 426 ecoregions covering virtually the entire non-marine surface of the earth.
612:
1675:
1642:
278:
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Thieme, M.L., R. Abell, M.L.J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, B. Lehner, G.G. Teugels, E. Dinerstein, A.K. Toham, N. Burgess & D. Olson. 2005.
416:
1696:
1665:
465:
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Olson, D. M., B. Chernoff, G. Burgess, I. Davidson, P. Canevari, E. Dinerstein, G. Castro, V. Morisset, R. Abell, and E. Toledo. 1997.
74:. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of natural
163:
Bailey's ecoregion concept prioritizes ecological criteria and climate, while the WWF concept prioritizes biogeography, that is, the
1505:
1497:
286:
1205:
1632:
1177:
1457:
Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, C. J. Loucks, D. M. Olson, J. Morrison, J. L. Lamoreux, M. McKnight, and P. Hedao. 2002.
395:
413:. The boundaries of ecoregions are often not as decisive or well recognized, and are subject to greater disagreement.
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421:
127:
The history of the term is somewhat vague. It has been used in many contexts: forest classifications (Loucks, 1962),
17:
42:
1555:
1523:
1515:
1398:
933:
1988:
1722:
1353:
Spalding, M. D. et al. (2007). Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas.
373:
Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context,
2035:
1071:
986:"Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation"
301:
A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that:
171:
846 (and later 844), which can be explored on a web application developed by Resolve and Google Earth Engine.
624:
1701:
433:
1564:
1942:
1627:
565:
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and soil characteristics. The weight-of-evidence approach is exemplified by James Omernik's work for the
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1947:
1637:
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270:
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1957:
597:
1337:
1967:
589:
1452:
Conserving Russia's Biological Diversity: an analytical framework and initial investment portfolio
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An ecoregion is a "recurring pattern of ecosystems associated with characteristic combinations of
1952:
593:
1145:
1030:
849:
491:
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host very distinct ecological communities, and are recognized as distinct biome types as well.
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424:
publication The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief
420:
Proportion of forest area by forest area density class and global ecological zone, 2015, from
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1937:
1009:
963:
865:
601:
398:). The WWF effort is a synthesis of many previous efforts to define and classify ecoregions.
391:
354:
2050:
2030:
1972:
1932:
1927:
1548:
1395:
A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean.
1103:
930:
A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean.
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581:
577:
523:
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The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used. For example, the
200:
164:
148:
1348:
1098:
Omernik, J. M. (2004). "Perspectives on the Nature and Definition of Ecological Regions".
8:
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2003:
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surrounding ecoregions and together form a conservation unit. Freshwater systems include
557:
519:
293:
216:
136:
100:
75:
71:
1494:(interactive on-line map of ecoregions with additional information about animal species)
1204:
Spalding, Mark D.; Fox, Helen E.; Allen, Gerald R.; Davidson, Nick; et al. (2007).
1107:
1871:
1861:
1286:
1225:
1183:
1127:
699:
38:
ecoregions. The yellow line encloses the ecoregions per the World Wide Fund for Nature.
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bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned
2040:
1962:
1891:
1881:
1804:
1412:
Freshwater biodiversity of Latin America and the Caribbean: a conservation assessment
1187:
1173:
1119:
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527:
335:
252:
35:
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311:(c) Interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.
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A conservation assessment of mangrove ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean
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1111:
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735:
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515:
485:
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343:
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1161:
The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief
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is used to mean "of land" (soil and rock), rather than the more general sense "of
1876:
1866:
1769:
1541:
1533:
1519:
1501:
1462:
1440:
1430:
1383:
1373:
1206:"Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas"
948:"Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas"
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809:
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1917:
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phenomena associated with differences in the quality, health, and integrity of
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1727:
1611:
1407:. Final report for The Ford Foundation. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C.
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282:
274:
27:
Ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion
1922:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1528:
1370:
Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment.
1123:
902:
Terrestrial eco-regions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment
837:(map). Ogden, Utah: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 1:7,500,000.
776:(map). Ogden, Utah: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 1:7,500,000.
679:
634:
561:
339:
244:
232:
132:
83:
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Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment.
759:
Loucks, O. L. (1962). A forest classification for the Maritime Provinces.
207:
1779:
441:
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boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the
2008:
1784:
675:
541:
See Global 200 Marine ecoregions for a full list of marine ecoregions.
461:
457:
350:
236:
212:
140:
95:
1031:"An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm"
917:
Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment.
915:
Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002).
556:
Major marine biogeographic realms, analogous to the eight terrestrial
1993:
1809:
1459:
Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment
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505:
501:
473:
445:
406:
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387:
266:
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67:
63:
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Bioregional planning: resource management beyond the new millennium.
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1086:
Bioregional planning: resource management beyond the new millennium.
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305:(a) Share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics;
179:
30:
1830:
1774:
1737:
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climates) and, for forests, by whether the trees are predominantly
437:
375:
324:
Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World (Olson et al. 2001, BioScience)
228:
1437:
Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment
1053:
985:
1732:
1427:
Freshwater Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment
1368:
Burgess, N., J.D. Hales, E. Underwood, and E. Dinerstein (2004).
900:
Burgess, N.D.; D'Amico Hales, J.; Dinerstein, E.; et al. (2004).
886:
Ecoregions: The Ecosystem Geography of the. Oceans and Continents
850:"Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth"
806:
Ecoregions: The Ecosystem Geography of the. Oceans and Continents
659:
453:
259:
240:
112:
108:
79:
59:
353:" is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for
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1403:
Olson, D. M., E. Dinerstein, G. Cintron, and P. Iolster. 1996.
651:
638:
531:
469:
410:
196:
1601:
1572:
1450:
Krever, V., Dinerstein, E., Olson, D. and Williams, L. 1994.
647:
509:
429:
380:
255:
128:
116:
508:(an area of some 361 million square kilometers) consists of
1759:
655:
239:". "Characteristics of geographical phenomena" may include
224:
192:
390:
currently divide the land surface of the Earth into eight
365:
1203:
1304:
1210:
Bioscience Vol. 57 No. 7, July/August 2007, pp. 573–583
1393:
Dinerstein, E., Olson, D. Graham, D.J. et al. (1995).
1271:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
928:
Dinerstein, E., Olson, D. Graham, D.J. et al. (1995).
464:) and mixed (broadleaf and conifer). Biome types like
1343:
ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth.
1268:
761:
Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science
689:
394:containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions (see
155:referring to the latter as "geographic clusters of
1563:
1511:Activist network cultivating Ecoregions/Bioregions
1250:
1248:
346:are using the "ecoregion" as a unit of analysis.
2063:
1051:
460:), or whether they are predominantly broadleaf (
308:(b) Share similar environmental conditions, and;
174:
1478:Harwood Academic Publishers: Sydney, Australia.
1102:. 34 Suppl 1 (1): 34 – Supplement 1, pp.27–38.
1088:Harwood Academic Publishers: Sydney, Australia.
613:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
560:, represent large regions of the ocean basins:
281:, subsequently adopted (with modification) for
1245:
800:
798:
143:scheme of Olson & Dinerstein, 1998), etc.
1549:
848:Hedao, Kenneth R. Kassem (November 1, 2001).
279:United States Environmental Protection Agency
46:A map of the bioregions of Canada and the US.
1199:
1197:
1014:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
968:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
878:
870:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1697:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
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466:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
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1542:
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787:Ecoregion-based design for sustainability
628:
495:
415:
364:
319:
287:Commission for Environmental Cooperation
206:
178:
41:
29:
1097:
265:Ecoregions can be categorized using an
203:, and can both be termed as ecoregions.
14:
2064:
518:are: "Areas of relatively homogeneous
131:classifications (Bailey, 1976, 2014),
1537:
1461:. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA,
1681:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
1643:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
1305:"Freshwater Ecoregions of the World"
909:
500:View of Earth, taken in 1972 by the
383:" (which includes land and oceans).
66:defined area that is smaller than a
1522: (archived November 14, 2008),
1324:Sources related to the WWC scheme:
24:
1242:Olson and Dinerstein 1998 and 2002
1146:"Biomes - Conserving Biomes - WWF"
922:
70:, which in turn is smaller than a
25:
2088:
1607:Montane grasslands and shrublands
1485:
1439:. Washington (DC): Island Press,
1029:Dinerstein, Eric (5 April 2017).
894:
860:(11) – via Oxford Academic.
422:Food and Agriculture Organization
167:of distinct species assemblages.
151:of distinct species assemblages.
1504: (archived April 10, 2010),
1372:Island Press, Washington, D.C.,
1256:"Marine Ecoregions of the World"
1041:(6) – via Oxford Academic.
958:(7) – via Oxford Academic.
720:
706:
692:
436:) are distinguished by climate (
1723:Flooded grasslands and savannas
1319:
1297:
1262:
1236:
1152:
1138:
1091:
1078:
1052:Dinerstein (Ed.), Eric (2017).
1045:
1022:
976:
938:
904:. Washington DC.: Island Press
835:Ecoregions of the United States
774:Ecoregions of the United States
2036:Ecological land classification
1565:Biogeographic regionalisations
1429:Washington, DC: Island Press,
1164:. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020.
888:. 2nd ed., Springer, 180 pp.,
840:
827:
814:
808:. 2nd ed., Springer, 180 pp.,
779:
766:
753:
549:, which in turn group into 12
360:
13:
1:
1258:. World Wide Fund for Nature.
746:
625:List of freshwater ecoregions
618:
428:Ecoregions are classified by
328:
175:Definition and categorization
1702:Deserts and xeric shrublands
1435:Ricketts, T.H. et al. 1999.
1397:World Bank, Washington DC.,
1004:– via Oxford Academic.
932:World Bank, Washington DC.,
919:Washington, DC: Island Press
7:
1943:Temperate Northern Atlantic
1633:Broadleaf and mixed forests
1425:Abell, R.A. et al. (2000).
685:
566:Temperate Northern Atlantic
504:crew. Approximately 71% of
10:
2093:
2046:Vegetation classifications
1948:Temperate Northern Pacific
1070:: CS1 maint: url-status (
622:
570:Temperate Northern Pacific
489:
483:
386:WWF (World Wildlife Fund)
369:WWF terrestrial ecoregions
122:
2023:
1981:
1958:Temperate Southern Africa
1910:
1854:
1843:
1823:
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1715:
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1651:
1620:
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1580:
1571:
1116:10.1007/s00267-003-5197-2
598:Temperate Southern Africa
479:
1968:Tropical Eastern Pacific
1918:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
1516:Sierra Club – ecoregions
1447:Russia and Indo-Pacific
1100:Environmental Management
1084:Brunckhorst, D. (2000).
590:Tropical Eastern Pacific
211:A conifer forest in the
1989:Biogeographic provinces
1953:Temperate South America
1671:Moist broadleaf forests
1529:World Map of Ecoregions
1498:WWF Map of the ecozones
594:Temperate South America
247:, vegetation, climate,
1474:Brunckhorst, D. 2000.
789:. New York: Springer,
642:
512:
492:Large marine ecosystem
425:
392:biogeographical realms
370:
325:
314:
220:
204:
47:
39:
2051:Zoogeographic regions
2009:Global 200 ecoregions
1938:Temperate Australasia
1676:Dry broadleaf forests
763:, 25(Part 2), 85-167.
632:
602:Temperate Australasia
499:
419:
368:
323:
299:
210:
182:
45:
33:
2031:Altitudinal zonation
1973:Western Indo-Pacific
1933:Eastern Indo-Pacific
1928:Central Indo-Pacific
1382:Washington DC: WWF,
884:Bailey, R. G. 2014.
833:Bailey, R. G. 1976.
804:Bailey, R. G. 2014.
785:Bailey, R. G. 2002.
772:Bailey, R. G. 1976.
586:Eastern Indo-Pacific
582:Central Indo-Pacific
578:Western Indo-Pacific
558:biogeographic realms
201:Central Eastern Alps
101:biogeographic realms
2004:Lists of ecoregions
1661:Tropical rainforest
1454:. WWF, Switzerland.
1108:2004EnMan..34S..27O
741:Lists of ecoregions
669:World Wildlife Fund
520:species composition
72:biogeographic realm
2041:Floristic kingdoms
1805:Hydrothermal vents
1666:Coniferous forests
1628:Coniferous forests
822:Conservation Biol.
700:Environment portal
643:
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1638:Deciduous forests
1524:Original web page
1506:Original web page
1179:978-92-5-132707-4
1054:"Ecoregions 2017"
574:Tropical Atlantic
528:marine ecosystems
516:Marine ecoregions
135:classifications (
56:ecological region
36:Amazon rainforest
18:Aquatic ecoregion
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34:A map of the
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2077:Biogeography
1998:
1982:Subdivisions
1872:Australasian
1862:Afrotropical
1824:Other biomes
1800:Benthic zone
1795:Pelagic zone
1790:Neritic zone
1780:Kelp forests
1652:Tropical and
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149:distribution
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84:biodiversity
60:ecologically
55:
51:
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1892:Neotropical
1882:Indomalayan
1855:Terrestrial
1785:Coral reefs
1654:subtropical
1581:Terrestrial
824:12:502–515.
462:Angiosperms
458:gymnosperms
442:subtropical
403:continental
376:terrestrial
361:Terrestrial
267:algorithmic
185:Ötztal Alps
111:and mosaic
76:communities
2072:Ecoregions
2066:Categories
1999:Ecoregions
1994:Bioregions
1902:Palearctic
1810:Cold seeps
1770:Intertidal
1355:BioScience
1345:Bioscience
1334:BioScience
1035:BioScience
990:BioScience
952:BioScience
854:BioScience
747:References
676:Global 200
623:See also:
619:Freshwater
490:See also:
388:ecologists
351:Global 200
336:landscapes
329:Importance
237:ecosystems
213:Swiss Alps
157:ecoregions
141:Global 200
96:ecosystems
1877:Holarctic
1867:Antarctic
1775:Mangroves
1621:Temperate
1188:241416114
502:Apollo 17
474:mangroves
446:temperate
407:Himalayas
249:hydrology
68:bioregion
52:ecoregion
2024:See also
1897:Oceanian
1887:Nearctic
1765:Littoral
1738:Mangrove
1728:Riparian
1470:Others:
1365:Africa:
1291:88786689
1230:29150840
1132:11191859
1124:16044553
1066:cite web
686:See also
660:wetlands
615:(NOAA).
454:conifers
438:tropical
409:and the
260:ecotones
229:landform
113:habitats
109:ecotones
58:) is an
1751:Aquatic
1733:Wetland
1518:at the
1500:at the
1104:Bibcode
652:streams
285:by the
253:aquatic
241:geology
123:History
80:species
1923:Arctic
1911:Marine
1847:realms
1753:biomes
1707:Steppe
1597:Tundra
1583:biomes
1573:Biomes
1289:
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1186:
1176:
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1122:
658:, and
648:rivers
639:Brazil
604:, and
562:Arctic
532:biomes
480:Marine
472:; and
470:tundra
450:boreal
411:Sahara
197:Europe
82:. The
1602:Taiga
1287:S2CID
1226:S2CID
1184:S2CID
1128:S2CID
656:lakes
510:ocean
430:biome
381:Earth
349:The "
256:fauna
129:biome
117:biome
92:fauna
88:flora
1760:Pond
1174:ISBN
1120:PMID
1072:link
1016:link
970:link
872:link
674:The
633:The
448:and
444:vs.
440:and
396:list
227:and
225:soil
193:Alps
187:, a
183:The
94:and
78:and
62:and
1716:Wet
1690:Dry
1309:WWF
1279:doi
1218:doi
1166:doi
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637:in
294:WWF
195:of
137:WWF
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