94:
624:
wires as recommended by the CPSC, although the manufacturer current literature states the pre-filled "compound cuts aluminum oxide". Some researchers have criticized the UL listing/tests for this wire connector, and there have been reported problems with tests (without pre-twisting) and installations. However, it is unknown if the reported installation problems were associated with unqualified persons attempting these repairs, or not using recommended special installation procedures (such as abrading and pre-twisting the wires as recommended by the CPSC for older aluminum wire, or at least pre-twisting the wires as recommended by Ideal for their connectors).
321:
with wire to wire connections made with twist-on connectors. As of 2017 most twist-on connectors for typical smaller branch circuit wire sizes, even those designed to connect copper to aluminum wiring, are not rated for aluminum-to-aluminum connections, with one exception being the
Marette #63 or #65 used in Canada but not approved by UL for use in the United States. Also, the size of the aluminum wire needs to be larger compared to copper wire used for the same circuit due to the increased resistance of the aluminum alloys. For example, a 15 A branch circuit supplying standard lighting fixtures can be installed with either #14
628:
wire, and are acceptable according to the
National Electrical Code. However, some manufacturers of CO/ALR devices recommend periodically checking/tightening the terminal screws on these devices which can be hazardous for unqualified individuals to attempt, and there is criticism of their use as a permanent repair as some CO/ALR devices have failed in tests when connected to "old technology" aluminum wire. Furthermore, just installing CO/ALR devices (switches and receptacles) doesn't address potential hazards associated with other connections such as those at ceiling fans, lights and equipment.
428:
580:
connections are sometimes too large to install in existing enclosures due to limited space (or "box fill"). Installing an enclosure extender for unfinished surfaces, replacing the enclosure with a larger one or installing an additional adjacent enclosure can be done to increase the available space. Also, COPALUM connectors are costly to install, require special tools that cannot simply be purchased and electricians certified to use them by the manufacturer, and it can sometimes be very difficult to find local electricians certified to install these connectors.
338:
214:
183:
369:
36:
588:
313:
512:
309:. This is installed with materials and methods as specified by the local electrical utility companies. Also, larger aluminum stranded building wire made with AA-8000 series alloy of aluminum is used for electrical services (e.g. service entrance conductors from the utility connection to the service breaker panel) and for larger branch circuits such as for sub-panels, ranges, clothes dryers and air-conditioning units.
159:
of the aluminum wire being used in mind, and there were some issues related to the properties of the wire itself, making the installations with aluminum wire much more susceptible to problems. Revised manufacturing standards for both the wire and the devices were developed to reduce the problems. Existing homes with this older aluminum wiring used in branch circuits present a potential fire hazard.
557:
475:
612:
color, have been UL Listed for aluminum to copper branch circuit wire connections since 1995, and according to the manufacturer's current literature are "perfect for pig-tailing a copper conductor onto aluminum branch circuit wiring in retrofit applications". The CPSC still considers the use of twist-on connectors, including the Ideal no. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector", to be a
463:
568:(CPSC) currently recommends only two alternatives for a "permanent repair" using the pig-tailing method. The more extensively tested method uses special crimp-on connectors called COPALUM connectors. As of April 2011, the CPSC has also recognized miniature lug-type connectors called AlumiConn connectors. The CPSC considers the use of pigtails with
548:"Pig-tailing" which involves splicing a short length of copper wire (pigtail) to the original aluminum wire, and then attaching the copper wire to the existing electrical device. The splice of the copper pigtail to the existing aluminum wire can be accomplished with special crimp connectors, special miniature lug-type connectors, or approved
446:
switches. Aluminum and steel expand and contract at significantly different rates under thermal load, so a connection can become loose, particularly for older terminations initially installed with inadequate torque of the screws combined with creep of the aluminum over time. Loose connections get progressively worse over time.
957:
great that extensive formation of aluminum oxide at the current carrying interface would reduce the current flow to a negligible level. lntermetallic compounds, on the other hand, have sufficient conductivity to allow the current to continue to flow, while providing a significant increase in resistance so that the
258:
resulting in a re-evaluation of the use of that alloy for building wire and an identification of the need for newer alloys to produce aluminum building wire. The first 8000 series electric conductor alloy, still widely used in some applications, was developed and patented in 1972 by
Aluminum Company of America (
158:
In North
American residential construction, aluminum wire was used for wiring entire houses for a short time from the 1960s to the mid-1970s during a period of high copper prices. Electrical devices (outlets, switches, lighting, fans, etc.) at the time were not designed with the particular properties
611:
added to the compound to abrade the wires. As of 2014 there was only one twist-on connector rated or "UL Listed" for connecting aluminum and copper branch circuit wires in the U.S., which is the Ideal no. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector". These special twist-on connectors have a distinctive purple
584:
critical to having an acceptable repair. However, use of the
Alumiconn connectors is a relatively newer repair option for older aluminum wiring compared to other methods, and use of these connectors can have some of the same or similar problems with limited enclosure space as the COPALUM connectors.
519:
If inadequate torque is applied to the electrical device termination screw or if the devices are not CO/ALR rated (or at least CU/AL-rated for breakers and larger equipment) this can result in an inadequate connection of the aluminum wire. Also, due to the significant difference in thermal expansion
470:
Many electrical devices used in the 1960s had smaller plain steel terminal screws, which made the attachment of the aluminum wires being used at that time to these devices much more vulnerable to problems. In the late 1960s, a device specification known as CU/AL (meaning copper-aluminum) was created
453:
aluminum–iron and aluminum–copper compounds to be formed between the wire, the screw, and the device conductors under the wire. This resulted in a higher resistance junction, leading to additional overheating. Although many believe that oxidation was the issue, studies have shown that oxidation was
435:
Most of the problems related to aluminum wire are typically associated with older (pre-1972) AA-1350 alloy solid aluminum wire, sometimes referred to as "old technology" aluminum wiring, as the properties of that wire result in significantly more expansion and contraction than copper wire or modern
257:
was manufactured using utility grade AA-1350 aluminum alloy in sizes small enough to be used for lower load branch circuits in homes. In the late 1960s problems and failures related to branch circuit connections for building wire made with the utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum began to surface,
579:
COPALUM connectors use a special crimping system that creates a cold weld between the copper and aluminum wire, and is considered a permanent, maintenance-free repair. However, there may not be sufficient length of wires in enclosures to permit a special crimping tool to be used, and the resulting
320:
In the United States, solid aluminum wires made with AA-8000 series aluminum alloy are allowed for 15 A or 20 A branch circuit wiring according to the
National Electrical Code. The terminations need to be rated for aluminum wire, which can be problematic. This is particularly a problem
627:
The use of newer CO/ALR rated devices (switches and receptacles) can be used to replace older devices that did not have the proper rating in homes with aluminum branch circuit wiring to reduce the hazards. These devices are reportedly tested and listed for both AA-1350 and AA-8000 series aluminum
482:
Unfortunately, CU/AL switches and receptacles failed to work well enough with aluminum wire, and a new specification called CO/ALR (meaning copper-aluminum, revised) was created. These devices employ brass screw terminals that are designed to act as a similar metal to aluminum and to expand at a
376:
The larger size stranded aluminum wires don't have the same historical problems as solid aluminum wires, and the common terminations for larger size wires are dual-rated terminations called lugs. These lugs are typically made with a coated aluminum alloy, which can accommodate either an aluminum
265:
Unlike the older AA-1350 alloy previously used, these AA-8000 series alloys also retain their tensile strength after the standard current cycle test or the current-cycle submersion test (CCST), as described in ANSI C119.4:2004. Depending on the annealing grade, AA-8176 may elongate up to 30% with
956:
The formation of intermetallic compounds as a mechanism for high resistance junctions is more reasonable than postulating that aluminum oxide is the prime factor. Although there is some evidence for aluminum oxide at the surface of the arc-damage craters, the resistivity of aluminum oxide is so
623:
requires special installation procedures, including abrading and pre-twisting the wires. However, the manufacturer's instructions for the Ideal no. 65 Twister only recommends pre-twisting the wires, and does not state it is required. Also, the instructions do not mention physically abrading the
273:
A home with aluminum wiring installed prior to the mid-1970s (as the stock of pre-1972 aluminum wire was permitted to be used up) likely has wire made with the older AA-1350 alloy that was developed for power transmission. The AA-1350 aluminum alloy was more prone to problems related to branch
583:
The AlumiConn miniature lug connector can also be used for a permanent repair. The only special tool required for an electrician installing them is a special torque screwdriver that should be readily available to qualified electrical contractors. Proper torque on the connectors set screws is
445:
Aluminum wire used before the mid-1970s had a somewhat higher rate of creep, but a more significant issue was that the same high price of copper driving the use of aluminum wire led to the use of brass-coated steel rather than solid brass screws for terminations at devices such as outlets and
507:
through the oxide layer can be greatly impeded. However, since the oxide layer is only a few nanometers thick, the added resistance is not noticeable under most conditions. When aluminum wire is terminated properly, the mechanical connection breaks the thin, brittle layer of oxide to form an
389:(CPSC), and in some areas it may be difficult to obtain homeowners insurance for a house with older aluminum wiring. There are several possible reasons why these connections failed. The two main reasons were improper installations (poor workmanship) and the differences in the
170:(″AlCu-Kabel″) had to be used for wiring as copper was expensive to import. While all devices were designed for aluminum during that era, this ended with unification in 1990 when standard Western European equipment became available and the national public owned enterprises (
233:
as copper of the same cross-section, but aluminum's density is 30.5% that of copper. Accordingly, one pound of aluminum has the same current carrying capacity as two pounds of copper. Since copper costs about four times as much as aluminum by weight (roughly
520:
rates of older aluminum wire and steel termination screws connections can loosen over time, allowing the formation of some additional oxide on the wire. However, oxidation was found not to be a substantial factor in failures of aluminum wire terminations.
393:
between aluminum wire used in the 1960s to mid-1970s and the terminations, particularly when the termination was a steel screw on an electrical device. The reported hazards are associated with older solid aluminum branch circuit wiring (smaller than
406:
Many terminations of aluminum wire installed in the 1960s and 1970s that were properly installed continue to operate with no problems. However, problems can develop in the future, particularly if connections were not properly installed initially.
364:
having different resistances and significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion, as well as problems with properties of the solid wires. These connection failures generated heat under electrical load and caused overheated connections.
414:
the wires, not applying a corrosion inhibitor, not wrapping wires around terminal screws, wrapping wires around terminal screws the wrong way, and inadequate torque on the connection screws. There can also be problems with connections made with
528:
Another issue is the joining of aluminum wire to copper wire. In addition to the oxidation that occurs on the surface of aluminum wires which can cause a poor connection, aluminum and copper are dissimilar metals. As a result,
483:
similar rate, and the screws have even deeper undercuts. The CO/ALR rating is only available for standard light switches and receptacles; CU/AL is the standard connection marking for circuit breakers and larger equipment.
352:
For smaller branch circuits with solid wires (15 or 20 A circuits) typical connections of an electrical wire to an electrical device are usually made by wrapping the wire around a screw on the device, also called a
750:
702:
Electricity is transmitted from the utility generating stations to individual meters using almost exclusively aluminum wiring. In the U.S., utilities have used aluminum wire for over 100 years.
682:
857:
274:
circuit wiring in homes due to mechanical properties that made it more susceptible to failures resulting from the electrical devices being used at that time combined with poor workmanship.
293:
for modern construction is manufactured with AA-8000 series aluminum alloy (sometimes referred to as "new technology" aluminum wiring) as specified by the industry standards such as the
385:
The use of older solid aluminum wiring in residential construction has resulted in failures of connections at electrical devices, has been implicated in house fires according to the
151:. Utility companies have used aluminum wire for electrical transmission in power grids since around the late 1800s to the early 1900s. It has cost and weight advantages over
329:
AWG aluminum building wire according to the NEC. However, smaller solid aluminum branch circuit wiring is almost never used for residential construction in North
America.
377:
wire or a copper wire. Larger stranded aluminum wiring with proper terminations is generally considered safe, since long-term installations have proven its reliability.
471:
that specified standards for devices intended for use with aluminum wire. Some of these devices used larger undercut screw terminals to more securely hold the wire.
1018:
761:
242:/lb as of 2024), aluminum wires are one-eighth the cost of copper wire of the same conductivity. The lower weight of aluminum wires in particular makes these
1076:
508:
excellent electrical connection. Unless this connection is loosened, there is no way for oxygen to penetrate the connection point to form further oxide.
194:
for a considerable period of time, particularly by electrical utilities related to power transmission lines in use shortly after the beginning of modern
262:). This alloy, along with AA-8030 (patented by Olin in 1973) and AA-8176 (patented by Southwire in 1975 and 1980), performs mechanically like copper.
1041:
690:
576:, and even as a temporary repair recommends special installation procedures, and notes that there can still be hazards with attempting the repairs.
868:
552:(with special installation procedures). Pig-tailing generally saves time and money, and is possible as long as the wiring itself is not damaged.
357:, and then tightening the screw. At around the same time the use of steel screws became more common than brass screws for electrical devices.
46:
449:
This cycle results from the connection loosening slightly, with a reduced contact area at the connection leading to overheating, and allowing
305:
AWG) is fairly common in much of North
America for modern residential construction. Aluminum wire is used in residential applications for
316:
Larger electrical cable that has stranded aluminum wires with an outer sheath used for service entrance feeders from a meter to a panel
250:
by electrical utilities, as supporting towers or structures only need to support half the weight of wires to carry the same current.
93:
565:
386:
230:
1114:
714:
360:
Over time, many of these terminations with solid aluminum wire began to fail due to improper connection techniques and the
349:
wiring in the early 1960s, solid aluminum wire was installed the same way as copper wire with the same electrical devices.
253:
In the early 1960s when there was a housing construction boom in North
America and the price of copper spiked, aluminum
619:
According to the CPSC, even using (listed) twist-on connectors to attach copper pigtails to older aluminum wires as a
80:
155:
wires. Aluminum in power transmission and distribution applications is still the preferred wire material today.
599:) are available for joining aluminum to copper wire, which are pre-filled with an antioxidant compound made of
278:
1087:
58:
17:
419:
torque on the connection screw as it causes damage to the wire, particularly with the softer aluminum wire.
1052:
436:
day AA-8000 series aluminum wire. Older solid aluminum wire also had some problems with a property called
914:
541:
Several upgrades or repairs are available for homes with older pre-1970s aluminum branch circuit wiring:
515:
In an old apartment, the result of a qualified electrician's improperly-joined aluminum and copper wires.
247:
218:
195:
144:
136:
1149:
637:
167:
892:
839:
533:
can occur in the presence of an electrolyte, causing these connections to become unstable over time.
915:"Observations on the Mechanisms of High Resistance Junction Formation in Aluminum Wire Connections"
390:
294:
266:
less springback effect and possesses a higher yield strength (19.8 ksi or 137 MPa, for a
117:
62:
135:
provides a better conductivity-to-weight ratio than copper, and therefore is also used for wiring
54:
596:
569:
549:
973:
1133:
431:
Thermal expansion rates of wiring metals: Aluminum (highest), brass, copper and steel (lowest)
500:
411:
207:
738:
496:
354:
337:
243:
226:
191:
171:
128:
102:
727:
462:
8:
438:
140:
997:
427:
1154:
942:
530:
361:
346:
125:
341:
Solid aluminum branch circuit wire (top) and solid copper branch circuit wire (bottom)
947:
290:
254:
113:
664:
442:, which results in the wire permanently deforming or relaxing over time under load.
937:
929:
213:
203:
608:
368:
182:
198:
being constructed starting in the late 1880s. Aluminum wire requires a larger
1143:
450:
210:, but is still less expensive than copper wire for a particular application.
495:) oxidize freely when exposed to air. Aluminium oxide is not an electrical
951:
818:
306:
163:
545:
Completely rewiring the house with copper wires (usually cost prohibitive)
933:
98:
587:
466:
Older solid aluminum wire at older receptacle with steel terminal screws
751:"The Evolution of Aluminum Conductors Used for Building Wire and Cable"
604:
298:
199:
474:
281:
was a notable incident triggered by poorly-installed aluminum wiring.
105:
Kabelwerk
Oberspree producing aluminum wires with a SKET-built machine
267:
148:
504:
132:
655:
Telecommunications and networks, Khateeb M. Hussain, Donna Hussain
591:
Ideal no. 65 Al-Cu twist-on wire nut with distinctive purple color
511:
312:
372:
Larger stranded aluminum wire at termination lugs of a disconnect
345:
When utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum wire was first used in
556:
152:
307:
lower voltage service feeders from the utility to the building
259:
121:
45:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1077:"Ideal Twister Al/Cu Plus Wire Connector Instruction Sheet"
600:
492:
410:
Improper installation, or poor workmanship, includes: not
858:"Aluminum Building Wire Installation & Terminations"
922:
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards
715:"Aluminium Verkabelung - die typische DDR Verkabelung"
1019:"Ideal Noalox Antioxidant Material Safety Data Sheet"
797:
422:
523:
560:
AL to CU pigtail done with COPALUM crimp connectors
217:Modern 500 kV overhead power lines used in an
1115:"Reducing the Fire Hazard in Aluminum-Wired Homes"
865:Christel Hunter, IAEI News (January/February 2006)
844:Washington Post Article, Real Estate, July 3, 2004
677:
675:
673:
1141:
1122:Report by Jesse Aronstein, PE Updated 11/25/2011
912:
478:Special CO/ALR-rated wall outlet and wall switch
998:"CPSC Approval Letter for AlumiConn Connectors"
840:"What Owners Need to Know About Wiring Dangers"
284:
670:
913:Newbury, Dale; Greenwald, S. (19 June 1980).
683:"Anaheim Aluminum Wiring Facts and Fallacies"
43:The examples and perspective in this article
1109:
1107:
908:
906:
850:
826:CPSC Publication 516, June 2011 www.cpsc.gov
491:Most metals (with a few exceptions, such as
457:
1136:", Christel Hunter, EC&M Article, 2007.
813:
811:
809:
807:
1104:
941:
903:
739:Aluminum Prices and Aluminum Price Charts
401:
81:Learn how and when to remove this message
804:
586:
555:
510:
473:
461:
426:
367:
336:
311:
212:
181:
92:
893:"Aluminum Building Wire 40 Years Later"
566:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
536:
387:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
14:
1142:
792:
790:
301:stranded aluminum wire (larger than #8
147:, as well as for power wiring of some
728:Copper prices and copper price charts
219:electrical power distribution system
29:
787:
743:
186:New York City utility lines in 1890
24:
423:Coefficient of expansion and creep
190:Aluminum wire has been used as an
25:
1166:
1134:Installing Aluminum Building Wire
974:"Aluminum Wiring Pigtail Repairs"
524:Joining aluminum and copper wires
141:overhead power transmission lines
961:heating losses can become large.
784:Patent application filed in 1969
595:Special twist-on connectors (or
454:not significant in these cases.
34:
1069:
1034:
1011:
990:
966:
885:
832:
798:"2017 National Electrical Code"
325:AWG copper building wire or #12
1042:"Twister Al/Cu Wire Connector"
778:
732:
721:
707:
687:Accurateelectricalservices.com
658:
649:
332:
279:Beverly Hills Supper Club fire
229:are only approximately 61% as
166:(GDR, 1945-1990), aluminum or
145:local power distribution lines
13:
1:
643:
503:. Consequently, the flow of
689:. 2011-02-04. Archived from
486:
285:Modern building construction
177:
7:
1084:LA-2669-3, Ideal Industries
819:"Repairing Aluminum Wiring"
631:
499:, but rather an electrical
380:
57:, discuss the issue on the
10:
1171:
638:Copper-clad aluminium wire
297:(NEC). The use of larger
248:power distribution systems
196:power distribution systems
168:Copper-clad aluminium wire
458:Electrical device ratings
225:Aluminum alloys used for
27:Type of electrical wiring
391:coefficient of expansion
295:National Electrical Code
174:) went out of business.
118:residential construction
110:Aluminum building wiring
246:well suited for use in
1051:. 2014. Archived from
1049:Ideal Twister Brochure
760:. 2012. Archived from
592:
561:
516:
479:
467:
432:
402:Improper installations
373:
342:
317:
222:
187:
106:
667:. mechanicsupport.com
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559:
514:
477:
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371:
340:
315:
244:electrical conductors
227:electrical conductors
221:supplied by a utility
216:
185:
129:electrical conductors
96:
978:Mike Fuller Electric
934:10.6028/jres.085.024
537:Upgrades and repairs
192:electrical conductor
172:Volkseigener Betrieb
162:In communist former
63:create a new article
55:improve this article
550:twist-on connectors
593:
562:
531:galvanic corrosion
517:
480:
468:
433:
374:
343:
318:
223:
206:to carry the same
188:
107:
1150:Electrical wiring
897:Southwire Article
362:dissimilar metals
114:electrical wiring
91:
90:
83:
65:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
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1126:
1125:
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1111:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1086:. Archived from
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614:temporary repair
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609:silicon dioxide
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489:
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404:
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291:building wiring
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270:AA-8076 wire).
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928:(6): 429–440.
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49:of the subject
47:worldwide view
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1093:on 2017-05-10
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1058:on 2017-03-06
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693:on 2013-12-07
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