83:
613:
wires as recommended by the CPSC, although the manufacturer current literature states the pre-filled "compound cuts aluminum oxide". Some researchers have criticized the UL listing/tests for this wire connector, and there have been reported problems with tests (without pre-twisting) and installations. However, it is unknown if the reported installation problems were associated with unqualified persons attempting these repairs, or not using recommended special installation procedures (such as abrading and pre-twisting the wires as recommended by the CPSC for older aluminum wire, or at least pre-twisting the wires as recommended by Ideal for their connectors).
310:
with wire to wire connections made with twist-on connectors. As of 2017 most twist-on connectors for typical smaller branch circuit wire sizes, even those designed to connect copper to aluminum wiring, are not rated for aluminum-to-aluminum connections, with one exception being the
Marette #63 or #65 used in Canada but not approved by UL for use in the United States. Also, the size of the aluminum wire needs to be larger compared to copper wire used for the same circuit due to the increased resistance of the aluminum alloys. For example, a 15 A branch circuit supplying standard lighting fixtures can be installed with either #14
617:
wire, and are acceptable according to the
National Electrical Code. However, some manufacturers of CO/ALR devices recommend periodically checking/tightening the terminal screws on these devices which can be hazardous for unqualified individuals to attempt, and there is criticism of their use as a permanent repair as some CO/ALR devices have failed in tests when connected to "old technology" aluminum wire. Furthermore, just installing CO/ALR devices (switches and receptacles) doesn't address potential hazards associated with other connections such as those at ceiling fans, lights and equipment.
417:
569:
connections are sometimes too large to install in existing enclosures due to limited space (or "box fill"). Installing an enclosure extender for unfinished surfaces, replacing the enclosure with a larger one or installing an additional adjacent enclosure can be done to increase the available space. Also, COPALUM connectors are costly to install, require special tools that cannot simply be purchased and electricians certified to use them by the manufacturer, and it can sometimes be very difficult to find local electricians certified to install these connectors.
327:
203:
172:
358:
25:
577:
302:
501:
298:. This is installed with materials and methods as specified by the local electrical utility companies. Also, larger aluminum stranded building wire made with AA-8000 series alloy of aluminum is used for electrical services (e.g. service entrance conductors from the utility connection to the service breaker panel) and for larger branch circuits such as for sub-panels, ranges, clothes dryers and air-conditioning units.
148:
of the aluminum wire being used in mind, and there were some issues related to the properties of the wire itself, making the installations with aluminum wire much more susceptible to problems. Revised manufacturing standards for both the wire and the devices were developed to reduce the problems. Existing homes with this older aluminum wiring used in branch circuits present a potential fire hazard.
546:
464:
601:
color, have been UL Listed for aluminum to copper branch circuit wire connections since 1995, and according to the manufacturer's current literature are "perfect for pig-tailing a copper conductor onto aluminum branch circuit wiring in retrofit applications". The CPSC still considers the use of twist-on connectors, including the Ideal no. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector", to be a
452:
557:(CPSC) currently recommends only two alternatives for a "permanent repair" using the pig-tailing method. The more extensively tested method uses special crimp-on connectors called COPALUM connectors. As of April 2011, the CPSC has also recognized miniature lug-type connectors called AlumiConn connectors. The CPSC considers the use of pigtails with
537:"Pig-tailing" which involves splicing a short length of copper wire (pigtail) to the original aluminum wire, and then attaching the copper wire to the existing electrical device. The splice of the copper pigtail to the existing aluminum wire can be accomplished with special crimp connectors, special miniature lug-type connectors, or approved
435:
switches. Aluminum and steel expand and contract at significantly different rates under thermal load, so a connection can become loose, particularly for older terminations initially installed with inadequate torque of the screws combined with creep of the aluminum over time. Loose connections get progressively worse over time.
946:
great that extensive formation of aluminum oxide at the current carrying interface would reduce the current flow to a negligible level. lntermetallic compounds, on the other hand, have sufficient conductivity to allow the current to continue to flow, while providing a significant increase in resistance so that the
247:
resulting in a re-evaluation of the use of that alloy for building wire and an identification of the need for newer alloys to produce aluminum building wire. The first 8000 series electric conductor alloy, still widely used in some applications, was developed and patented in 1972 by
Aluminum Company of America (
147:
In North
American residential construction, aluminum wire was used for wiring entire houses for a short time from the 1960s to the mid-1970s during a period of high copper prices. Electrical devices (outlets, switches, lighting, fans, etc.) at the time were not designed with the particular properties
600:
added to the compound to abrade the wires. As of 2014 there was only one twist-on connector rated or "UL Listed" for connecting aluminum and copper branch circuit wires in the U.S., which is the Ideal no. 65 "Twister Al/Cu wire connector". These special twist-on connectors have a distinctive purple
573:
critical to having an acceptable repair. However, use of the
Alumiconn connectors is a relatively newer repair option for older aluminum wiring compared to other methods, and use of these connectors can have some of the same or similar problems with limited enclosure space as the COPALUM connectors.
508:
If inadequate torque is applied to the electrical device termination screw or if the devices are not CO/ALR rated (or at least CU/AL-rated for breakers and larger equipment) this can result in an inadequate connection of the aluminum wire. Also, due to the significant difference in thermal expansion
459:
Many electrical devices used in the 1960s had smaller plain steel terminal screws, which made the attachment of the aluminum wires being used at that time to these devices much more vulnerable to problems. In the late 1960s, a device specification known as CU/AL (meaning copper-aluminum) was created
442:
aluminum–iron and aluminum–copper compounds to be formed between the wire, the screw, and the device conductors under the wire. This resulted in a higher resistance junction, leading to additional overheating. Although many believe that oxidation was the issue, studies have shown that oxidation was
424:
Most of the problems related to aluminum wire are typically associated with older (pre-1972) AA-1350 alloy solid aluminum wire, sometimes referred to as "old technology" aluminum wiring, as the properties of that wire result in significantly more expansion and contraction than copper wire or modern
246:
was manufactured using utility grade AA-1350 aluminum alloy in sizes small enough to be used for lower load branch circuits in homes. In the late 1960s problems and failures related to branch circuit connections for building wire made with the utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum began to surface,
568:
COPALUM connectors use a special crimping system that creates a cold weld between the copper and aluminum wire, and is considered a permanent, maintenance-free repair. However, there may not be sufficient length of wires in enclosures to permit a special crimping tool to be used, and the resulting
309:
In the United States, solid aluminum wires made with AA-8000 series aluminum alloy are allowed for 15 A or 20 A branch circuit wiring according to the
National Electrical Code. The terminations need to be rated for aluminum wire, which can be problematic. This is particularly a problem
616:
The use of newer CO/ALR rated devices (switches and receptacles) can be used to replace older devices that did not have the proper rating in homes with aluminum branch circuit wiring to reduce the hazards. These devices are reportedly tested and listed for both AA-1350 and AA-8000 series aluminum
471:
Unfortunately, CU/AL switches and receptacles failed to work well enough with aluminum wire, and a new specification called CO/ALR (meaning copper-aluminum, revised) was created. These devices employ brass screw terminals that are designed to act as a similar metal to aluminum and to expand at a
365:
The larger size stranded aluminum wires don't have the same historical problems as solid aluminum wires, and the common terminations for larger size wires are dual-rated terminations called lugs. These lugs are typically made with a coated aluminum alloy, which can accommodate either an aluminum
254:
Unlike the older AA-1350 alloy previously used, these AA-8000 series alloys also retain their tensile strength after the standard current cycle test or the current-cycle submersion test (CCST), as described in ANSI C119.4:2004. Depending on the annealing grade, AA-8176 may elongate up to 30% with
945:
The formation of intermetallic compounds as a mechanism for high resistance junctions is more reasonable than postulating that aluminum oxide is the prime factor. Although there is some evidence for aluminum oxide at the surface of the arc-damage craters, the resistivity of aluminum oxide is so
612:
requires special installation procedures, including abrading and pre-twisting the wires. However, the manufacturer's instructions for the Ideal no. 65 Twister only recommends pre-twisting the wires, and does not state it is required. Also, the instructions do not mention physically abrading the
262:
A home with aluminum wiring installed prior to the mid-1970s (as the stock of pre-1972 aluminum wire was permitted to be used up) likely has wire made with the older AA-1350 alloy that was developed for power transmission. The AA-1350 aluminum alloy was more prone to problems related to branch
572:
The AlumiConn miniature lug connector can also be used for a permanent repair. The only special tool required for an electrician installing them is a special torque screwdriver that should be readily available to qualified electrical contractors. Proper torque on the connectors set screws is
434:
Aluminum wire used before the mid-1970s had a somewhat higher rate of creep, but a more significant issue was that the same high price of copper driving the use of aluminum wire led to the use of brass-coated steel rather than solid brass screws for terminations at devices such as outlets and
496:
through the oxide layer can be greatly impeded. However, since the oxide layer is only a few nanometers thick, the added resistance is not noticeable under most conditions. When aluminum wire is terminated properly, the mechanical connection breaks the thin, brittle layer of oxide to form an
378:(CPSC), and in some areas it may be difficult to obtain homeowners insurance for a house with older aluminum wiring. There are several possible reasons why these connections failed. The two main reasons were improper installations (poor workmanship) and the differences in the
159:(″AlCu-Kabel″) had to be used for wiring as copper was expensive to import. While all devices were designed for aluminum during that era, this ended with unification in 1990 when standard Western European equipment became available and the national public owned enterprises (
222:
as copper of the same cross-section, but aluminum's density is 30.5% that of copper. Accordingly, one pound of aluminum has the same current carrying capacity as two pounds of copper. Since copper costs about four times as much as aluminum by weight (roughly
509:
rates of older aluminum wire and steel termination screws connections can loosen over time, allowing the formation of some additional oxide on the wire. However, oxidation was found not to be a substantial factor in failures of aluminum wire terminations.
382:
between aluminum wire used in the 1960s to mid-1970s and the terminations, particularly when the termination was a steel screw on an electrical device. The reported hazards are associated with older solid aluminum branch circuit wiring (smaller than
395:
Many terminations of aluminum wire installed in the 1960s and 1970s that were properly installed continue to operate with no problems. However, problems can develop in the future, particularly if connections were not properly installed initially.
353:
having different resistances and significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion, as well as problems with properties of the solid wires. These connection failures generated heat under electrical load and caused overheated connections.
403:
the wires, not applying a corrosion inhibitor, not wrapping wires around terminal screws, wrapping wires around terminal screws the wrong way, and inadequate torque on the connection screws. There can also be problems with connections made with
517:
Another issue is the joining of aluminum wire to copper wire. In addition to the oxidation that occurs on the surface of aluminum wires which can cause a poor connection, aluminum and copper are dissimilar metals. As a result,
472:
similar rate, and the screws have even deeper undercuts. The CO/ALR rating is only available for standard light switches and receptacles; CU/AL is the standard connection marking for circuit breakers and larger equipment.
341:
For smaller branch circuits with solid wires (15 or 20 A circuits) typical connections of an electrical wire to an electrical device are usually made by wrapping the wire around a screw on the device, also called a
739:
691:
Electricity is transmitted from the utility generating stations to individual meters using almost exclusively aluminum wiring. In the U.S., utilities have used aluminum wire for over 100 years.
671:
846:
263:
circuit wiring in homes due to mechanical properties that made it more susceptible to failures resulting from the electrical devices being used at that time combined with poor workmanship.
282:
for modern construction is manufactured with AA-8000 series aluminum alloy (sometimes referred to as "new technology" aluminum wiring) as specified by the industry standards such as the
374:
The use of older solid aluminum wiring in residential construction has resulted in failures of connections at electrical devices, has been implicated in house fires according to the
140:. Utility companies have used aluminum wire for electrical transmission in power grids since around the late 1800s to the early 1900s. It has cost and weight advantages over
318:
AWG aluminum building wire according to the NEC. However, smaller solid aluminum branch circuit wiring is almost never used for residential construction in North
America.
366:
wire or a copper wire. Larger stranded aluminum wiring with proper terminations is generally considered safe, since long-term installations have proven its reliability.
460:
that specified standards for devices intended for use with aluminum wire. Some of these devices used larger undercut screw terminals to more securely hold the wire.
1007:
750:
231:/lb as of 2024), aluminum wires are one-eighth the cost of copper wire of the same conductivity. The lower weight of aluminum wires in particular makes these
1065:
497:
excellent electrical connection. Unless this connection is loosened, there is no way for oxygen to penetrate the connection point to form further oxide.
183:
for a considerable period of time, particularly by electrical utilities related to power transmission lines in use shortly after the beginning of modern
251:). This alloy, along with AA-8030 (patented by Olin in 1973) and AA-8176 (patented by Southwire in 1975 and 1980), performs mechanically like copper.
1030:
679:
565:, and even as a temporary repair recommends special installation procedures, and notes that there can still be hazards with attempting the repairs.
857:
541:(with special installation procedures). Pig-tailing generally saves time and money, and is possible as long as the wiring itself is not damaged.
346:, and then tightening the screw. At around the same time the use of steel screws became more common than brass screws for electrical devices.
35:
438:
This cycle results from the connection loosening slightly, with a reduced contact area at the connection leading to overheating, and allowing
294:
AWG) is fairly common in much of North
America for modern residential construction. Aluminum wire is used in residential applications for
305:
Larger electrical cable that has stranded aluminum wires with an outer sheath used for service entrance feeders from a meter to a panel
239:
by electrical utilities, as supporting towers or structures only need to support half the weight of wires to carry the same current.
82:
554:
375:
219:
1103:
703:
349:
Over time, many of these terminations with solid aluminum wire began to fail due to improper connection techniques and the
338:
wiring in the early 1960s, solid aluminum wire was installed the same way as copper wire with the same electrical devices.
242:
In the early 1960s when there was a housing construction boom in North
America and the price of copper spiked, aluminum
608:
According to the CPSC, even using (listed) twist-on connectors to attach copper pigtails to older aluminum wires as a
69:
144:
wires. Aluminum in power transmission and distribution applications is still the preferred wire material today.
588:) are available for joining aluminum to copper wire, which are pre-filled with an antioxidant compound made of
267:
1076:
47:
408:
torque on the connection screw as it causes damage to the wire, particularly with the softer aluminum wire.
1041:
425:
day AA-8000 series aluminum wire. Older solid aluminum wire also had some problems with a property called
903:
530:
Several upgrades or repairs are available for homes with older pre-1970s aluminum branch circuit wiring:
504:
In an old apartment, the result of a qualified electrician's improperly-joined aluminum and copper wires.
236:
207:
184:
133:
125:
1138:
626:
156:
881:
828:
522:
can occur in the presence of an electrolyte, causing these connections to become unstable over time.
904:"Observations on the Mechanisms of High Resistance Junction Formation in Aluminum Wire Connections"
379:
283:
255:
less springback effect and possesses a higher yield strength (19.8 ksi or 137 MPa, for a
106:
51:
124:
provides a better conductivity-to-weight ratio than copper, and therefore is also used for wiring
43:
585:
558:
538:
962:
1122:
420:
Thermal expansion rates of wiring metals: Aluminum (highest), brass, copper and steel (lowest)
489:
400:
196:
727:
485:
343:
326:
232:
215:
180:
160:
117:
91:
716:
451:
8:
427:
129:
986:
416:
1143:
931:
519:
350:
335:
114:
330:
Solid aluminum branch circuit wire (top) and solid copper branch circuit wire (bottom)
936:
279:
243:
102:
653:
431:, which results in the wire permanently deforming or relaxing over time under load.
926:
918:
202:
192:
597:
357:
171:
187:
being constructed starting in the late 1880s. Aluminum wire requires a larger
1132:
439:
199:, but is still less expensive than copper wire for a particular application.
484:) oxidize freely when exposed to air. Aluminium oxide is not an electrical
940:
807:
295:
152:
534:
Completely rewiring the house with copper wires (usually cost prohibitive)
922:
87:
576:
455:
Older solid aluminum wire at older receptacle with steel terminal screws
740:"The Evolution of Aluminum Conductors Used for Building Wire and Cable"
593:
287:
188:
463:
270:
was a notable incident triggered by poorly-installed aluminum wiring.
94:
Kabelwerk
Oberspree producing aluminum wires with a SKET-built machine
256:
137:
493:
121:
644:
Telecommunications and networks, Khateeb M. Hussain, Donna Hussain
580:
Ideal no. 65 Al-Cu twist-on wire nut with distinctive purple color
500:
301:
361:
Larger stranded aluminum wire at termination lugs of a disconnect
334:
When utility grade AA-1350 alloy aluminum wire was first used in
545:
141:
296:
lower voltage service feeders from the utility to the building
248:
110:
34:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1066:"Ideal Twister Al/Cu Plus Wire Connector Instruction Sheet"
589:
481:
399:
Improper installation, or poor workmanship, includes: not
847:"Aluminum Building Wire Installation & Terminations"
911:
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards
704:"Aluminium Verkabelung - die typische DDR Verkabelung"
1008:"Ideal Noalox Antioxidant Material Safety Data Sheet"
786:
411:
512:
549:
AL to CU pigtail done with COPALUM crimp connectors
206:Modern 500 kV overhead power lines used in an
1104:"Reducing the Fire Hazard in Aluminum-Wired Homes"
854:Christel Hunter, IAEI News (January/February 2006)
833:Washington Post Article, Real Estate, July 3, 2004
666:
664:
662:
1130:
1111:Report by Jesse Aronstein, PE Updated 11/25/2011
901:
467:Special CO/ALR-rated wall outlet and wall switch
987:"CPSC Approval Letter for AlumiConn Connectors"
829:"What Owners Need to Know About Wiring Dangers"
273:
659:
902:Newbury, Dale; Greenwald, S. (19 June 1980).
672:"Anaheim Aluminum Wiring Facts and Fallacies"
32:The examples and perspective in this article
1098:
1096:
897:
895:
839:
815:CPSC Publication 516, June 2011 www.cpsc.gov
480:Most metals (with a few exceptions, such as
446:
1125:", Christel Hunter, EC&M Article, 2007.
802:
800:
798:
796:
1093:
930:
892:
728:Aluminum Prices and Aluminum Price Charts
390:
70:Learn how and when to remove this message
793:
575:
544:
499:
462:
450:
415:
356:
325:
300:
201:
170:
81:
882:"Aluminum Building Wire 40 Years Later"
555:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
525:
376:U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
1131:
781:
779:
290:stranded aluminum wire (larger than #8
136:, as well as for power wiring of some
717:Copper prices and copper price charts
208:electrical power distribution system
18:
776:
732:
175:New York City utility lines in 1890
13:
412:Coefficient of expansion and creep
179:Aluminum wire has been used as an
14:
1155:
1123:Installing Aluminum Building Wire
963:"Aluminum Wiring Pigtail Repairs"
513:Joining aluminum and copper wires
130:overhead power transmission lines
950:heating losses can become large.
773:Patent application filed in 1969
584:Special twist-on connectors (or
443:not significant in these cases.
23:
1058:
1023:
1000:
979:
955:
874:
821:
787:"2017 National Electrical Code"
314:AWG copper building wire or #12
1031:"Twister Al/Cu Wire Connector"
767:
721:
710:
696:
676:Accurateelectricalservices.com
647:
638:
321:
268:Beverly Hills Supper Club fire
218:are only approximately 61% as
155:(GDR, 1945-1990), aluminum or
134:local power distribution lines
1:
632:
492:. Consequently, the flow of
678:. 2011-02-04. Archived from
475:
274:Modern building construction
166:
7:
1073:LA-2669-3, Ideal Industries
808:"Repairing Aluminum Wiring"
620:
488:, but rather an electrical
369:
46:, discuss the issue on the
10:
1160:
627:Copper-clad aluminium wire
286:(NEC). The use of larger
237:power distribution systems
185:power distribution systems
157:Copper-clad aluminium wire
447:Electrical device ratings
214:Aluminum alloys used for
16:Type of electrical wiring
380:coefficient of expansion
284:National Electrical Code
163:) went out of business.
107:residential construction
99:Aluminum building wiring
235:well suited for use in
1040:. 2014. Archived from
1038:Ideal Twister Brochure
749:. 2012. Archived from
581:
550:
505:
468:
456:
421:
391:Improper installations
362:
331:
306:
211:
176:
95:
656:. mechanicsupport.com
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548:
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466:
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329:
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233:electrical conductors
216:electrical conductors
210:supplied by a utility
205:
174:
118:electrical conductors
85:
967:Mike Fuller Electric
923:10.6028/jres.085.024
526:Upgrades and repairs
181:electrical conductor
161:Volkseigener Betrieb
151:In communist former
52:create a new article
44:improve this article
539:twist-on connectors
582:
551:
520:galvanic corrosion
506:
469:
457:
422:
363:
332:
307:
212:
195:to carry the same
177:
96:
1139:Electrical wiring
886:Southwire Article
351:dissimilar metals
103:electrical wiring
80:
79:
72:
54:, as appropriate.
1151:
1115:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1081:
1075:. Archived from
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1035:
1027:
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869:
868:
862:
856:. Archived from
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610:temporary repair
603:temporary repair
563:temporary repair
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75:
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27:
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669:
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648:
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623:
598:silicon dioxide
528:
515:
478:
449:
414:
393:
384:
372:
324:
315:
311:
291:
280:building wiring
276:
259:AA-8076 wire).
228:
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76:
65:
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41:
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24:
17:
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917:(6): 429–440.
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336:branch circuit
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78:
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38:of the subject
36:worldwide view
31:
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1082:on 2017-05-10
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863:on 2021-01-27
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682:on 2013-12-07
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654:Aircraft Wire
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