236:
equipped with a four-wheel design, utilised an internal combustion engine (ICE) fuelled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases. The hydrogen fuel was stored in a balloon, and ignition was achieved through an electrical starter known as a Volta starter. The combustion process propelled the piston within the cylinder, which, upon descending, activated a wheel through a ratchet mechanism. This invention could be viewed as an early embodiment of a system comprising hydrogen storage, conduits, valves, and a conversion device.
249:
217:(NaOH) at 25-40 wt% is used. These electrodes are separated by a diaphragm, separating the product gases and transporting the hydroxide ions (OH) from one electrode to the other. A recent comparison showed that state-of-the-art nickel based water electrolysers with alkaline electrolytes lead to competitive or even better efficiencies than acidic
288:. In cell tests the best performing electrodes thus far reported consisted of plasma vacuum sprayed Ni alloys on Ni meshes and hot dip galvanized Ni meshes. The latter approach might be interesting for large scale industrial manufacturing as it is cheap and easily scalable, but unfortunately, all the strategies show some degradation.
1053:
256:
The electrodes are typically separated by a thin porous foil, commonly referred to as diaphragm or separator. The diaphragm is non-conductive to electrons, thus avoiding electrical shorts between the electrodes while allowing small distances between the electrodes. The ionic conductivity is supplied
1597:
235:
Hydrogen-based technologies have evolved significantly since the initial discovery of hydrogen and its early application as a buoyant gas approximately 250 years ago. In 1804, the Swiss inventor
Francois Isaac de Rivaz secured a patent for the inaugural hydrogen-powered vehicle. This prototype,
239:
Approximately four decades after the military scientist Ritter developed the first electrolyser, the chemists
Schoenbein and Sir Grove independently identified and showcased the fuel cell concept. This technology operates in reverse to electrolysis around the year 1839. This discovery marked a
276:
Typically, Nickel based metals are used as the electrodes for alkaline water electrolysis. Considering pure metals, Ni is the least active non-noble metal. The high price of good noble metal electrocatalysts such as platinum group metals and their dissolution during the oxygen evolution is a
1662:
One disadvantage of alkaline water electrolysers is the low-performance profiles caused by the commonly-used thick diaphragms that increase ohmic resistance, the lower intrinsic conductivity of OH− compared to H+, and the higher gas crossover observed for highly porous diaphragms.
506:
1415:
301:
In alkaline media oxygen evolution reactions, multiple adsorbent species (O, OH, OOH, and OO) and multiple steps are involved. Steps 4 and 5 often occur in a single step, but there is evidence that suggests steps 4 and 5 occur separately at pH 11 and higher.
1196:
755:
625:
1921:
Chatenet, Marian; Pollet, Bruno G.; Dekel, Dario R.; Dionigi, Fabio; Deseure, Jonathan; Millet, Pierre; Braatz, Richard D.; Bazant, Martin Z.; Eikerling, Michael; Staffell, Iain; Balcombe, Paul; Shao-Horn, Yang; Schäfer, Helmut (2022).
908:
273:. The diaphragm further avoids the mixing of the produced hydrogen and oxygen at the cathode and anode, respectively. The thickness of asbestos diaphragms ranges from 2 to 5 mm, while Zirfon diaphragms range from 0.2 to 0.5 mm.
865:
1459:
370:
2363:
Cherevko, S; et al. (2016). "Oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions on Ru, RuO2, Ir, and IrO2 thin film electrodes in acidic and alkaline electrolytes: A comparative study on activity and stability".
1280:
411:
1323:
1098:
The hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline conditions starts with water adsorption and dissociation in the Volmer step and either hydrogen desorption in the Tafel step or
Heyrovsky step.
277:
drawback. Ni is considered as more stable during the oxygen evolution, but stainless steel has shown good stability and better catalytic activity than Ni at high temperatures during the
1107:
666:
2496:
Esfandiari, N; et al. (2024). "Metal-based cathodes for hydrogen production by alkaline water electrolysis: Review of materials, degradation mechanism, and durability tests".
1627:
1445:
1309:
1225:
1083:
894:
784:
654:
535:
399:
547:
1048:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathrm {O} _{2}+2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\quad (E^{0}=+0.40\,\mathrm {V\;vs.\;SHE} )}
261:
diaphragms have been used for a long time due to their effective gas separation, low cost, and high chemical stability; however, their use is restricted by the
2137:
2434:
Schiller, G; Henne R; Mohr P; Peinecke V (1998). "High
Performance Electrodes for an Advanced Intermittently Operated 10-kW Alkaline Water Electrolyzer".
1592:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}+2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\quad (E^{0}=-0.83\,\mathrm {V\;vs.\;SHE} )}
796:
310:
284:
High surface area Ni catalysts can be achieved by dealloying of Nickel-Zinc or Nickel-Aluminium alloys in alkaline solution, commonly referred to as
2461:
Schalenbach, M; et al. (2018). "An alkaline water electrolyzer with nickel electrodes enables efficient high current density operation".
224:
The technology has a long history in the chemical industry. The first large-scale demand for hydrogen emerged in late 19th century for
218:
1238:
2082:
Zeng, Kai; Zhang, Dongke (June 2010). "Recent progress in alkaline water electrolysis for hydrogen production and applications".
1756:
David, Martín; Ocampo-Martínez, Carlos; Sánchez-Peña, Ricardo (June 2019). "Advances in alkaline water electrolyzers: A review".
240:
significant milestone in the field of hydrogen technology, demonstrating the potential for hydrogen as a source of clean energy.
2391:
Schiller, G; Henne R; Borock V (1995). "Vacuum Plasma
Spraying of High-Performance Electrodes for Alkaline Water Electrolysis".
2532:
2121:
2061:
1640:
501:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OH} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {O} ^{*}+\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
1410:{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {H} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}}
252:
Scheme of alkaline water electrolyzers. The catalysts are added to the anode and cathode to reduce the overpotential.
2141:
2114:
Electrochemical Power
Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications: Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis
2205:
Haug, P; Koj M; Turek T (2017). "Influence of process conditions on gas purity in alkaline water electrolysis".
2165:"Hydrogen Diffusivity and Electrolyte Permeability of the Zirfon PERL Separator for Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1191:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow 2\mathrm {H} ^{*}+2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}}
750:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OOH} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OO} ^{-*}+\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} }
2550:"The importance of nickel oxyhydroxide deprotonation on its activity towards electrochemical water oxidation"
1924:"Water electrolysis: from textbook knowledge to the latest scientific strategies and industrial developments"
278:
2695:
1647:
Cheaper catalysts with respect to the platinum metal group based catalysts used for PEM water electrolysis.
2675:
2328:
Schalenbach, M; et al. (2018). "The electrochemical dissolution of noble metals in alkaline media".
1680:
Divisek, J.; Schmitz, H. (1 January 1982). "A bipolar cell for advanced alkaline water electrolysis".
2690:
2680:
1604:
1422:
1286:
1202:
1060:
871:
761:
631:
512:
376:
1828:
Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
620:{\displaystyle \mathrm {O} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OOH} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
1650:
Higher durability due to an exchangeable electrolyte and lower dissolution of anodic catalyst.
2685:
2233:
2615:
2400:
1971:
1875:
1720:
262:
8:
210:
2619:
2404:
2234:"Recent Advances in Non-Precious Metal-Based Electrodes for Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1879:
1724:
2646:
2603:
2576:
2549:
2478:
2416:
2345:
2305:
2280:
2261:
2187:
2053:
2019:
1998:"Acidic or Alkaline? Towards a New Perspective on the Efficiency of Water Electrolysis"
1948:
1923:
1898:
1863:
1783:
1738:
2604:"Comparative Analysis of Energy and Exergy Performance of Hydrogen Production Methods"
2447:
2651:
2633:
2581:
2528:
2482:
2420:
2349:
2310:
2265:
2253:
2164:
2117:
2057:
2041:
1953:
1903:
1787:
1742:
1693:
2191:
2023:
1997:
2641:
2623:
2571:
2561:
2505:
2474:
2470:
2443:
2408:
2373:
2337:
2300:
2292:
2245:
2218:
2214:
2179:
2091:
2049:
2009:
1943:
1935:
1893:
1883:
1841:
1837:
1773:
1765:
1728:
1689:
214:
2509:
860:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OO} ^{-*}\rightarrow \mathrm {O} _{2(g)}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
257:
by the aqueous alkaline solution, which penetrates in the pores of the diaphragm.
225:
2377:
229:
2095:
1733:
1708:
365:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OH} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
2341:
1769:
1709:"An overview of water electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production"
248:
2669:
2637:
2257:
2655:
2585:
2314:
2249:
1957:
1907:
285:
202:
2183:
2014:
1996:
Schalenbach, M; Tjarks G; Carmo M; Lueke W; Mueller M; Stolten D (2016).
270:
2296:
1653:
Higher gas purity due to lower gas diffusivity in alkaline electrolytes.
2566:
2548:
Diaz-Morales, Oscar; Ferrus-Suspedra, David; Koper, Marc T. M. (2016).
2412:
1939:
1888:
1778:
206:
2628:
1090:
Where the * indicate species adsorbed to the surface of the catalyst.
265:. The state-of-the-art diaphragm is Zirfon, a composite material of
209:
operating in a liquid alkaline electrolyte. Commonly, a solution of
43:
NiO/Asbestos/polysulfone matrix and ZrO2 (Zirfon)/polyphenil sulfide
1864:"Non-Precious Electrodes for Practical Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
266:
258:
2278:
1995:
2547:
1755:
1634:
2433:
2602:
Martínez-Rodríguez, Angel; Abánades, Alberto (November 2020).
1827:
1643:, the advantages of alkaline water electrolysis are mainly:
1275:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} ^{*}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}}
2281:"Volcano plots in hydrogen electrocatalysis–uses and abuses"
2162:
2601:
1920:
2390:
2321:
2156:
1607:
1462:
1425:
1326:
1289:
1241:
1205:
1110:
1063:
911:
874:
799:
764:
669:
634:
550:
515:
414:
379:
313:
2279:
Quaino, P; Juarez F; Santos E; Schmickler W (2014).
1621:
1591:
1439:
1409:
1303:
1274:
1219:
1190:
1077:
1047:
888:
859:
778:
749:
648:
619:
529:
500:
393:
364:
221:with platinum group metal based electrocatalysts.
2489:
2454:
2667:
2232:Zhou, Daojin; Li, Pengsong; et al. (2020).
2204:
2525:Electrochemical methods for hydrogen production
2107:
2105:
1707:Shiva Kumar, S.; Lim, Hankwon (November 2022).
219:polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis
1989:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1706:
1679:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1635:Advantages compared to PEM water electrolysis
232:in the 1930s, the technique was competitive.
2427:
2384:
2356:
2102:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
2460:
2327:
2163:Schalenbach, M; Lueke W; Stolten D (2016).
1848:
2495:
2272:
1575:
1565:
1031:
1021:
243:
2645:
2627:
2575:
2565:
2527:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
2516:
2304:
2084:Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
2081:
2013:
1947:
1914:
1897:
1887:
1794:
1777:
1732:
1560:
1016:
2463:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2436:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2362:
2207:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2198:
2138:"AGFA Zirfon Perl Product Specification"
2111:
2075:
1977:. Energy Carriers and Conversion Systems
1682:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
247:
2046:Hydrogen Safety for Energy Applications
2668:
2231:
2172:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2039:
2002:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2597:
2595:
2522:
1861:
1641:Proton exchange membrane electrolysis
2035:
2033:
205:that is characterized by having two
2393:Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
2285:Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
1093:
291:
13:
2592:
2054:10.1016/b978-0-12-820492-4.00005-1
1582:
1579:
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1569:
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1527:
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1479:
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1394:
1379:
1364:
1349:
1340:
1329:
1262:
1247:
1178:
1175:
1157:
1139:
1127:
1116:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1018:
983:
965:
946:
935:
920:
917:
847:
823:
805:
802:
743:
732:
714:
711:
696:
693:
678:
675:
672:
607:
592:
589:
586:
571:
568:
553:
488:
479:
468:
453:
438:
435:
420:
417:
352:
337:
334:
319:
316:
149:Specific energy consumption system
14:
2707:
2030:
1862:Colli, A.N.; et al. (2019).
296:
141:Specific energy consumption stack
88:State-of-the-art Operating Ranges
64:Catalyst material on the cathode
48:Bipolar/separator plate material
2541:
2225:
2130:
1657:
1622:{\displaystyle \left(10\right)}
1537:
993:
279:Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER)
165:System hydrogen production rate
2475:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.04.219
2219:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.12.111
1964:
1842:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1749:
1700:
1673:
1586:
1538:
1501:
1440:{\displaystyle \left(9\right)}
1374:
1304:{\displaystyle \left(8\right)}
1257:
1220:{\displaystyle \left(7\right)}
1149:
1078:{\displaystyle \left(6\right)}
1042:
994:
930:
889:{\displaystyle \left(5\right)}
837:
831:
818:
779:{\displaystyle \left(4\right)}
706:
649:{\displaystyle \left(3\right)}
581:
530:{\displaystyle \left(2\right)}
448:
394:{\displaystyle \left(1\right)}
329:
56:Catalyst material on the anode
1:
2510:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101254
2498:Progress in Materials Science
2448:10.1016/S0360-3199(97)00122-5
2048:, Elsevier, pp. 25–115,
1972:"Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1666:
2378:10.1016/j.cattod.2015.08.014
1694:10.1016/0360-3199(82)90018-0
7:
228:, and before the advent of
199:Alkaline water electrolysis
181:Acceptable degradation rate
40:Style of membrane/diaphragm
35:Alkaline Water Electrolysis
22:Alkaline water electrolysis
10:
2712:
2096:10.1016/j.pecs.2009.11.002
1830:Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1734:10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.127
1456:Overall cathode reaction:
2342:10.1007/s12678-017-0438-y
1770:10.1016/j.est.2019.03.001
1758:Journal of Energy Storage
226:lighter-than-air aircraft
188:
180:
172:
164:
156:
148:
140:
132:
124:
116:
108:
100:
92:
87:
79:
71:
63:
55:
47:
39:
31:
26:
21:
1928:Chemical Society Reviews
905:Overall anode reaction:
2042:"Hydrogen technologies"
2040:Jordan, Thomas (2022),
244:Structure and materials
157:Cell voltage efficiency
2250:10.1002/cnma.202000010
2112:Smolinka, Tom (2021).
1623:
1593:
1441:
1411:
1305:
1276:
1221:
1192:
1079:
1049:
890:
861:
780:
751:
650:
621:
531:
502:
395:
366:
253:
2523:Scott, Keith (2020).
1624:
1594:
1442:
1412:
1306:
1277:
1222:
1193:
1080:
1050:
891:
862:
781:
752:
651:
622:
532:
503:
396:
367:
251:
32:Type of Electrolysis:
2184:10.1149/2.1251613jes
2015:10.1149/2.0271611jes
1605:
1460:
1423:
1324:
1287:
1239:
1203:
1108:
1061:
909:
872:
797:
762:
667:
632:
548:
513:
412:
377:
311:
263:Rotterdam Convention
83:Stainless steel mesh
80:Cathode PTL material
16:Type of electrolyzer
2696:Hydrogen production
2620:2020Entrp..22.1286M
2469:(27): 11932–11938.
2405:1995JTST....4..185S
2297:10.3762/bjnano.5.96
2178:(14): F1480–F1488.
1880:2019Mate...12.1336C
1725:2022EnRep...813793S
211:potassium hydroxide
2676:Chemical processes
2567:10.1039/C5SC04486C
2413:10.1007/BF02646111
1940:10.1039/d0cs01079k
1889:10.3390/ma12081336
1619:
1589:
1437:
1407:
1301:
1272:
1217:
1188:
1075:
1045:
886:
857:
776:
747:
646:
617:
527:
498:
391:
362:
254:
72:Anode PTL material
2629:10.3390/e22111286
2534:978-1-78801-378-9
2213:(15): 9406–9418.
2123:978-0-12-819424-9
2063:978-0-12-820492-4
1934:(11): 4583–4762.
1639:In comparison to
1632:
1631:
1450:
1449:
1314:
1313:
1230:
1229:
1088:
1087:
961:
899:
898:
789:
788:
659:
658:
540:
539:
404:
403:
196:
195:
27:Typical Materials
2703:
2691:Industrial gases
2681:Electrochemistry
2660:
2659:
2649:
2631:
2599:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2569:
2560:(4): 2639–2645.
2554:Chemical Science
2545:
2539:
2538:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2330:Electrocatalysis
2325:
2319:
2318:
2308:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2169:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2140:. Archived from
2134:
2128:
2127:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1951:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1901:
1891:
1859:
1846:
1845:
1825:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1736:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1677:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1550:
1549:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1482:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1416:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1320:Heyrovsky step:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1101:
1100:
1094:Cathode reaction
1084:
1082:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1006:
1005:
992:
991:
986:
974:
973:
968:
962:
954:
949:
944:
943:
938:
929:
928:
923:
901:
900:
895:
893:
892:
887:
885:
866:
864:
863:
858:
856:
855:
850:
841:
840:
826:
817:
816:
808:
791:
790:
785:
783:
782:
777:
775:
756:
754:
753:
748:
746:
741:
740:
735:
726:
725:
717:
705:
704:
699:
687:
686:
681:
661:
660:
655:
653:
652:
647:
645:
626:
624:
623:
618:
616:
615:
610:
601:
600:
595:
580:
579:
574:
562:
561:
556:
542:
541:
536:
534:
533:
528:
526:
507:
505:
504:
499:
497:
496:
491:
482:
477:
476:
471:
462:
461:
456:
447:
446:
441:
429:
428:
423:
406:
405:
400:
398:
397:
392:
390:
371:
369:
368:
363:
361:
360:
355:
346:
345:
340:
328:
327:
322:
305:
304:
292:Electrochemistry
215:sodium hydroxide
93:Cell temperature
19:
18:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2600:
2593:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2521:
2517:
2494:
2490:
2459:
2455:
2432:
2428:
2389:
2385:
2366:Catalysis Today
2361:
2357:
2326:
2322:
2277:
2273:
2230:
2226:
2203:
2199:
2167:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2110:
2103:
2080:
2076:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2038:
2031:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1919:
1915:
1860:
1849:
1826:
1795:
1754:
1750:
1719:: 13793–13813.
1705:
1701:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1660:
1637:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1561:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1523:
1522:
1510:
1505:
1504:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1478:
1472:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1401:
1393:
1392:
1383:
1378:
1377:
1368:
1363:
1362:
1353:
1348:
1347:
1339:
1333:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1266:
1261:
1260:
1251:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1182:
1174:
1173:
1161:
1156:
1155:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1126:
1120:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1096:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1017:
1001:
997:
987:
982:
981:
969:
964:
963:
953:
945:
939:
934:
933:
924:
916:
915:
910:
907:
906:
875:
873:
870:
869:
851:
846:
845:
827:
822:
821:
809:
801:
800:
798:
795:
794:
765:
763:
760:
759:
742:
736:
731:
730:
718:
710:
709:
700:
692:
691:
682:
671:
670:
668:
665:
664:
635:
633:
630:
629:
611:
606:
605:
596:
585:
584:
575:
567:
566:
557:
552:
551:
549:
546:
545:
516:
514:
511:
510:
492:
487:
486:
478:
472:
467:
466:
457:
452:
451:
442:
434:
433:
424:
416:
415:
413:
410:
409:
380:
378:
375:
374:
356:
351:
350:
341:
333:
332:
323:
315:
314:
312:
309:
308:
299:
294:
246:
230:steam reforming
189:System lifetime
133:Part-load range
109:Current density
75:Ti/Ni/zirconium
51:Stainless steel
17:
12:
11:
5:
2709:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2662:
2661:
2591:
2540:
2533:
2515:
2488:
2453:
2442:(9): 761–765.
2426:
2383:
2355:
2336:(2): 153–161.
2320:
2271:
2244:(3): 336–355.
2224:
2197:
2155:
2129:
2122:
2101:
2090:(3): 307–326.
2074:
2062:
2029:
1988:
1963:
1913:
1847:
1793:
1748:
1713:Energy Reports
1699:
1688:(9): 703–710.
1671:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1600:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1448:
1447:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1418:
1404:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1336:
1331:
1312:
1311:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1282:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1228:
1227:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1198:
1185:
1180:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1095:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1056:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
990:
985:
980:
977:
972:
967:
960:
957:
952:
948:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
919:
914:
897:
896:
884:
881:
878:
867:
854:
849:
844:
839:
836:
833:
830:
825:
820:
815:
812:
807:
804:
787:
786:
774:
771:
768:
757:
745:
739:
734:
729:
724:
721:
716:
713:
708:
703:
698:
695:
690:
685:
680:
677:
674:
657:
656:
644:
641:
638:
627:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
591:
588:
583:
578:
573:
570:
565:
560:
555:
538:
537:
525:
522:
519:
508:
495:
490:
485:
481:
475:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
437:
432:
427:
422:
419:
402:
401:
389:
386:
383:
372:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
336:
331:
326:
321:
318:
298:
297:Anode reaction
295:
293:
290:
245:
242:
194:
193:
190:
186:
185:
182:
178:
177:
174:
173:Lifetime stack
170:
169:
166:
162:
161:
158:
154:
153:
152:4.5-7.0 kWh/Nm
150:
146:
145:
144:4.2-5.9 kWh/Nm
142:
138:
137:
134:
130:
129:
126:
122:
121:
118:
114:
113:
110:
106:
105:
102:
101:Stack pressure
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
85:
84:
81:
77:
76:
73:
69:
68:
65:
61:
60:
57:
53:
52:
49:
45:
44:
41:
37:
36:
33:
29:
28:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2708:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2596:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2536:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2144:on 2018-04-23
2143:
2139:
2133:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2065:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2034:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2008:(11): F3197.
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1973:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1672:
1664:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1601:
1599:
1572:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1532:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1496:
1486:
1483:
1473:
1463:
1454:
1453:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1419:
1417:
1402:
1389:
1384:
1369:
1359:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1318:
1317:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1283:
1267:
1252:
1242:
1234:
1233:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1199:
1183:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1152:
1144:
1134:
1131:
1121:
1111:
1104:Volmer step:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1091:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1057:
1055:
1028:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1002:
998:
988:
978:
975:
970:
958:
955:
950:
940:
925:
912:
903:
902:
882:
879:
876:
868:
852:
842:
834:
828:
813:
810:
793:
792:
772:
769:
766:
758:
737:
727:
722:
719:
701:
688:
683:
663:
662:
642:
639:
636:
628:
612:
602:
597:
576:
563:
558:
544:
543:
523:
520:
517:
509:
493:
483:
473:
463:
458:
443:
430:
425:
408:
407:
387:
384:
381:
373:
357:
347:
342:
324:
307:
306:
303:
289:
287:
282:
280:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
250:
241:
237:
233:
231:
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
201:is a type of
200:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
125:Power density
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
96:60-80 °C
95:
91:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
25:
20:
2686:Electrolysis
2614:(11): 1286.
2611:
2607:
2557:
2553:
2543:
2524:
2518:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2333:
2329:
2323:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2241:
2237:
2227:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2175:
2171:
2158:
2146:. Retrieved
2142:the original
2132:
2116:. Elsevier.
2113:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2067:, retrieved
2045:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1979:. Retrieved
1966:
1931:
1927:
1916:
1871:
1867:
1836:(12): 4901.
1833:
1829:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1661:
1658:Disadvantage
1638:
1455:
1319:
1235:Tafel step:
1097:
1089:
904:
300:
286:Raney nickel
283:
275:
255:
238:
234:
223:
203:electrolyser
198:
197:
176:<90,000 h
168:<760 Nm/h
160:62–82% (HHV)
117:Cell voltage
112:0.2-0.4 A/cm
2372:: 170–180.
2291:: 846–854.
2238:ChemNanoMat
1874:(8): 1336.
1779:2117/178519
1764:: 392–403.
271:Polysulfone
192:20-30 years
128:to 1.0 W/cm
2670:Categories
2504:: 101254.
2399:(2): 185.
2148:29 January
2069:2024-04-27
1981:19 October
1667:References
207:electrodes
184:<3 μV/h
120:1.8-2.40 V
104:<30 bar
2638:1099-4300
2483:103477803
2421:137144045
2350:104106046
2266:213442277
2258:2199-692X
1868:Materials
1788:140072936
1743:253141292
1555:−
1533:−
1502:→
1497:−
1403:−
1375:→
1370:−
1355:∗
1258:→
1253:∗
1184:−
1163:∗
1150:→
1145:−
989:−
931:→
926:−
853:−
819:→
814:∗
811:−
723:∗
720:−
707:→
702:−
684:∗
613:−
598:∗
582:→
577:−
559:∗
494:−
459:∗
449:→
444:−
426:∗
358:−
343:∗
330:→
325:−
213:(KOH) or
2656:33287054
2586:28660036
2315:24991521
2192:55017229
2024:35846371
1958:35575644
1908:31022944
267:zirconia
259:Asbestos
59:Ni/Co/Fe
2647:7712718
2616:Bibcode
2608:Entropy
2577:5477031
2401:Bibcode
2306:4077405
1949:9332215
1899:6515460
1876:Bibcode
1721:Bibcode
67:Ni/C-Pt
2654:
2644:
2636:
2584:
2574:
2531:
2481:
2419:
2348:
2313:
2303:
2264:
2256:
2190:
2120:
2060:
2022:
1956:
1946:
1906:
1896:
1786:
1741:
136:20-40%
2479:S2CID
2417:S2CID
2346:S2CID
2262:S2CID
2188:S2CID
2168:(PDF)
2020:S2CID
1975:(PDF)
1784:S2CID
1739:S2CID
2652:PMID
2634:ISSN
2582:PMID
2529:ISBN
2311:PMID
2254:ISSN
2150:2019
2118:ISBN
2058:ISBN
1983:2014
1954:PMID
1904:PMID
1558:0.83
1014:0.40
269:and
2642:PMC
2624:doi
2572:PMC
2562:doi
2506:doi
2502:143
2471:doi
2444:doi
2409:doi
2374:doi
2370:262
2338:doi
2301:PMC
2293:doi
2246:doi
2215:doi
2180:doi
2176:163
2092:doi
2050:doi
2010:doi
2006:163
1944:PMC
1936:doi
1894:PMC
1884:doi
1838:doi
1774:hdl
1766:doi
1729:doi
1690:doi
2672::
2650:.
2640:.
2632:.
2622:.
2612:22
2610:.
2606:.
2594:^
2580:.
2570:.
2556:.
2552:.
2500:.
2477:.
2467:43
2465:.
2440:23
2438:.
2415:.
2407:.
2395:.
2368:.
2344:.
2332:.
2309:.
2299:.
2289:42
2287:.
2283:.
2260:.
2252:.
2240:.
2236:.
2211:42
2209:.
2186:.
2174:.
2170:.
2104:^
2088:36
2086:.
2056:,
2044:,
2032:^
2018:.
2004:.
2000:.
1952:.
1942:.
1932:51
1930:.
1926:.
1902:.
1892:.
1882:.
1872:12
1870:.
1866:.
1850:^
1834:38
1832:.
1796:^
1782:.
1772:.
1762:23
1760:.
1737:.
1727:.
1715:.
1711:.
1684:.
1613:10
281:.
2658:.
2626::
2618::
2588:.
2564::
2558:7
2537:.
2512:.
2508::
2485:.
2473::
2450:.
2446::
2423:.
2411::
2403::
2397:4
2380:.
2376::
2352:.
2340::
2334:9
2317:.
2295::
2268:.
2248::
2242:6
2221:.
2217::
2194:.
2182::
2152:.
2126:.
2098:.
2094::
2052::
2026:.
2012::
1985:.
1960:.
1938::
1910:.
1886::
1878::
1844:.
1840::
1790:.
1776::
1768::
1745:.
1731::
1723::
1717:8
1696:.
1692::
1686:7
1616:)
1610:(
1587:)
1583:E
1580:H
1577:S
1573:.
1570:s
1567:v
1563:V
1552:=
1547:0
1543:E
1539:(
1528:H
1525:O
1520:2
1517:+
1512:2
1507:H
1492:e
1487:2
1484:+
1480:O
1474:2
1469:H
1464:2
1434:)
1431:9
1428:(
1398:H
1395:O
1390:+
1385:2
1380:H
1365:e
1360:+
1350:H
1345:+
1341:O
1335:2
1330:H
1298:)
1295:8
1292:(
1268:2
1263:H
1248:H
1243:2
1214:)
1211:7
1208:(
1179:H
1176:O
1171:2
1168:+
1158:H
1153:2
1140:e
1135:2
1132:+
1128:O
1122:2
1117:H
1112:2
1072:)
1069:6
1066:(
1043:)
1039:E
1036:H
1033:S
1029:.
1026:s
1023:v
1019:V
1011:+
1008:=
1003:0
999:E
995:(
984:e
979:2
976:+
971:2
966:O
959:2
956:1
951:+
947:O
941:2
936:H
921:H
918:O
913:2
883:)
880:5
877:(
848:e
843:+
838:)
835:g
832:(
829:2
824:O
806:O
803:O
773:)
770:4
767:(
744:O
738:2
733:H
728:+
715:O
712:O
697:H
694:O
689:+
679:H
676:O
673:O
643:)
640:3
637:(
608:e
603:+
593:H
590:O
587:O
572:H
569:O
564:+
554:O
524:)
521:2
518:(
489:e
484:+
480:O
474:2
469:H
464:+
454:O
439:H
436:O
431:+
421:H
418:O
388:)
385:1
382:(
353:e
348:+
338:H
335:O
320:H
317:O
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