8754:"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahmdn III (912â961); the process is completed (eighty per cent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladĂ»n) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million.", (Glick 1999, Chapter 1: At the crossroads of civilization)
1294:
1971:
3163:
1162:. Abd al-Rahman's army was exhausted after their conquest, meanwhile Governor YĆ«suf al-Fihri had returned from quashing another rebellion with his army. The siege of CĂłrdoba began, and noticing the starving state of Abd al-Rahman's army, al-Fihri began throwing lavish feasts every day as the siege went on, to tempt Abd al Rahman's supporters to defect to his side. However, Abd al-Rahman persisted, even rejecting a truce that would have allowed Abd al-Rahman to marry al-Fihri's daughter. After decisively defeating YĆ«suf al-Fihri's army, Abd al-Rahman was able to conquer CĂłrdoba, where he proclaimed himself emir in 756. The rest of Iberia was easily conquered, and Abd al-Rahman soon had control of all of Iberia.
2280:
3804:
1729:
1859:
1114:
3233:
1094:, hoping they might be allowed to continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbasids rejected the offer and demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out of spite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in their dominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles.
3095:
1204:
2438:
2789:
64:
3029:
1702:
634:
819:
5222:
4724:
3300:(1353â1391). It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa. It is characterized by the use of the
2649:
5558:
3406:
5153:
3268:
2634:, which became an important component of Andalusi identity. By the end of the 9th century, Arabic was widely adopted even among Andalusi Christians. Romance vernaculars (Mozarabic) ceased to be spoken in the 13th century, on the one hand following a gradual decline initiated in the 10th century in Al-Andalus, and on the other hand because of the shrinking of the Muslim-ruled lands and the expansion of Romance varieties from further north.
1562:
1624:
49:
5746:"Para los autores ĂĄrabes medievales, el tĂ©rmino Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas â siquiera temporalmente â por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas â even temporarily â by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"),
3384:
2465:
4637:
1962:), when developments were spurred by exposure to older works translated from, Greek, Persian and other languages. Scientific studies continued to be pursued in the following centuries, though certain fields and subjects thrived more depending on the period. Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each.
926:. The Arab governor of al-Andalus, joined by this force, crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the Andalusi, the so-called "original Arabs" of the earlier contingents. The Syrians defeated them at the hard-fought Battle of Aqua Portora in August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province.
4651:
1392:
2892:
3182:, produced luxury goods for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,
1263:, ignoring the claims of his four living children. Abdullah died in 912, and the throne passed to Abd al Rahman III. Through force of arms and diplomacy, he put down the rebellions that had disrupted his grandfather's reign, obliterating Ibn Hafsun and hunting down his sons. After this he led several sieges against the Christians, sacking the city of
919:(in Morocco). Heartened by the victories of their North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their own revolt. Berber garrisons in the north of the Iberian Peninsula mutinied, deposed their Arab commanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds of Toledo, CĂłrdoba, and Algeciras.
6298:. The traditionally held view that the etymology of this name has to do with the Vandals is shown to have no serious foundation. The phonetic, morphosyntactic, and historical problems connected with this etymology are too numerous. Moreover, the existence of this name in various parts of central and northern Spain proves that
2002:)âa comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts. The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "on
1139:, the 'Immigrant') arrived on the coast of Spain. He had fled the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus and were slaughtering members of that family, and then he spent four years in exile in North Africa, assessing the political situation in al-Andalus across the Straits of Gibraltar, before he landed at
1227:, the first great emir of CĂłrdoba. He rose to power with no opposition and sought to reform the emirate. He quickly reorganized the bureaucracy to be more efficient and built many mosques across the emirate. During his reign science and art flourished, as many scholars fled the Abbasid caliphate due to the disastrous
3540:
as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept
3514:
states that "Al-Andalus had many links to
Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086â1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such
1611:
Modern scholarship has sometimes admitted originality in North
African architecture, but according to Yasser Tabbaa, historian of Islamic art and architecture, the Iberocentric viewpoint is anachronistic when considering the political and cultural environment during the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.
1360:
The
Caliphate of CĂłrdoba also had extensive trade with other parts of the Mediterranean, including Christian parts. Trade goods included luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential foodstuffs (grain, olive oil, wine), and containers (such as ceramics for storing perishables). In the tenth century,
5788:
Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la
Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were
2010:
and wounds, and on bone-setting." For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and
Castilian. This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal
3549:
and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so." Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form
1199:
with a tenth as many soldiers as al-Ala ibn-Mugith. After a long siege, it appeared that Abd al Rahman would be defeated, but in a last stand Abd al Rahman with his outnumbered forces opened the gates of the fortress and charged at the resting
Abbasid army, and decisively defeated them. After being
1373:
silks in CĂłrdoba. Later references to
Amalfitan merchants were sometimes used to emphasize the previous golden age of CĂłrdoba. Fatimid Egypt was a supplier of many luxury goods, including elephant tusks, and raw or carved crystals. The Fatimids were traditionally thought to be the only supplier of
7380:
Whereas this
Hispanocentric perspective might apply for Moroccan architecture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuriesâwhen many Andalusian artisans are known to have resettled in Moroccoâit seems anachronistic in dealing with periods when Andalusia itself was ruled by dynasties from Morocco, in
2615:
spread in the south, and
Mozarab Christians were linguistically assimilated by the Christian Kingdoms in the north, the Mozarabic dialects eventually disappeared. Because of that assimilation, however, Mozarabic became the main source and vehicle of transmission of Arabic loanwords to Spanish and
9589:
He and his family had left their native town of CĂłrdoba around 554/1159 to escape persecution by the
Almohads, who had recently conquered al-Andalus and replaced the ruling Almoravid dynasty. After fleeing CĂłrdoba, Maimonides settled in Fez but fled persecution again in 560/1165, moving first to
5875:
Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians,
1255:
whose power barely reached outside of the city of CĂłrdoba. As Ibn Hafsun ravaged the south, Abdullah did almost nothing, and slowly became more and more isolated, barely speaking to anyone. Abdullah purged his administration of his brothers, which lessened the bureaucracy's loyalty towards him.
1515:
succeeded in conquering a dozen lesser kingdoms, becoming the most powerful and renowned of the taifas, such that it could have laid claim to be the true heir to the Caliphate of CĂłrdoba. The taifas were vulnerable and divided but had immense wealth. During its prominence the Taifa of Seville
3680:
As a result of the Reconquista and fall of many important Andalusi cities, substantial numbers of Andalusi migrated to the Maghreb where they found place at the courts of Maghrebi rulers. Many of the elite Andalusi immigrants were Arabs. For a variety of reasons, "Andalusi" came to be almost
3564:
Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in
806:
colonists who followed settled in all parts of the country – north, east, south and west. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs (notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refuge in the
2390:
in which Muslims, Jews, and Christians became monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230â1492). Eventually, the Muladies, and later the Berber tribes, adopted an Arabic identity like the majority of subject people in
6431:
BalÄáč al-SÌČhÌČuhadÄÊŸ: an expression used by the Arab historians for the Battle of Poitiers, which was fought between Charles Martel, at the head of the Christian Frankish armies, and the governor of Muslim Spain ÊżAbd al-Raáž„mÄn b. ÊżAbd AllÄh al-GhÄfiឳī in RamaážÄn 114/October
503:
in 1085. The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of the Almoravids and their successors, the
382:, Portugal, Spain, and Southern France. The name describes the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France (
1877:
By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of the
9890:
BorrĂĄs GualĂs, Gonzalo M.; Lavado Paradinas, Pedro; Pleguezuelo HernĂĄndez, Alfonso; PĂ©rez Higuera, MarĂa Teresa; MogollĂłn Cano-CortĂ©s, MarĂa Pilar; Morales, Alfredo J.; LĂłpez Guzman, Rafael; Sorroche Cuerva, Miguel Ăngel; Stuyck FernĂĄndez Arche, Sandra (2018).
1725:, the longest reigning dynasty in the history of al-Andalus. Although surrounded by Castilian lands, the emirate was wealthy through being tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and enjoyed a period of considerable cultural and economic prosperity.
2177:). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, the division of the seasons." In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy.
1785:
in 1340. After this, they ceased to play a major role. The subsequent internal turmoil within Castile, however, helped Nasrid Granada to enjoy a period of relative external peace and internal prosperity until the end of the 14th century, under the reigns of
1457:
were generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "the Galician nations", and which had spread from their initial strongholds in
1341:, had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study at the libraries and universities of al-Andalus, and after the reconquest of Toledo, several translation institutions such as the
2234:
and its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migrating
2261:
Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near CĂłrdoba by
1769:
or expelled from Christian-controlled territories, which grew the city and the emirate's population. The city even became one of the largest in Europe throughout the 15th century in terms of population. The most visible legacy of the Nasrids is the
3356:, the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. Some surviving 13th and 14th-century
1994:(Avenzoar; d. 1162). And of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam." Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates to
3335:
Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, becoming what is known as the
2230:. These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as the
3545:, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Both
1008:"). This newly emptied frontier remained roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundary between the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and its heartland in the south, the al-Andalus state had three large
1882:
mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa." Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion.
2348:
The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and the
2461:. The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world.
11451:
1256:
Around this time several local Arab lords began to revolt, including one Kurayb ibn Khaldun, who was able to conquer Seville. Some loyalists tried to quell the rebellion, but without proper material support, their efforts were in vain.
3605:) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine. Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of an
3589:
slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of
1918:
practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. The Morisco community including these final convicts kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.
2662:
According to Isaak Moiseevich FilÊčshtinskiÄ, "in the 10th century, a favourable influence on the development of Andalusi literature was exerted by the literary circles organised by rich and noble Cordovan patrons." According to
977:) in the east. The arrival of the Syrians substantially increased the Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped strengthen the Muslim hold on the south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, the Syrian
3452:, was established by the Arabs between the 7thâ10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited by
3661:(fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day. Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preserved
2556:
Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.
6306:. It was the original name of the Punta MarroquĂ cape near Tarifa; very soon, it became generalized to designate the whole Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the name is of Pre-Indo-European origin. The parts of this compound (
1194:
as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). He planned to invade and destroy the Emirate of CĂłrdoba, so in response Abd al Rahman fortified himself within the fortress of
802:(Arabic, Ù
ÙۧÙÙ), that is, non-Arab Muslims, who were clients of the Arabs. The Berber soldiers accompanying Tariq were garrisoned in the centre and the north of the peninsula, as well as in the Pyrenees, while the
3291:
in Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus. The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns of
1332:
as the largest and most prosperous city in Europe. Al-Andalus became a centre for the arts, medicine, science, music, literature and philosophy. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists, such as
9353:
Beeston, A. F. L.; Ashtiany, Julia; Badawi, M. M.; Menocal, MarĂa Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells ,Michael (2000). "The Languages of al-Andalus Between the Arrival of the Muslims and the Reconquista: Jews".
1235:
made an attempt to fly, though accounts vary on his success. In 852 Abd al Rahman II died, leaving behind him a powerful and well-established state that had become one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean.
7028:
Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).
1898:; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked. In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile, although in the kingdoms of
1643:
kingdoms followed in al-Andalus, during which the Christian kingdoms expanded southward again. From 1146 onward, the Almohads intervened and took control of al-Andalus. One of Abd al-Mu'min's successors,
2055:
The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences and
1271:
had risen up in force, ousted the Abbasid government in North Africa, and declared themselves a caliphate. Inspired by this action, Abd al Rahman joined the rebellion and declared himself caliph in 929.
1243:, who according to legend had to wear women's clothing to sneak into the imperial palace and be crowned, since he was not the heir apparent. His reign marked a decline in the emirate, which was ended by
1839:, and by 1479 they were rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This development meant that Granada could no longer exploit divisions between the two kingdoms and the new royal couple, also known as the
2155:
Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomyâpossibly through Ibn Tufailâand became a renowned scientist in the field. His most popular work was his
5465:
2950:. With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom".
1748:
Despite internal conflicts, the Nasrids of Granada were able to survive in part by playing the Christian kingdoms of the north against each other, while at other times soliciting aid from the
5441:
3448:
Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques. One of the largest palm groves in the world, called the
2524:, there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews, but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160. Muslim
8449:
Forcada, Miquel (2007), "Ibn Rushd: Abƫ al-Walīd Muងammad ibn Aងmad ibn Muងammad ibn Rushd al-កafīd", in Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.),
2011:
experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina's
2690:
form to a higher literary level than it had previously enjoyed in his homeland," although "his work found greater acceptance in Baghdad than it did in the far West of the Islamic world."
2218:
astronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.
9618:
2258:. This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases.
7366:
Frontiers of Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Celebration of Oleg Grabar's Eightieth Birthday; the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture Thirtieth Anniversary Special Volume
2138:) built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models of
2966:
and added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is the
1774:, their fortified palace complex, partly preserved today. The independent Nasrid kingdom was also a trade hub between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was frequented especially by
2579:
From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids and for CĂłrdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival,
2549:
in fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslims harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of
7241:
BarcelĂł, Carmen; Heidenreich, Anja (October 19, 2014). "Lusterware Made in the Abbadid Taifa of Seville (Eleventh Century) and Its Early Production in the Mediterranean Region".
3637:
started translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in the
1592:(or Battle of Zallaqa in Arabic), a Muslim army led by the Almoravids soundly defeated Alfonso VI. By 1090, however, Yusuf ibn Tashfin was disillusioned with the disunity of the
9015:
7045:
3256:. The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral. Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as the
2954:(died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with the
2148:
and to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics," which it succeeded in doing to an extent. Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing the
1000:
to his fledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from the towns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty buffer zone in the
2583:. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates, which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time.
9187:"Cyrille; Mayte PENELAS y Philippe ROISSE (eds.) (Madrid, 2008), ÂżExiste una identidad mozĂĄrabe? Historia, lengua y cultura de los cristianos de al-Andalus (siglos IX-XII)"
3425:
during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots,
2243:
infrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.
491:
For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor
9186:
3473:) â subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments âfirst originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or the
8379:
SamsĂł, Julio (2007). "BiáčrĆ«jÄ«: NĆ«r al-DÄ«n AbĆ« Isáž„Äq IbrÄhÄ«m ibn YĆ«suf al-BiáčrĆ«jÄ«". In Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.).
2455:" tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status of
4182:
1906:(both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526. Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (see
5830:"The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230"
3525:
11471:
1978:, who performed the first modern surgery, determined how to remove kidney stones, was known as the father of surgery, and developed many inventions and instruments.
1223:. The next few decades were relatively uneventful, with only occasional minor rebellions, and saw the rise of the emirate. In 822 Al Hakam died and was succeeded by
798:
The small army Tariq led in the initial conquest consisted mostly of Berbers, while Musa's largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group of
531:. In Spain, the Reconquista would continue until the late-15th century, leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. On January 2, 1492, Emir
10924:
Boloix-Gallardo, BĂĄrbara (2021). "Granada, Capital of al-Andalus and Core of the Nasrid Kingdom (7thâ9th/13thâ15th Centuries)". In Boloix-Gallardo, BĂĄrbara (ed.).
3761:
3114:
in 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include a
617:
4198:
988:, hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After the rebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the Christian king
3060:, but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (see
2032:)âa historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century. Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field of
11632:
3840:
2667:: "Andalusian literature was still very much dominated by the Eastern tradition around the year 1000, and the Arabs of Spain probably felt somewhat isolated."
10223:
2702:(which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories.
755:
Following the Muslim conquest of Spain, al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to: modern
10051:
7993:
Forcada, Miquel (2022). "al-Andalus, religious and rational sciences". In Fleet, Kate; KrÀmer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).
4388:
2364:, and Jews. Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, and
2300:
9812:
2888:) went yet further, building a university and libraries in CĂłrdoba. CĂłrdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate.
1174:, and helped urbanize the emirate while defending it from invaders, including the quashing of numerous rebellions, and decisively repelling the invasion by
933:, the new governor of al-Andalus, assigned the Syrians to regimental fiefs across al-Andalus – the Damascus jund was established in Elvira (
9149:
GarcĂa SanjuĂĄn, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; KrĂ€mer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).
9084:
GarcĂa SanjuĂĄn, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; KrĂ€mer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).
3387:
The cultivation of sugarcane had reached the south of the Iberian Peninsula by the 16th century CE due to Arab conquest and administration of the region.
1219:, who secured power by exiling his brother who had tried to rebel against him. Hisham enjoyed a stable reign of eight years and was succeeded by his son
862:
in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel and Al Ghafiqi was killed. In 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing
4404:
3304:
as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as a
1756:. For much of its existence, Granada paid tribute to the Castilian kings. Along with this political status, its favorable geographic location, with the
460:, Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry (
11567:
11501:
4848:
3519:. Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes." The verses of
5434:
3459:
The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from the
1503:. During the eleventh century several centres of power existed among the taifas, and the political situation shifted rapidly. Before the rise of the
6048:
6556:
3010:
school of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe. Another influential al-Andalus philosopher was
1247:. His reign was marked by multiple rebellions, which were dealt with poorly and weakened the emirate, most disastrously following the rebellion of
6282:
3529:
are known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.
342:
2751:
Caliphate and arrived in CĂłrdoba in 822, played a rule in Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture. Poetic forms such as the
11652:
5586:
3628:
2818:
1200:
sent the embalmed head of al-Ala ibn-Mugith, it is said Al Mansur exclaimed "Praise be to God who has put the sea between me and this devil!".
3159:(later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period.
2603:
or Andalusi Romance. The few writings in those dialects that have been found use an Arabic script and seem to retain many archaic features of
2161:. Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina.
11456:
5181:
3283:
Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of the
10360:
9966:
6417:
PĂ©rĂšs, Henri (2007). "BalÄáč al-SÌČhÌČuhadÄÊŸ". In Bearman, P.; Th. Bianquis, Th.; C.E. Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).
3041:
11572:
11523:
11198:. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia y GeografĂa. In Spanish and Arabic. Also available in the public domain online, see External Links.
2723:"the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand."
2201:
1891:
1421:, massacring its inhabitants, pillaging the city, and burning the palace complex to the ground. The largest of the taifas to emerge were
9796:
4140:
5747:
4925:
4745:
4683:
3756:
2715:"biographical dictionaries have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who were
2292:
7977:
The moriscos who remained. The permanence of Islamic origin population in Early Modern Spain: Kingdom of Granada, XVIIâXVIII centuries
5528:
5056:
2725:
It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in CĂłrdoba alone.
1275:
For nearly 100 years under the CĂłrdoban Umayyad period, from the 9th century to the 10th, al-Andalus also extended its presence from
11485: â historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of CĂłrdoba and related movements of people and culture over time
9021:
7042:
3456:
as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).
11637:
11340:
4444:
2564:(base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslims, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the
930:
6859:"The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. MarĂa Rosa Menocal"
5892:. Marcial Pons Historia. MĂ©xico Madrid: Universidad nacional autĂłnoma de MĂ©xico, Instituto de inversigaciones histĂłricas M. Pons.
5336:
1293:
3868:
3429:
and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'â
2513:, which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.
737:
11497:, Scholarly essays and exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF or on Google Books)
2356:
The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers,
1090:
in al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, and sought to reach an understanding with the
11587:
10768:
4551:
4475:
4259:
3213:
decoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as the
1970:
1887:
10330:
4538:
1847:
began in earnest in 1482. Year by year, the Christian advance captured new cities and fortresses until the last Nasrid ruler,
11617:
11482:
11372:
11016:
10935:
10883:
10854:
10708:
10678:
10615:
10588:
10500:
9582:
9536:
9499:
9464:
9119:
9054:
8953:
8607:
8466:
8425:
8400:
8355:
8286:
8220:
8187:
8151:
8029:
7925:
7898:
7871:
7697:
7577:
7373:
7217:
6749:
6695:
6638:
6611:
6584:
6503:
6401:
6372:
6268:
6192:
6106:
6073:
5897:
5868:
5841:
5812:
5781:
5494:
5455:
5266:
4314:
3711:
3061:
3023:
1531:
of Castile escalated attacks against them. In 1083, he led a punitive expedition against Seville that reached all the way to
3974:
3364:
5548:
4013:
3736:
3716:
1147:
1087:
5231:
3833:
2630:
probably emerged by the 9th or 10th century. Arabic spread progressively across the whole population through a process of
981:
carried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severely destabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus.
10793:
9839:
6788:
5522:
4935:
4920:
4898:
4855:
4561:
4515:
2353:. The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers.
2210:
519:
in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the
335:
10463:
10300:
10016:
Squatriti, Paolo (2014). "Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later".
6248:
5040:
4953:
3902:
1082:, seized power in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of their own –
11627:
11622:
11195:
Ajbar Machmua (colecciĂłn de tradiciones): crĂłnica anĂłnima del siglo XI, dada a luz por primera vez, traducida y anotada
11048:
10977:
10085:
5579:
5046:
3201:
During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. The
2959:
2115:(Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revising
2024:âan encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicineâand ibn Habib's
594:
Since the 1980s, several alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition. In 1986, JoaquĂn VallvĂ© proposed that
4362:
3666:
3111:
3099:
1208:
1171:
11400:
11366:
11335:
11321:
11291:
11277:
11249:
11235:
11210:
11187:
11173:
11148:
11126:
11076:
11062:
11040:
11026:
11009:
10995:
10952:, eds. David Restle & Dietmar Zaefferer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 149â164. (In German) Also available
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10897:
10651:
10552:
10525:
9900:
9874:
9849:
9822:
9724:
9655:
9628:
9365:
9252:
9158:
9093:
8893:
8809:
8727:
8700:
8673:
8640:
8572:
8539:
8322:
8253:
8118:
8082:
8002:
7949:
7844:
7664:
7183:
7057:
6532:
6133:
5504:
5460:
5174:
3633:
As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such as
3162:
2840:
1862:
792:
561:
is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia. These coins, called
11494:
11301:
9741:
5027:
2811:
2545:
The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147, far surpassed the
1528:
1418:
496:
11647:
11642:
8905:
4875:
4045:
3572:
in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe (
2486:
constituted more than five per cent of the population. Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the early
1083:
850:
led an expedition north across the western Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed to the
11612:
11419:"Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspectives on Social and Cultural Formation"
6820:"Shorter notices. Medieval Iberia. Readings from Christian, Muslim and Jewish sources. OR Constable [ed]"
5101:
4988:
4522:
4354:
3721:
1374:
such goods, and control over these trade routes would be a cause for conflict between the Umayyads and Fatimids.
1170:
Abd al Rahman's rule was stable in the years after his conquest â he built major public works, most famously the
1074:
in the east, the western provinces of the Maghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, the
1060:
883:
5876:
Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.
1353:, who took these works to Italy. The transmission of ideas significantly affected the formation of the European
11382:
11108:
10751:
9751:
9683:
9645:
9337:
9310:
6766:
6722:
6337:
6065:
Entre civitas y madina: El mundo de las ciudades en la penĂnsula ibĂ©rica y en el norte de Ăfrica (siglos IV-IX)
6017:
5989:
5971:
5143:
5120:
4676:
2412:
2195:
1328:
of al-Andalus. CĂłrdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of more than half a million, eventually overtook
1252:
328:
9916:
9270:"Why was Ibn QuzmÄn Not Awarded the Title of "AbĆ« NuwÄs of the West?" ('Zajal 96', the Poet, and His Critics)"
3345:
1345:
were established for translating books and texts from Arabic into Latin. The most noted figures in this being
488:). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds.
485:
11582:
10410:
10172:
5572:
5388:
5368:
5201:
5085:
5064:
4420:
4175:
4053:
3515:
as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and kept
3510:
2951:
2703:
1660:
1191:
243:
9428:
7070:
6150:
5487:
5426:
5406:
4975:
2407:. Muladies, together with other Muslims, comprised eighty per cent of the population of al-Andalus by 1100.
11592:
5273:
5167:
5105:
5089:
5002:
4830:
4800:
4703:
4595:
4108:
4092:
3948:
3418:
3392:
2942:, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense by
2483:
1687:, survived as vassal kingdoms of Castile until the 1260s. Only the region of Granada remained unconquered.
1342:
477:
95:
6479:, with consultation of the 1874 German version and the 1877 Spanish version) Chatto & Windus, London,
1781:
The Marinids intervened in the south of the Iberian Peninsula multiple times up until their defeat at the
1659:
In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at the
11597:
11577:
11242:
Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain
11083:
6209:
5537:
4970:
4825:
4793:
4622:
4234:
2040:
to create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles of
1313:
760:
10953:
10104:
7092:"Forgotten Connections? Medieval Material Culture and Exchange in the Central and Western Mediterranean"
3803:
3372:
3344:
or Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the
2696:
is considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition of
992:
set about immediately seizing the empty forts for himself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces of
139:
11602:
11037:
The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain
9135:
9070:
8945:
6662:
5378:
5323:
4905:
4750:
4569:
4543:
3997:
3611:, which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master.
3313:
3156:
1840:
1113:
201:
17:
6935:
Versteegh, Kees (January 1, 1990). "The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10th Century".
5221:
3990:
3485:
in the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.
3417:
cities with an agricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far, sparking the
3413:
Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided areas around
3148:
1990:(Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), and
1672:
516:
9114:. Edited by the Institute of Islamic Studies of the University of Zaragoza. Brill. 2013. pp. x.
7863:
The Orient in Spain: Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism
5343:
5308:
5298:
5243:
5109:
5051:
4960:
4940:
4669:
4605:
4590:
4483:
4428:
3783:
2801:
2596:
1907:
10385:
9401:
Maria Luisa Avila, "Women in Andalusi Biographical Sources" in Randi Deguilhem/Manuela Marin (ed.),
3205:
of Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamental
1728:
115:
7569:
5393:
5353:
5348:
5318:
5313:
5303:
5293:
5097:
4755:
4338:
4330:
4267:
3941:
3884:
2859:
2805:
2797:
2643:
2279:
1852:
1671:
kingdoms emerged, which were progressively conquered by Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. CĂłrdoba was
839:
628:
120:
9712:
5858:
2664:
1240:
1070:
Caliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphs distracted by the challenge of the
11607:
9941:
9201:
5499:
5363:
5014:
4381:
3308:
or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily with
2988:
2931:
1866:
1858:
1848:
1649:
1334:
985:
902:
847:
532:
515:
Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. With the
164:
9352:
3579:
2692:
2502:
1782:
1400:
1288:
495:
states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under
427:
69:
10197:
10077:
9991:
9889:
9553:
7175:
7169:
5008:
4915:
4865:
4556:
4283:
4084:
3746:
3646:
3582:
where white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.
2822:
1832:
1536:
1215:
Abd al Rahman I died in 788 after a lengthy and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his son,
528:
11194:
10641:
10576:
10542:
9572:
9269:
7361:
6712:
6480:
6389:
6327:
6090:
6063:
4251:
3813:
3324:
were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as
3218:
1216:
10844:
10698:
10668:
10605:
10045:
9790:
8941:
8597:
8019:
7971:
7888:
7861:
7834:
6739:
6685:
6628:
6601:
6574:
6520:
6493:
6362:
6123:
5829:
5802:
5127:
5093:
4965:
4610:
4600:
4530:
4322:
3559:
3542:
3396:
3297:
3276:
3206:
2654:
2622:
became the language of administration and of literature, while in everyday life a vernacular
2561:
2529:
2490:, produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities.
2112:
2013:
1982:
There were many notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus including
1824:
1798:
1757:
1718:
989:
536:
9524:
7954:
7915:
7561:
6040:
5857:
GarcĂa Fitz, Francisco (2010). Rogers, Clifford J.; Caferro, William; Reid, Shelley (eds.).
4116:
3353:
3214:
2214:
five centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit the
1713:
From the mid 13th to the late 15th century, the only remaining domain of al-Andalus was the
1103:
416:
10138:
10065:
8074:
7917:
The Eve of Spain: Myths of Origins in the History of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Conflict
5981:
5767:
5373:
5210:
5034:
4885:
4835:
4770:
4306:
4061:
3909:
3634:
3624:
3441:, meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical
3329:
3085:
2980:. Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although the
2863:
2411:
were Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule, adopting many Arab customs,
1645:
1600:, except for Zaragoza, were annexed by 1094. Valencia, which had come under the control of
1211:, the former Great Mosque built by Abd ar-Rahman I in 785, later expanded by his successors
1150:, he was not pleased. During this time, Abd al-Rahman and his supporters quickly conquered
808:
788:
285:
7393:
Messier, Ronald (January 1, 2001). "Re-thinking the Almoravids, re-thinking Ibn Khaldun".
5834:
Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times
3368:
3240:
of Seville, originally built by the Almohads, is a prime example of Andalusi architecture.
2437:
1996:
The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself
1527:
kingdoms began to face an existential threat from the Christian kingdoms to the north, as
1123:
215:
8:
11562:
9049:. Edited by the Institute of Islamic Studies of the University of Zaragoza. Brill. 2013.
8910:
8281:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 82, 119.
7689:
7562:
7520:
6978:
Wenner, Manfred W. (August 1980). "The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe".
5704:
5080:
4712:
4299:
4132:
3889:
3845:
3321:
3244:
In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into the
3187:
3167:
3147:, a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital. The Umayyads also reconstructed the
2991:
who was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world as
2977:
2934:. Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy,
1828:
1580:(present-day Morocco) that had conquered much of northwest Africa. The Almoravid leader,
1500:
1488:
1463:
1404:
1005:
923:
812:
692:
523:
two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the
457:
252:
173:
110:
35:
10769:"The Legacy of al-Andalus: Craftsmanship and architectural fragments from Islamic Spain"
10142:
3232:
11203:
The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198, Part 1
10411:"History of Spanish Food – The Moorish Influence on Andalusian Cuisine"
10275:
10154:
10070:
10033:
9129:
9064:
8507:
8482:
8215:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 53â54.
8146:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 61â62.
7418:
7150:
7111:
7011:
7003:
6960:
6443:
Specifically, 27,000 Arab troops were composed of 6,000 men from each of the four main
6229:
6094:
5952:
5639:
5238:
5132:
4820:
4775:
4740:
4412:
4225:
4216:
4029:
3917:
3820:
3662:
3638:
3620:
3460:
3293:
3094:
2955:
2600:
2430:, or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the 15th century there were about 50,000
2381:
2284:
2181:
2033:
1787:
1733:
1714:
1696:
1664:
1608:, was eventually occupied in 1102, after El Cid's death. Zaragoza was annexed in 1110.
1589:
1492:
1480:
1471:
1459:
1325:
1203:
916:
710:
653:
401:
265:
206:
8315:
A history of Arabic astronomy : planetary theories during the golden age of Islam
4207:
4100:
3601:
consisted of 6,300 women. They were appreciated for their light skin. The concubines (
3048:
made it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators like
2076:)âa manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and the
1717:, the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula. The emirate was established by
1576:
rulers agreed to request the intervention of the Almoravids, a Berber empire based in
1484:
997:
915:, to North Africa. But the great Umayyad army was crushed by the Berber rebels at the
764:
11396:
11378:
11362:
11331:
11317:
11287:
11273:
11245:
11231:
11206:
11183:
11169:
11144:
11122:
11104:
11072:
11058:
11044:
11022:
11005:
10991:
10973:
10950:
Sounds and Systems: Studies in Structure and Change. A Festschrift for Theo Vennemann
10931:
10910:
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10879:
10850:
10747:
10704:
10674:
10647:
10611:
10584:
10548:
10521:
10496:
10146:
10081:
10037:
9896:
9870:
9845:
9818:
9747:
9720:
9679:
9651:
9624:
9578:
9532:
9505:
9495:
9470:
9460:
9371:
9361:
9333:
9306:
9248:
9154:
9115:
9089:
9050:
8967:
8959:
8949:
8889:
8805:
8723:
8696:
8669:
8646:
8636:
8613:
8603:
8578:
8568:
8545:
8535:
8512:
8462:
8431:
8421:
8396:
8361:
8351:
8328:
8318:
8292:
8282:
8259:
8249:
8226:
8216:
8193:
8183:
8157:
8147:
8124:
8114:
8088:
8078:
8025:
7998:
7945:
7921:
7894:
7867:
7840:
7693:
7660:
7573:
7422:
7410:
7369:
7258:
7223:
7213:
7179:
7154:
7130:
7115:
7091:
7053:
7015:
6995:
6952:
6917:
6878:
6839:
6745:
6718:
6691:
6634:
6607:
6580:
6528:
6499:
6426:
6397:
6368:
6343:
6333:
6274:
6264:
6233:
6188:
6129:
6102:
6069:
5995:
5985:
5956:
5944:
5893:
5864:
5837:
5808:
5777:
5688:
5647:
5474:
5470:
5383:
5358:
5283:
4996:
4910:
4870:
4815:
4436:
4275:
4190:
3741:
3731:
3474:
3449:
3442:
3422:
3245:
3053:
2873:
2748:
2592:
2569:
2494:
2373:
2369:
2049:
1836:
1775:
1653:
1605:
1581:
1566:
1556:
1552:
1496:
1438:
1366:
1346:
1297:
1268:
1260:
1244:
1183:
1179:
1091:
1043:
These disturbances and disorder also allowed the Franks, now under the leadership of
1009:
879:
843:
663:
552:
445:
437:
408:
371:
306:
228:
186:
159:
63:
9529:
Libraries - Traditions and Innovations: Papers from the Library History Seminar XIII
8182:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p. 117.
5915:"Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: the Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism"
3568:
The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the
2627:
2505:, the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially by trading in
2501:, and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of the
1182:). By far the most important of these invasions was the attempted reconquest by the
1159:
1066:
The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority of the
749:
453:
10338:
10025:
9893:
Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean)
9281:
8502:
8494:
8454:
8388:
7402:
7250:
7142:
7103:
6987:
6944:
6909:
6870:
6831:
6422:
6303:
6221:
5977:
5934:
5926:
5712:
5696:
5680:
5663:
5562:
5413:
4810:
4733:
3792:
3706:
3691:
3179:
3171:
3144:
3028:
2869:
2619:
2420:
2386:
while increasingly adopting the Arabic language, which eventually evolved into the
2377:
2251:
2116:
2041:
1952:
1676:
1636:
1512:
1446:
1422:
1411:
broke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states and principalities called
1370:
1232:
1224:
520:
9620:
Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700â1800
9416:
The development of Islamic library collections in Western Europe and North America
8458:
8392:
6576:
Defining Boundaries in al-Andalus: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Islamic Iberia
3523:
describe an openly bisexual lifestyle. Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as the
1701:
1146:
News of his arrival spread across al-Andalus, and when word reached its governor,
1021:
608:, and in 2002, Georg Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.
11426:
11414:
11098:
10967:
10925:
10904:
10876:
Islamic Culture Through Jewish Eyes: al-Andalus from the Tenth to Twelfth Century
10490:
9327:
9300:
9242:
9109:
9044:
8799:
8717:
8690:
8021:
The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 2: Language, Religion, Culture and the Sciences
7682:
7654:
7547:
Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The Metropolitan Museum of Art
7146:
7107:
7049:
6182:
5771:
5655:
5621:
5450:
5157:
4499:
4460:
4150:
3598:
3305:
3191:
3152:
3119:
3107:
3073:
2915:
2713:
One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that
2707:
2677:
2623:
2573:
2539:
2387:
2263:
1899:
1684:
1680:
1596:
leaders and he returned on a campaign to conquer al-Andalus instead. Most of the
1508:
1475:
1430:
1362:
1248:
1132:
1118:
1044:
993:
966:
859:
784:
702:
676:
572:
461:
387:
359:
154:
125:
10249:
6657:
5804:
History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453
3363:
were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as the
2372:
origin), formed the majority of Muslims. The Muwalladun had spoken in the local
2198:, whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved.
858:
for assistance, offering to place himself under Carolingian sovereignty. At the
633:
390:
rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Western
11510:
8498:
6858:
6464:
6456:
6225:
5789:
formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")
4655:
4467:
4396:
4159:
4077:
4021:
3726:
3701:
3257:
3183:
3123:
2907:
2764:
2740:
2734:
2416:
2296:
2215:
2186:
2159:, but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories
1951:. The earliest evidence of such activities in al-Andalus dates to the reign of
1741:
1722:
1706:
1329:
1309:
1305:
1196:
1140:
946:
912:
855:
818:
568:
449:
391:
280:
11256:
Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship: (Sixteenth century to the present)
10818:
10029:
9285:
8983:
8617:
8435:
8381:
BiáčrĆ«jÄ«: NĆ«r al-DÄ«n AbĆ« Isáž„Äq [AbĆ« JaÒfar]IbrÄhÄ«m ibn YĆ«suf al-BiáčrĆ«jÄ«
8365:
7406:
7362:"Andalusian Roots And Abbasid Homage In The Qubbat Al-Barudiyyin In Marrakech"
7254:
6991:
6874:
6835:
3337:
3089:
2652:
Lute song in a garden for a noble lady. 13th century manuscript from Andalusi
1927:
There was much scientific activity in Al-Andalus, especially in the fields of
962:
11556:
11538:
11525:
11514:
10308:
10150:
9785:
9509:
9474:
9375:
8933:
8736:
7414:
7262:
7227:
6999:
6956:
6921:
6882:
6843:
6819:
6796:
6460:
6347:
6278:
5948:
5930:
4880:
4860:
4491:
4037:
3696:
3537:
3409:
Diffusion of bananas from India to the Iberian peninsula during Islamic rule.
3248:), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as the
2612:
2611:
influence. However, as the use of Arabic by Muwalladûn, urban Christians and
2247:
2003:
1983:
1809:
1667:
withdrew from al-Andalus altogether. In this political vacuum, a new wave of
1407:
between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 when
1301:
1079:
1051:
in 752, hoping to deprive al-Andalus of an easy launching pad for raids into
1029:
958:
922:
In 741, Balj b. Bishr led a detachment of some 10,000 Arab troops across the
894:
835:
803:
500:
375:
10724:
9800:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 656â658.
8971:
8650:
8630:
8582:
8562:
8549:
8529:
8332:
8296:
8263:
8243:
8230:
8197:
8161:
8128:
8108:
8092:
6948:
5999:
3264:
motif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of CĂłrdoba.
3222:
3064:), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages,
2493:
The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign of
1709:(1232â1492), with the epigraphic inscription "glory to our lord the Sultan".
1267:, and restoring some prestige to the emirate. Meanwhile, across the sea the
452:
Emirate of Granada (1238â1492). Under the Caliphate of CĂłrdoba, the city of
30:
This article is about the historical region. For the modern-day region, see
11476:
8516:
7959:
6448:
4930:
4641:
3550:
of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.
3195:
3151:
over the Guadalquivir River in CĂłrdoba, while the Almohads later added the
3049:
2947:
2604:
2404:
2329:
2240:
2226:
Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field of
2007:
1915:
1753:
1520:
and exerted significant influence on ceramic production across al-Andalus.
1350:
1228:
10960:
Colonial al-Andalus : Spain and the making of modern Moroccan culture
6913:
3202:
2698:
1612:
The rise and fall of the Almoravids is sometimes seen as an expression of
11466:
11296:
6897:
6789:"Biography of Emir de al-Andalus Abd al-Rahman o AbderramĂĄn II (792â852)"
6475:(translated by Francis Griffin Stokes from Dozy's original (1861) French
5719:. Also known in English, perhaps in a slightly dated or quaint sense, as
5288:
5253:
5248:
4723:
4005:
3964:
3650:
3569:
3421:. A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain and
2943:
2885:
2710:, with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form.
2631:
2546:
2498:
2487:
2400:
2060:. Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote the
1936:
1870:
1844:
1817:
1765:
1663:. Almohad rule was diminished in prestige and in 1228 the Almohad caliph
1613:
1354:
1175:
1033:
1017:
1001:
396:
316:
311:
290:
11089:
Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004.
9357:
The Cambridge history of Arabic literature. the literature of Al-Andalus
3594:
guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.
3143:). Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction of
2648:
2626:
developped. The latter consisted of many local dialects, but a standard
2184:(d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy's
1763:
Granada also accommodated a large number of Muslim refugees fleeing the
1705:
A silk textile fragment from the last Muslim dynasty of Al-Andalus, the
984:
A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of the
11430:
11418:
11328:
Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict
10643:
The Fall of the Caliphate of CĂłrdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict
10273:
8832:
6964:
5939:
3751:
3658:
3520:
3405:
3288:
3140:
3065:
3033:
3011:
2992:
2903:
2753:
2681:
2672:
2550:
2517:
2205:
2104:
2057:
1987:
1975:
1944:
1879:
1813:
1517:
1504:
1276:
1220:
1048:
718:
672:
481:
469:
465:
456:
became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the
412:
383:
11180:
Maimonides: the Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds
11091:
Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia
10224:"'Moon Of The Faith:' A History Of The Apricot And Its Many Pleasures"
7890:
Freedom and Orthodoxy: Islam and Difference in the Post-Andalusian Age
7007:
6155:
5914:
3341:
2876:
had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of
2130:
Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji's
10436:
10158:
9489:
9454:
9355:
6452:
5628:
4765:
4760:
3607:
3546:
3516:
3360:
3317:
3301:
3267:
3221:. Other examples of architecture from around this period include the
3115:
3007:
2973:
2939:
2923:
2899:
2565:
2361:
2239:
and Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existing
2124:
1932:
1617:
1584:, led several campaigns into al-Andalus, initially in defense of the
1577:
1467:
1321:
1187:
942:
831:
776:
756:
684:
680:
509:
407:
As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the
379:
31:
9789:
6898:"Brian A. Catlos. Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain"
6259:. Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. (in German).
6151:"De dónde vienen los nombres de las Comunidades Autónomas españolas"
5754:, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.
3597:
The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of
2987:
A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometer
2357:
1752:, a new Berber dynasty ruling in North Africa from their capital in
1623:
1561:
1151:
938:
448:(1147â1238); the third taifa period (1232â1287); and ultimately the
11359:
The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature
11164:
Kraemer, Joel. 2005. "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait",
11157:
Kraemer, Joel. 1997. "Comparing Crescent and Cross (book review)",
10301:"History of Carrots – A brief summary and timeline"
9814:
Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History
9590:
Palestine and finally to FusáčÄáč, near Cairo, where he would remain.
7381:
particular the Almoravids (1061â1147) and the Almohads (1130â1260).
6390:"Early Muslim Settlement in Spain: The Berber Tribes in Al-Andalus"
6314:) are frequent in the indigenous toponymy of the Iberian Peninsula.
5860:
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
3876:
3861:
3670:
3654:
3642:
3586:
3574:
3383:
3325:
3284:
3272:
3252:
or Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as the
3003:
2996:
2968:
2895:
2877:
2521:
2477:
2473:
2304:
2231:
2227:
2204:(d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown by
2144:
2108:
2084:
2081:
2045:
1991:
1940:
1928:
1903:
1771:
1749:
1737:
1338:
1264:
1067:
1056:
1037:
970:
887:
871:
780:
745:
741:
733:
714:
706:
643:
600:
505:
473:
76:
7131:"Amalfitans in the Caliphate of Cordoba – Or Not?"
3578:). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the
2719:, particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors"
1055:. After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel of
875:
752:, and the first influx of Muslim settlers was widely distributed.
6247:
Bossong, Georg (2002). Restle, David; Zaefferer, Dietmar (eds.).
6061:
5890:
La Reconquista: una construcciĂłn historiogrĂĄfica (siglos XVI-XIX)
5752:
V Semana de Estudios Medievales: NĂĄjera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994
4346:
3674:
3602:
3490:
3465:
3426:
3348:, 13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza and
3332:
ceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.
3253:
3237:
3136:
2580:
2534:
2525:
2510:
2464:
2408:
2350:
2339:
2236:
2139:
2092:
1943:. At the same time, Andalusi scholars were also highly active in
1911:
1632:
1155:
1075:
1071:
1052:
1025:
954:
934:
898:
890:, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739.
863:
768:
725:
688:
580:
524:
367:
130:
54:
27:
Territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule (711â1492)
9244:
Arabic-Andalusian Poetry and the Rise of the European Love-Lyric
8963:
3186:, and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include the
2891:
2607:. They are usually assumed to have been increasingly subject to
48:
11460:
7069:
Perry, Marvin; Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob.
6249:"Der Name al-Andalus: neue Ăberlegungen zu einem alten Problem"
4780:
3925:
3453:
3349:
3309:
3226:
3210:
3126:
2759:
2744:
2608:
2469:
2447:
2441:
A Christian and a Muslim play chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.
2396:
2120:
2037:
1631:
By 1147, the Almoravids were overthrown in North Africa by the
1601:
1532:
974:
851:
772:
563:
11168:, ed. Kenneth Seeskin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9554:"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West"
8599:
Convivencia and Medieval Spain: Convivencia and Medieval Spain
8415:
7477:
7453:
3641:. That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during the
3068:(1135â1205), though he did not actually do any of his work in
2572:. For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as
2434:
in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.
1690:
901:(North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the Umayyad Caliph
11488:
11244:. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; London: Back Bay Books.
9491:
The lost paradise : Andalusi music in urban North Africa
8480:
8054:
Bakar, Osman (2006). "The Golden Age of Andalusian Science".
7656:
Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective
6468:
6160:
3591:
3400:
3261:
2935:
2771:
2686:
2457:
2452:
2427:
2392:
2319:
2091:
he provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of the
1948:
1895:
1413:
1386:
950:
867:
713:
under Muslim rule in a seven-year campaign. They crossed the
697:
432:
11452:
Photocopy of the Ajbar Machmu'a, translated by Lafuente 1867
11141:
Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus
11117:
Harzig, Christiane, Dirk Hoerder, and Adrian Shubert. 2003.
6741:
Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus
6687:
Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus
6630:
Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus
11393:
The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity
11391:
Wasserstein, David J. 1995. "Jewish Ă©lites in Al-Andalus",
6767:"Abbas Ibn Firnas: the first human to fly | The Links News"
6387:
3357:
3131:
2981:
2506:
2431:
907:
724:
Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding
11350:
Schorsch, Ismar, 1989. "The myth of Sephardic supremacy",
10846:
Inventing the Berbers: History and Ideology in the Maghrib
9692:
8886:
Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present
7859:
7802:
7730:
7718:
7679:
7610:
7586:
7489:
7341:
7317:
7305:
7269:
6786:
3649:
introducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch the
3178:
The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those at
2528:
against Jews in al-Andalus occurred in CĂłrdoba (1011) and
2426:
The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, in
1843:, were united in their intention to conquer it. The final
1391:
604:. Heinz Halm in 1989 derived the name from a Gothic term,
11306:
11270:
The Origins Of The Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain
8631:
MarĂn, Manuela; SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).
8563:
MarĂn, Manuela; SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).
8530:
MarĂn, Manuela; SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).
8244:
MarĂn, Manuela; SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).
8109:
MarĂn, Manuela; SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).
7814:
7754:
7429:
7039:
Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census
6294:
appears in coin inscriptions as the Arabic equivalent of
6251:[The Name al-Andalus: Revisiting an Old Problem]
6062:
Panzram, Sabine; Laurent Callegarin (November 22, 2018).
2415:, and words, while still maintaining their Christian and
2127:'s model and promoted the theory of homocentric spheres.
9456:
Feminist traditions in andalusi-moroccan oral narratives
9111:
A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Andalusi Arabic
9046:
A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Andalusi Arabic
8757:
3762:
Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
3367:
in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form circa 1250), the
618:
Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula
9527:. In Kimball, Melanie A.; Wisser, Katherine M. (eds.).
8317:. New York: New York University Press. pp. 62â63.
7634:
7465:
3665:
architecture in the world, with examples including the
2972:, "The Aim of the Sage", which explored a synthesis of
2283:
Clothing of al-Andalus in the 15th century, during the
1639:. As Almoravid rule collapsed, another brief period of
882:. Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of
826:
In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several
400:, eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the
374:. The term is used by modern historians for the former
11431:"Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages"
11093:. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.
10700:
Vibrant Andalusia: The Spice of Life in Southern Spain
9717:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture
9574:
Conversion to Islam in the Premodern Age: A Sourcebook
9167:
7790:
7742:
7622:
7501:
7441:
7329:
7293:
7281:
6290:
Only a few years after the Islamic conquest of Spain,
11489:"Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain"
11201:
Luscombe, David and Jonathan Riley-Smith, eds. 2004.
11055:
The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy
10988:
Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages
8801:
Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages
7778:
7766:
7706:
7598:
7090:
Metcalfe, Alex; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (April 1, 2013).
6547:
Levi-Provençal, (1950: p. 48); Kennedy (1996: p. 45).
6055:
5827:
5674:
3312:
on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls.
2902:
school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of
2301:
Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula
1760:
as a natural barrier, helped to prolong Nasrid rule.
1259:
He declared that the next emir would be his grandson
905:
dispatched a large Arab army, composed of regiments (
10610:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 58â59.
10099:
10097:
9967:"Visit SefardĂ Museum, El TrĂĄnsito Synagogue | TCLM"
9650:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 90â93.
9429:"Saudi Aramco World : Listening for Al-Andalus"
7353:
7171:
Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience
6125:
Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages
5631:
2451:(people under protection), with adult men paying a "
2103:
Three of the most notable Andalusi astronomers were
622:
579:
has traditionally been derived from the name of the
11014:
10603:
10579:. In E. Michael Gerli; Samuel G. Armistead (eds.).
10568:
10129:Crist, Raymond E. (1957). "Rice Culture in Spain".
7089:
5442:Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population
1820:all served in the Nasrid court during this period.
811:highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the
11377:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1993.
11215:Marcus, Ivan G., "Beyond the Sephardic mystique",
11081:Halm, Heinz. 1989. "Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors",
10069:
9895:. Museum Ohne Grenzen (Museum With No Frontiers).
9858:
8878:
7913:
7681:
7659:. Presses de l'Universite du Quebec. p. 260.
7240:
7072:Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society
5766:
5762:
5760:
5742:
5740:
2194:. He built on the work of older astronomers, like
2123:in his astronomical model. Instead, they accepted
2020:Other important medical texts include al-Baytar's
1635:, another Berber dynasty, under the leadership of
1627:Expansion of the Almohad state in the 12th century
1507:from Africa or the Christians from the north, the
11347:. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. ColecciĂłn Austral; 1560.
11265:. Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press.
10969:Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain
10574:
10094:
10050:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
9669:
9667:
8481:Tbakhi Abdelghani; Amr Samir S. (March 1, 2008).
8276:
8210:
8177:
8141:
8077:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
8068:
6523:. In Salma Khadra Jayyusi; Manuela MarĂn (eds.).
6332:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 142.
6088:
5969:
5435:Military history of Gibraltar during World War II
2684:also "raised the native, popular, and colloquial
2670:Arabic-Andalusi poetry was marked by the rise of
2476:story in al-Andalus, from a 14th-century Spanish
2180:Another important astronomer from al-Andalus was
2022:Comprehensive Book on Simple Drugs and Foodstuffs
1539:, a turning point which galvanized the remaining
11554:
10849:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 67.
10461:
10274:Marie-Christine Daunay and Jules Janick (2007).
10015:
9711:Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009).
9673:
9560:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
8689:Fletcher, Richard; Fletcher, Richard A. (2006).
8688:
6710:
6473:Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in Spain
6121:
6016:Covington, Richard (2007). Arndt, Robert (ed.).
6011:
6009:
5794:
3017:
2810:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
1279:into the Alps with a series of organized raids.
1078:, an illustrious local Arab clan descended from
732:. It was organized as a province subordinate to
10923:
10639:
9867:The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide
9774:(in French). Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
9765:
9763:
9704:
9240:
8977:
8312:
8173:
8171:
8104:
8102:
7483:
7085:
7083:
7081:
6652:
6650:
6325:
6180:
5757:
5737:
3328:, was used for three-dimensional features like
2052:, as the basis of its medical recommendations.
1894:that spread to Alpujarras and the mountains of
1851:(known as Boabdil to the Christians), formally
1535:at the southern tip of al-Andalus. In 1085, he
1282:
1251:. When Muhammad died, he was succeeded by emir
1158:, finally besieging the capital of al-Andalus,
683:on April 30, 711, ostensibly to intervene in a
10488:
10464:"Acequias: Irrigation for a Growing Community"
9917:"Qantara â Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca"
9864:
9664:
9148:
9083:
8695:. University of California Press. p. 27.
8350:. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp. 9â10.
8308:
8306:
7135:Al Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean
6603:Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711â1492
6184:La división territorial de la España musulmana
5912:
5850:
3629:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
3503:
3056:(920â990) contributed to the cultural life of
2706:also developed, mostly but not exclusively in
687:civil war. After a decisive victory over King
11633:States and territories disestablished in 1492
11053:Frank, Daniel H. & Leaman, Oliver. 2003.
10990:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
10948:: Neue Ăberlegungen zu einem alten Problem",
10597:
10455:
10076:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.
9934:
9909:
9612:
9610:
9608:
9606:
9604:
9602:
9600:
9598:
8666:Spanish Literature: A Very Short Introduction
7860:Fernando RodrĂguez Mediano (April 19, 2013).
7652:
7549:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 82.
7359:
6856:
6731:
6620:
6518:
6491:
6485:
6360:
6257:Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs
6006:
5863:. Oxford University Press. pp. 325â326.
5821:
5800:
5580:
5175:
4677:
3585:The slaves of the Caliph were often European
2743:is part of an influential musical tradition.
1097:
1063:. Al-Andalus was sealed off at the Pyrenees.
336:
11021:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
10692:
10690:
9760:
9746:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
9674:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).
9637:
9564:
9525:"The CĂłrdovan Library of Caliph al-Hakam II"
9516:
8602:. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 66â83.
8451:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
8385:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
8348:A history of optical telescopes in astronomy
8345:
8168:
8099:
8062:
8049:
8047:
8045:
8043:
8041:
7886:
7364:. In GĂŒlru NeciÌpoÄlu; Julia Bailey (eds.).
7078:
7031:
6980:International Journal of Middle East Studies
6764:
6711:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).
6647:
5776:. Real Academia de la Historia. p. 79.
3495:
3072:, his family having fled persecution by the
2000:Kitab al-tasrif li-man 'ajiza 'an al-ta'alif
1855:to the Catholic Monarchs on 2 January 1492.
1572:After the fall of Toledo, most of the major
842:. However, after crushing Odo's Berber ally
535:surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen
11192:Lafuente y AlcĂĄntara, Emilio, trans. 1867.
10633:
10607:Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia
10482:
9804:
9452:
9403:Writing the Feminine: Women in Arab Sources
8303:
8017:
7853:
7839:(Third ed.). Pearson. pp. 37â38.
7207:
6677:
6354:
6326:O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (October 31, 1983).
6240:
6101:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 384.
5887:
5856:
3526:RÄyÄt al-mubarrizÄ«n wa-ghÄyÄt al-mumayyazÄ«n
3437:, respectivelyâare derived from the Arabic
2553:, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.
2312:Religion in Al-Andalus in the 11th century
2152:in future works in the field of astronomy.
1691:Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath
695:on July 19, 711, Tariq, accompanied by his
671:During the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph
11263:Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology
10173:"The story of Andalusian Oranges in Spain"
10009:
9992:""El Transito" Synagogue in Toledo, Spain"
9710:
9595:
8589:
7907:
6566:
6396:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 166â177.
6187:. Instituto de FilologĂa. pp. 55â59.
6174:
5587:
5573:
5182:
5168:
4684:
4670:
3757:Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus
2293:Social and cultural exchange in al-Andalus
2211:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
2080:âa book written to act as a compendium to
1546:
343:
329:
11568:Former countries on the Iberian Peninsula
11316:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11205:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11057:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10819:"Al-Andalus | Facts, History, & Maps"
10696:
10687:
10666:
10518:Spanish Writers on Gay and Lesbian Themes
9577:. Univ of California Press. p. 215.
9001:
8999:
8923:Harzig, Hoerder and Shubert, 2003, p. 42.
8506:
8483:"Ibn Rushd (Averroës): Prince of Science"
8038:
7893:. Stanford University Press. p. 25.
7880:
7673:
6934:
6593:
6512:
6410:
6115:
6015:
5938:
2841:Learn how and when to remove this message
2747:, a poet and musician, who came from the
1869:family in the Alhambra moments after the
1648:, won a major victory over the Castilian
57:Hispania at its greatest extent in 719 AD
11374:The Art of medieval Spain, A.D. 500â1200
11286:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
10902:
10673:. Harvard University Press. p. 72.
10660:
9784:
9733:
9719:. Oxford University Press. p. 332.
9325:
9298:
9214:Moiseevich FilÊčshtinskiÄ, Isaak (1966).
9077:
8884:Schweitzer, Frederick M.; Marvin Perry.
8763:
8635:. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. xxxviii.
8567:. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 277â281.
8248:. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 393â394.
7988:
7986:
7553:
7471:
7459:
7435:
6579:. Cornell University Press. p. 42.
6467:. An additional 3,000 were picked up in
6394:Routledge Library Editions: Muslim Spain
6381:
6201:
5801:Irvin, Dale T.; Sunquist, Scott (2002).
3404:
3382:
3352:. Among the most famous examples is the
3266:
3231:
3161:
3093:
3027:
2890:
2853:
2647:
2637:
2591:Initially, most of the population spoke
2463:
2436:
2278:
1969:
1947:(see below), especially in the field of
1857:
1727:
1700:
1622:
1560:
1390:
1292:
1202:
1112:
817:
632:
11467:The Library of Iberian Resources Online
11138:
10890:The Hidden Debt to Islamic Civilisation
10842:
10064:
9778:
9769:
9643:
9570:
9558:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
9522:
9487:
9319:
9142:
8908:by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling,
8668:. Oxford University Press. p. 13.
8663:
8453:, Springer New York, pp. 564â565,
8448:
8420:. London: Routledge. pp. 330â343.
8387:. Springer New York. pp. 133â134.
7992:
7808:
7796:
7748:
7736:
7724:
7688:. Oxford University Press, US. p.
7628:
7616:
7592:
7559:
7544:
7507:
7495:
7447:
7392:
7347:
7335:
7323:
7311:
7299:
7287:
7275:
7128:
6737:
6683:
6626:
6367:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 8â9.
6246:
5832:. In Natalie Fryde; Dirk Reitz (eds.).
3681:synonymous with "Arab" in the Maghreb.
3378:
3098:A section of the hypostyle hall in the
3079:
2926:took over, real power was ceded to the
1808:). Important cultural figures, such as
394:has traditionally characterized as the
14:
11555:
11096:
10965:
10515:
10221:
9810:
9698:
9545:
9531:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
9267:
9173:
8996:
8416:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver.
8018:SamsĂł, Julio; Fierro, Maribel (1998).
7836:Spain 1469â1714: A Society of Conflict
7820:
7784:
7772:
7760:
7712:
7640:
7604:
7167:
7041:(1987), St. David's University Press (
6977:
6895:
6817:
6572:
6419:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
6051:from the original on December 8, 2015.
4413:Revolution and Asturian miners' strike
3653:. Scientists and philosophers such as
2376:dialects of Latin collectively called
11653:Subdivisions of the Umayyad Caliphate
11425:
11413:
11166:The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides
10640:Peter C. Scales (December 31, 1993).
10583:. Taylor & Francis. p. 398.
10540:
10495:. Chicago Review Press. p. 129.
10492:Sweet Invention: A History of Dessert
10470:. Bexar County Information Technology
10462:Clinton McKenzie (October 30, 2017).
10276:"History and Iconography of Eggplant"
10247:
10128:
9837:
9739:
9616:
9551:
9034:Previte-Orton (1971), vol. 1, p. 377.
8932:
8926:
8797:
8742:
8595:
8378:
8113:. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. xlvi.
8053:
7983:
7944:. University of Chicago Press, 2008,
7914:Patricia E. Grieve (March 19, 2009).
7832:
7680:Meyer, M. C.; Beezley, W. H. (2000).
6857:GarcĂa-Arenal, Mercedes (July 2004).
6599:
6521:"The Political History of Al-Andalus"
6498:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 12.
6416:
6388:'AbdulwÄhid Dáž„anĆ«n áčŹÄha (July 2016).
6148:
6038:
5976:. New York: Oxford University Press.
5963:
5888:RĂos Saloma, MartĂn Federico (2011).
5773:TĂłpicos y realidades de la Edad Media
3737:List of Andalusi and Moroccan writers
3712:History of the Jews under Muslim rule
3062:joint Jewish and Islamic philosophies
3024:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
2958:. He is said to have brought the 51 "
2445:Non-Muslims were given the status of
2165:In addition to writing the important
2068:)âa treatise on general therapy; the
1910:). The last mass prosecution against
1178:(which would later inspire the epic,
965:. The Egypt jund was divided between
834:but were decisively defeated by Duke
736:, so, for the first few decades, the
11495:Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain
11135:, 2 vols. LeidenâNYâCologne: Brill .
11119:The Historical Practice in Diversity
11018:Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain
10250:"History of Spinach | Terroir Seeds"
10248:Scott, Stephen (February 28, 2014).
9743:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain
9005:Frank and Leaman, 2003, pp. 137â138.
8719:Medina Mayrit: The Origins of Madrid
8715:
8596:Abate, Mark T. (November 14, 2018).
7395:The Journal of North African Studies
7129:Skinner, Patricia (August 1, 2012).
6717:. Taschen. pp. 40 (and after).
6288:from the original on June 27, 2008.
6207:
6099:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain
6082:
5982:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001
3773:
3469:(deriving from the classical Arabic
3118:hall with marble columns supporting
2782:
929:The quarrel was settled in 743 when
679:led an army of 7,000 that landed at
11573:Former Islamic monarchies in Europe
11500:Patricia, Countess Jellicoe, 1992,
11395:, ed. Daniel Frank. Leiden: Brill.
11002:The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710â797
10892:. Manchester: Bayt Al-Hikma Press.
10741:
10516:Foster, David William, ed. (1999).
10386:"Learn All About Spanish Olive Oil"
10105:"Arab Influence | Spanish-food.org"
9772:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident
9488:Glasser, Jonathan (April 8, 2016).
9332:. Vol. 6. BRILL. p. 606.
9305:. Vol. 6. BRILL. p. 603.
9194:Studia HistĂłrica. Historia Nedieval
8534:. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 277.
8058:(18): 106â112 – via ProQuest.
7208:McKitterick, Rosamond, ed. (1995).
6028:(3). Aramco Services Company: 2â16.
5625:
5523:History of nationality in Gibraltar
4562:Catalan declaration of independence
3496:
3006:(1126â1198) was the founder of the
2984:communities continued to study it.
1679:. Some Muslim city-states, such as
1543:leaders into seeking outside help.
1047:, to invade the strategic strip of
363:
24:
11407:
10794:"The Moorish Influence On Renaiss"
10489:Michael Krondl (October 1, 2011).
9326:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1989).
9299:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1989).
9202:Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca
7210:The New Cambridge Medieval History
7063:
6787:TheBiography.us; TheBiography.us.
6495:Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796â1031
6364:Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796â1031
6263:. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton: 149.
6149:CantĂł, Pablo (September 9, 2016).
6068:. Casa de VelĂĄzquez. p. 145.
6039:Pigna, Felipe (February 6, 2018).
5913:GarcĂa SanjuĂĄn, Alejandro (2020).
5836:. LIT Verlag MĂŒnster. p. 67.
3365:Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca
2960:Epistles of the Brethren of Purity
1131:In 755, the exiled Umayyad prince
748:. The regional capital was set at
499:, culminating with the capture of
25:
11664:
11477:Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain
11445:
11345:El Islam de España y el Occidente
11041:Intercollegiate Studies Institute
10906:The Almoravid and Almohad Empires
10843:Rouighi, Ramzi (August 2, 2019).
10703:. Algora Publishing. p. 35.
10630:Fernandez-Morera 2016 pp. 163â164
10437:"Centro del Patrimonio Mundial -"
10337:. October 4, 2018. Archived from
10254:Terroir Seeds | Underwood Gardens
9971:en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es
9740:Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992).
9676:Moorish architecture in Andalusia
8722:. Algora Publishing. p. 57.
6896:Caputo, Nina (December 1, 2019).
6714:Moorish architecture in Andalusia
4921:Imperial decline, war, and revolt
3722:Islam and anti-Semitism in Iberia
3500:) has its origins in al-Andalus.
3275:, begun by the first Nasrid emir
2775:are prominent in Andalusi music.
2167:Book of the Medicine of the Arabs
2026:Book of the Medicine of the Arabs
878:valley, reaching as far north as
822:The province of al-Andalus in 750
623:Province of the Umayyad Caliphate
11483:The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus
11472:Al-Andalus Chronology and Photos
11352:The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook
11097:Harvey, Leonard Patrick (1990).
11069:Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia
10944:Bossong, Georg. 2002. "Der Name
10888:Al-Djazairi, Salah Eddine 2005.
10836:
10811:
10786:
10766:
10760:
10735:
10717:
10624:
10534:
10509:
10429:
10403:
10378:
10353:
10323:
10293:
10267:
10241:
10215:
10190:
10165:
10122:
10058:
9984:
9959:
9942:"Qantara â Synagogue de Cordoue"
9883:
9831:
9481:
9446:
9421:
9408:
9395:
9382:
9346:
9292:
9261:
9234:
9221:
9208:
9179:
9102:
9037:
9028:
9008:
8917:
8899:
8869:
8860:
8851:
8842:
8825:
8791:
8778:
8769:
8748:
8709:
8682:
8657:
8624:
8556:
8523:
8474:
8442:
8409:
8372:
8339:
8270:
8237:
8204:
6477:Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne
6427:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1135
5556:
5220:
5151:
5041:Processo RevolucionĂĄrio Em Curso
4876:War of the Portuguese Succession
4722:
4649:
4635:
3802:
3534:Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia
3170:, a carved ivory casket made at
2787:
2599:that were collectively known as
2576:despite their origins in India.
1806: 1354â1359, 1362â1391
1377:
1108:
1084:Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri
62:
47:
11638:1492 disestablishments in Spain
11103:. University of Chigaco Press.
11035:Fernandez-Morera, Dario. 2016.
10867:
10018:The Journal of Economic History
9494:. University of Chicago Press.
9227:HĂ€meen-Anttila, Jaakko (2002).
8135:
8011:
7965:
7934:
7826:
7646:
7538:
7513:
7386:
7234:
7201:
7192:
7174:. Simon and Schuster. pp.
7161:
7122:
7075:(2008), 903 pages, pp. 261â262.
7022:
6971:
6928:
6889:
6850:
6811:
6780:
6758:
6704:
6550:
6541:
6437:
6319:
6142:
6032:
4355:Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
2880:and "ancient sciences". Later,
2595:. That led to the formation of
1957:
1803:
1792:
1419:invading Berbers sacked CĂłrdoba
1403:effectively collapsed during a
1239:Abd al Rahman was succeeded by
874:. In 737, they traveled up the
11511:History of the Spanish Muslims
11067:Gerli, E. Michael, ed., 2003.
10927:A Companion to Islamic Granada
10909:. Edinburgh University Press.
10520:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
10361:"Bananas: an American History"
10222:Denker, Joel (June 14, 2016).
10072:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes
10032:(inactive September 3, 2024).
9865:BermĂșdez LĂłpez, JesĂșs (2011).
9647:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes
9644:Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2011).
9360:. Cambridge University Press.
9247:. Strategic Book. p. 79.
8993:. Retrieved September 2, 2007.
8991:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica Online
8804:. Princeton University Press.
8745:, Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations.
8024:. Routledge. pp. xxxvii.
7942:Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614
6902:The American Historical Review
6563:, Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, p. 9.
6091:"The Islamic Coinage of Spain"
6018:"Rediscovering Arabic Science"
5973:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
5906:
5881:
5828:Luis Corral, Fernando (2009).
5748:GarcĂa de CortĂĄzar, JosĂ© Ăngel
5614:
2568:, which was first imported by
2532:(1066). However, massacres of
2196:Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
1863:Manuel GĂłmez-Moreno GonzĂĄlez's
1565:Map showing the extent of the
1470:, the Basque country, and the
1253:Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi
740:were appointed by the emir of
13:
1:
11588:History of Portugal by polity
11282:O'Callaghan, Joseph F. 1975.
11131:Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. 1992.
10544:Encyclopedia of Homosexuality
9241:Lu'Lu'a, 'AbdulwÄħid (2013).
9151:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
9086:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
8459:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_687
8418:History of Islamic philosophy
8393:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_164
8346:Wall, Wilson (October 2018).
7995:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
6824:The English Historical Review
6765:newsthelinks (May 29, 2020).
6744:. Routledge. pp. 59â60.
6492:Roger Collins (May 7, 2012).
6361:Roger Collins (May 7, 2012).
6210:"Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors"
5807:. A&C Black. p. 30.
5730:
5495:Second sovereignty referendum
5389:Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar
5369:War of the Spanish Succession
4054:War of the Spanish Succession
3536:, Daniel Eisenberg describes
3511:Encyclopedia of Homosexuality
3129:, ribbed domes, a courtyard (
3018:Jewish philosophy and culture
2952:Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti
2778:
2704:Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus
2208:'s recognition of him in his
1721:in 1230 and was ruled by the
1661:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1516:produced technically complex
1395:The taifas (green) in 1031 AD
1032:(centred at Toledo), and the
937:), the Jordan jund in Rayyu (
598:was a corruption of the name
420:
244:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
72:
34:. For the musical group, see
11618:Medieval history of Portugal
11302:An Islamic History of Europe
11015:Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992).
10604:William D. Phillips (2014).
10441:UNESCO World Heritage Centre
9844:. Harvard University Press.
9552:Hasse, Dag Nikolaus (2021).
9405:, I.B.Tauris (2002), p. 152.
9274:Journal of Arabic Literature
9229:Maqama: A History of a Genre
8888:, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002,
7684:The Oxford History of Mexico
7147:10.1080/09503110.2012.684742
7108:10.1080/09503110.2013.767010
6302:cannot be derived from this
5919:Imago Temporis: Medium Aevum
5675:
5456:First sovereignty referendum
5274:Umayyad conquest of Hispania
5003:Portugal during World War II
4831:Portuguese House of Burgundy
4801:Umayyad conquest of Hispania
4014:Colonisation of the Americas
3768:
3541:male harems; the memoirs of
3419:Arab Agricultural Revolution
3393:Arab Agricultural Revolution
2202:Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali
2098:
1890:of Muslims in 1499 led to a
1343:Toledo School of Translators
1283:Umayyad Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
961:, and the Qinnasrin jund in
744:, rather than the Caliph in
575:. The etymology of the name
546:
7:
11284:A History of Medieval Spain
11240:Menocal, Maria Rosa. 2002.
11224:The Formation of Al-Andalus
11100:Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500
10930:. Brill. pp. 122â163.
10903:Bennison, Amira K. (2016).
10547:. Routledge. p. 1237.
10198:"The Nibble: Lemon History"
9817:. Oxford University Press.
9617:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020).
9418:, Mansell Publishing, p. x.
8633:The formation of al-Andalus
8565:The formation of al-Andalus
8532:The formation of al-Andalus
8246:The formation of al-Andalus
8111:The formation of al-Andalus
7368:. BRILL. pp. 133â134.
6818:Barton, S (April 1, 1999).
6329:A History of Medieval Spain
5632:
5538:Fortifications of Gibraltar
4971:Portugal during World War I
3717:Hispanic and Latino Muslims
3684:
3504:Homosexuality and pederasty
3100:MosqueâCathedral of CĂłrdoba
3044:declined, the tolerance of
3042:Jewish thought in Babylonia
3002:The al-Andalus philosopher
2586:
2562:Hindu-Arabic numeral system
2538:are believed to be rare in
2221:
2169:, Ibn Habib also wrote the
1965:
1314:Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer
1209:MosqueâCathedral of CĂłrdoba
953:, the Emesa (Hims) jund in
637:Expansion of the Caliphate
539:, completing the Christian
10:
11669:
11268:Netanyahu, Benzion. 1995.
11222:MarĂn, Manuela, ed. 1998.
11161:77, no. 3 (1997): 449â454.
11133:The Legacy of Muslim Spain
10962:. Harvard University Press
10874:Alfonso, Esperanza, 2007.
10575:Eisenberg, Daniel (2003).
8946:Princeton University Press
8866:O'Callaghan, 1975, p. 286.
8786:The legacy of Muslim Spain
8775:Wasserstein, 1995, p. 101.
8499:10.5144/0256-4947.2008.145
8277:Pormann, Peter E. (2007).
8211:Pormann, Peter E. (2007).
8178:Pormann, Peter E. (2007).
8142:Pormann, Peter E. (2007).
8069:Pormann, Peter E. (2007).
7564:The Long Twentieth Century
7560:Arrighi, Giovanni (2010).
6663:World History Encyclopedia
6600:Flood, Timothy M. (2018).
6573:Safran, Janina M. (2013).
6525:The Legacy of Muslim Spain
6226:10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252
6089:L. Bates, Michael (1992).
5970:Esposito, John L. (2003).
5667:
5379:Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar
5324:Seventh Siege of Gibraltar
4751:Roman conquest of Hispania
4552:2008â2014 financial crisis
3618:
3557:
3553:
3390:
3083:
3021:
2857:
2732:
2641:
2290:
2274:
2269:
1922:
1865:19th-century depiction of
1694:
1550:
1479:to become the Kingdoms of
1384:
1286:
1190:of the Abbasids installed
1101:
1098:Umayyad Emirate of CĂłrdoba
973:) in the west and Tudmir (
626:
615:
611:
550:
436:kingdoms (1009â1110); the
411:, initiated by the Caliph
75:1000 AD, at the apogee of
29:
11628:Former Islamic monarchies
11623:Medieval history of Spain
11341:Sanchez-Albornoz, Claudio
11312:Reilly, Bernard F. 1993.
10972:. New York: Basic Books.
10966:Catlos, Brian A. (2018).
10744:The Ornament of the World
10030:10.1017/S0022050714000904
9770:Marçais, Georges (1954).
9623:. Yale University Press.
9329:The Encyclopedia of Islam
9302:The Encyclopedia of Islam
9286:10.1163/1570064x-12341271
9268:Monroe, James T. (2013).
8984:"Islamic world". (2007).
8857:Kraemer, 2005, pp. 10â13.
8833:"Spain â Al Andalus"
8279:Medieval Islamic medicine
8213:Medieval Islamic medicine
8180:Medieval Islamic medicine
8144:Medieval Islamic medicine
8071:Medieval Islamic medicine
7407:10.1080/13629380108718421
7255:10.1163/22118993-00311P10
6992:10.1017/S0020743800027136
6875:10.1017/s0038713400090308
6690:. Routledge. p. 35.
6633:. Routledge. p. 35.
6606:. McFarland. p. 24.
6527:. Brill. pp. 12â13.
6122:Glick, Thomas F. (2005).
6041:"La Reconquista española"
5529:Political development in
5344:Eighth Siege of Gibraltar
5309:Fourth Siege of Gibraltar
5299:Second Siege of Gibraltar
5244:Neanderthals of Gibraltar
4484:Spain during World War II
4315:Regency of MarĂa Cristina
4183:Regency of MarĂa Cristina
3614:
2560:In the 11th century, the
2111:(Averroes; d. 1198), and
1974:The Andalusian physician
1908:Expulsion of the Moriscos
1117:19th-century portrait of
1061:fell to the Franks in 759
846:on the eastern Pyrenees,
567:, were inscribed in both
11502:The Art of Islamic Spain
11457:The routes of al-Andalus
10958:Calderwood, Eric. 2018.
10725:"Al-Andalus: the Legacy"
10541:Dynes, Wayne R. (2016).
10331:"The history of saffron"
9571:Hurvitz, Nimrod (2020).
8875:Roth, 1994, pp. 113â116.
8487:Annals of Saudi Medicine
8313:Saliba, George. (1994).
7920:. JHU Press. p. 6.
7545:Ekhtiar, Maryam (2011).
7168:Gerber, Jane S. (1994).
6461:Jund Filastin (Filastin)
6181:VallvĂ©, JoaquĂn (1986).
5931:10.21001/itma.2020.14.04
5607:
5394:Great Siege of Gibraltar
5354:Tenth Siege of Gibraltar
5349:Ninth Siege of Gibraltar
5319:Sixth Siege of Gibraltar
5314:Fifth Siege of Gibraltar
5304:Third Siege of Gibraltar
5294:First Siege of Gibraltar
4756:Romanization of Hispania
4539:1981 coup d'Ă©tat attempt
4339:Spain during World War I
3918:Kingdom of the Visigoths
3373:Synagogue of El TrĂĄnsito
3139:(later converted into a
2860:Early Islamic philosophy
2796:This section includes a
2728:
2717:cultivators of knowledge
2644:Literature of al-Andalus
2597:Iberian Romance dialects
945:), the Jund Filastin in
840:Battle of Toulouse (721)
717:and occupied Visigothic
629:Muslim conquest of Spain
444:period (1140â1203); the
440:(1085â1145); the second
140:Umayyad state of CĂłrdoba
11648:2nd millennium in Spain
11643:1st millennium in Spain
11261:Monroe, James T. 1974.
11254:Monroe, James T. 1970.
11219:, vol. 1 (1985): 35â53.
11159:The Journal of Religion
10823:Encyclopedia Britannica
10798:www.webpages.uidaho.edu
9797:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
9433:archive.aramcoworld.com
9414:Roman, Stephan (1990).
8986:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
8798:Cohen, Mark R. (1994).
7198:Khaldun. The Muqaddimah
6949:10.1163/157005890X00041
6836:10.1093/ehr/114.456.403
6457:Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan)
6449:Jund Dimashq (Damascus)
5651:
5500:Cordoba Agreement, 2006
5364:Marquisate of Gibraltar
5047:Transition to democracy
5015:Portuguese Colonial War
4936:Constitutional Monarchy
4916:Great Lisbon earthquake
4523:Transition to democracy
3112:Great Mosque of CĂłrdoba
2989:Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani
2932:al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
2825:more precise citations.
2157:Summary of the Almagest
2119:and the problem of the
1988:Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
1547:Almoravids and Almohads
1165:
986:Kingdom of the Asturias
848:Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi
738:governors of al-Andalus
165:Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
11613:Medieval Islamic world
11479:by Kenneth Baxter Wolf
11230:. Aldershot: Ashgate.
11139:Kennedy, Hugh (1996).
11000:Collins, Roger. 1989.
10670:Atlas of the Year 1000
10646:. BRILL. p. 134.
10305:www.carrotmuseum.co.uk
10283:Chronica Horticulturae
10131:The Scientific Monthly
9838:Irwin, Robert (2004).
9811:Arnold, Felix (2017).
9459:. Palgrave Macmillan.
9134:: CS1 maint: others (
9069:: CS1 maint: others (
7653:Tellier, L.N. (2009).
7462:, pp. 74â78, 341.
7360:Yasser Tabbaa (2008).
6738:Kennedy, Hugh (2014).
6684:Kennedy, Hugh (2014).
6627:Kennedy, Hugh (2014).
6519:Mahmoud Makki (1992).
5716:
5708:
5700:
5692:
5684:
5659:
5643:
4866:Portuguese Renaissance
4557:2017 Barcelona attacks
4389:Provisional Government
4260:Provisional Government
4133:Absolutist restoration
4085:Abdications of Bayonne
3647:Fall of Constantinople
3410:
3388:
3280:
3241:
3175:
3135:) with gardens, and a
3103:
3037:
2919:
2912:Triunfo de Santo TomĂĄs
2659:
2480:
2442:
2288:
1979:
1976:Abu'l Qasim Al-Zahrawi
1874:
1845:war to conquer Granada
1745:
1710:
1628:
1569:
1396:
1317:
1212:
1128:
1080:Oqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri
1020:(capital initially at
931:AbĆ« l-KhaáčáčÄr al-កusÄm
823:
709:, brought most of the
668:
486:Abƫ l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī
430:(929â1031); the first
11361:. London: Routledge.
11357:Stavans, Ilan. 2003.
11305:. video documentary,
11178:Kraemer, Joel. 2008.
11004:, Oxford: Blackwell.
10767:York, University of.
10066:Ruggles, D. Fairchild
9791:"Alhambra, The"
9523:Hamerly, Don (2017).
8848:Stavans, 2003, p. 10.
7887:Anouar Majid (2004).
7866:. BRILL. p. 42.
7833:Kamen, Henry (2005).
6799:on September 21, 2020
6471:. See R. Dozy (1913)
6128:. BRILL. p. 21.
4966:Monarchy of the North
4544:Madrid train bombings
4421:1936 general election
4323:Reign of Alfonso XIII
4109:Constitution of CĂĄdiz
3560:Slavery in Al-Andalus
3543:Abdallah ibn Buluggin
3408:
3397:Mediterranean cuisine
3386:
3270:
3250:Patio de los Naranjos
3235:
3165:
3097:
3031:
2894:
2854:Al-Andalus philosophy
2665:Jaakko HĂ€meen-Anttila
2655:Hadith Bayad wa Riyad
2651:
2638:Literature and poetry
2467:
2440:
2282:
2113:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji
1973:
1861:
1731:
1719:Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar
1704:
1626:
1564:
1551:Further information:
1394:
1365:were already trading
1300:receiving ambassador
1296:
1241:Muhammad I of CĂłrdoba
1206:
1116:
990:Alfonso I of Asturias
821:
636:
537:Isabella I of Castile
89:History of Al-Andalus
11583:History of Andalusia
11326:Roth, Norman. 1994.
10109:www.spanish-food.org
9453:Lebbady, H. (2014).
9024:on February 13, 2009
8664:Labanyi, Jo (2010).
8075:Savage-Smith, Emilie
7484:Boloix-Gallardo 2021
6421:. pp. 988â989.
6208:Halm, Heinz (1989).
5563:Gibraltar portal
5374:Capture of Gibraltar
5035:Carnation Revolution
4886:Dutch-Portuguese War
4570:Coronavirus pandemic
4531:Current constitution
4516:Contemporary history
4331:SpanishâAmerican War
4307:Reign of Alfonso XII
4199:Regency of Espartero
4176:Reign of Isabella II
4062:Nueva Planta Decrees
3910:Kingdom of the Suebi
3667:Cathedral of CĂłrdoba
3635:Alfonso X of Castile
3625:Moorish architecture
3580:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
3379:Food and agriculture
3369:Synagogue of CĂłrdoba
3246:Cathedral of Seville
3157:Bab al-Mardum Mosque
3086:Moorish architecture
3080:Art and architecture
2938:, and especially of
2922:When Al-Hakam's son
2864:Sufism in al-Andalus
2503:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
2413:art and architecture
1827:, the only child of
1783:Battle of RĂo Salado
1401:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
1289:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
870:and overran much of
838:of Aquitaine at the
789:Languedoc-Roussillon
728:, under the name of
721:in southern France.
428:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
286:Battle of the Strait
70:Caliphate of CĂłrdoba
11593:Invasions of Europe
11535: /
11314:The Medieval Spains
11272:. NY: Random House
11228:History and Society
11143:. Harlow: Longman.
10986:Cohen, Mark. 1994.
10143:1957SciMo..84...66C
9946:www.qantara-med.org
9921:www.qantara-med.org
9701:, pp. 139â141.
9390:Andalus and Sefarad
8911:Jewish Encyclopedia
7823:, pp. 308â323.
7811:, pp. 300â303.
7763:, pp. 357â359.
7739:, pp. 288â292.
7727:, pp. 278â289.
7619:, pp. 277â278.
7595:, pp. 280â300.
7498:, pp. 266â272.
7350:, pp. 173â174.
7326:, pp. 164â166.
7314:, pp. 159â162.
7278:, pp. 152â153.
7037:Chandler, Tertius.
6914:10.1093/ahr/rhz1187
5505:Second constitution
5444:during World War II
5158:Portugal portal
4445:Nationalist victory
4366:of DĂĄmaso Berenguer
4252:Sexenio DemocrĂĄtico
4235:Glorious Revolution
4141:Sexenio Absolutista
3991:Early modern period
3890:Diocese of Hispania
3463:world, such as the
3346:Church of San RomĂĄn
3279:in the 13th century
3219:Alcazaba of AlmerĂa
3188:Pyxis of al-Mughira
3168:Pyxis of al-Mughira
3155:to the bridge. The
2978:Hermetic philosophy
2741:music of al-Andalus
2570:Gerbert of Aurillac
2368:(Muslims of native
2256:Book of Agriculture
2117:Ptolemaic astronomy
2030:Kitab tibb al-'arab
1992:Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr
1853:surrendered Granada
1829:Henry IV of Castile
1501:County of Barcelona
1453:). After 1031, the
1006:Desert of the Duero
813:Kingdom of Asturias
693:Battle of Guadalete
458:Mediterranean Basin
370:-ruled area of the
216:Second Taifa period
111:Battle of Guadalete
36:Al-Andalus Ensemble
11598:Islam in Gibraltar
11578:Former Arab states
11506:Saudi Aramco World
11491:(documentary film)
11121:. Berghahn Books.
10773:University of York
10697:Ruiz, Ana (2007).
10667:Man, John (1999).
10415:The Foodies Larder
8948:, pp. 44â45,
8716:Ruiz, Ana (2012).
7521:"Textile Fragment"
7048:2008-02-11 at the
6463:, plus 3,000 from
6095:Jerrilynn D. Dodds
6022:Saudi Aramco World
5768:Benito Ruano, Eloy
5461:First constitution
5239:Prehistoric Iberia
4856:Imperial expansion
4821:County of Portugal
4776:Visigothic Kingdom
4741:Prehistoric Iberia
4656:History portal
4226:Bienio progresista
4217:Second Carlist War
4117:Treaty of Valençay
3975:Christian kingdoms
3846:Carthaginian Spain
3821:Prehistoric Iberia
3663:Islamic Golden Age
3639:Islamic Golden Age
3621:Islamic Golden Age
3411:
3389:
3354:AlcĂĄzar of Seville
3314:Geometric patterns
3281:
3242:
3215:Alcazaba of MĂĄlaga
3176:
3104:
3038:
2956:Brethren of Purity
2920:
2872:wrote that Caliph
2798:list of references
2660:
2481:
2468:Image of a Jewish
2443:
2289:
2285:Emirate of Granada
2182:Maslama al-Majriti
2062:Book of Moderation
2048:and the theory of
2034:prophetic medicine
1980:
1888:forced conversions
1875:
1746:
1734:Court of the Lions
1715:Emirate of Granada
1711:
1697:Emirate of Granada
1629:
1590:Battle of Sagrajas
1570:
1523:In the 1080s, the
1397:
1320:The period of the
1318:
1213:
1129:
1104:Emirate of CĂłrdoba
917:Battle of Bagdoura
860:Battle of Poitiers
824:
711:Visigothic Kingdom
669:
654:Rashidun Caliphate
521:Kingdom of Castile
417:Emirate of CĂłrdoba
402:Emirate of Granada
266:Emirate of Granada
253:Third Taifa period
207:Battle of Sagrajas
174:First Taifa period
121:Battle of Toulouse
11603:Islam in Portugal
11354:34 (1989): 47â66.
11330:. Leiden: Brill.
11182:. NY: Doubleday.
11071:. NY: Routledge.
10937:978-90-04-42581-1
10884:978-0-415-43732-5
10878:. NY: Routledge.
10856:978-0-8122-5130-2
10710:978-0-87586-541-6
10680:978-0-674-54187-0
10617:978-0-8122-4491-5
10590:978-0-415-93918-8
10502:978-1-56976-954-6
10202:www.thenibble.com
9584:978-0-520-96910-0
9538:978-3-11-045084-2
9501:978-0-226-32706-8
9466:978-1-349-38217-0
9216:Arabic Literature
9121:978-90-04-22742-2
9056:978-90-04-22742-2
8955:978-0-691-00807-3
8938:The Jews of Islam
8837:countrystudies.us
8609:978-3-319-96481-2
8468:978-0-387-30400-7
8427:978-0-203-82459-7
8402:978-0-387-30400-7
8357:978-3-319-99088-0
8288:978-1-58901-160-1
8222:978-1-58901-160-1
8189:978-1-58901-160-1
8153:978-1-58901-160-1
8056:Islamica Magazine
8031:978-1-351-88958-2
7973:VĂnculos Historia
7927:978-0-8018-9036-9
7900:978-0-8047-4981-7
7873:978-90-04-25029-1
7699:978-0-19-511228-3
7643:, pp. 14â15.
7579:978-1-84467-304-9
7568:. Verso. p.
7525:www.metmuseum.org
7438:, pp. 74â75.
7375:978-90-04-17327-9
7219:978-1-139-05571-0
6751:978-1-317-87041-8
6697:978-1-317-87041-8
6658:"Abd al-Rahman I"
6640:978-1-317-87041-8
6613:978-1-4766-7471-1
6586:978-0-8014-6801-8
6505:978-0-631-18184-2
6403:978-1-134-98576-0
6374:978-0-631-18184-2
6270:978-3-11-089465-3
6194:978-84-00-06295-8
6108:978-0-87099-636-8
6075:978-84-9096-227-5
5899:978-84-92820-47-4
5870:978-0-19-533403-6
5843:978-3-8258-9478-8
5814:978-0-567-08866-6
5783:978-84-95983-06-0
5673:
5604:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5475:Death on the Rock
5471:Operation Flavius
5384:Treaty of Utrecht
5359:Catholic Monarchs
5284:Moorish Gibraltar
5192:
5191:
5065:COVID-19 pandemic
4997:Ditadura Nacional
4926:Transfer of Court
4911:House of Braganza
4871:Portuguese Empire
4816:Almoravid dynasty
4746:Pre-Roman Peoples
4694:
4693:
4611:Religious history
4300:Restoration Spain
4276:Third Carlist War
4268:Reign of Amadeo I
4191:First Carlist War
3998:Catholic Monarchs
3903:Early Middle Ages
3841:Pre-Roman peoples
3742:Moorish Gibraltar
3732:Islam in Portugal
3494:(supposedly from
3450:Palmeral of Elche
3340:(named after the
3227:Islamic bathhouse
3120:two-tiered arches
3054:Dunash ben Labrat
2898:, founder of the
2874:Abd-ar-Rahman III
2851:
2850:
2843:
2693:RithÄ' al-Andalus
2495:Abd-ar-Rahman III
2421:Romance languages
2136:Kitab fi al-hay'a
2132:Book on Cosmology
2074:Kitab al-Aghdhiya
2050:four temperaments
2014:Canon of Medicine
1841:Catholic Monarchs
1837:John II of Aragon
1677:conquered in 1248
1673:conquered in 1236
1654:Battle of Alarcos
1588:kingdoms. At the
1582:Yusuf Ibn Tashfin
1557:Almohad Caliphate
1553:Almoravid dynasty
1405:ruinous civil war
1347:Gerard of Cremona
1298:Abd al-Rahman III
1261:Abd al-Rahman III
1245:Abd al-Rahman III
1192:al-Ala ibn-Mugith
1184:Abbasid Caliphate
1180:Chanson de Roland
1172:Mosque of CĂłrdoba
1124:Estoria de España
1010:march territories
844:Uthman ibn Naissa
664:Umayyad Caliphate
553:Name of Andalusia
472:), pharmacology (
446:Almohad Caliphate
409:Umayyad Caliphate
372:Iberian Peninsula
353:
352:
307:Iberian Peninsula
160:Abd al-Rahman III
16:(Redirected from
11660:
11550:
11549:
11547:
11546:
11545:
11540:
11536:
11533:
11532:
11531:
11528:
11441:
11439:
11437:
11422:
11388:
11258:. Leiden: Brill.
11154:
11114:
11032:
10983:
10941:
10920:
10861:
10860:
10840:
10834:
10833:
10831:
10829:
10815:
10809:
10808:
10806:
10804:
10790:
10784:
10783:
10781:
10779:
10764:
10758:
10757:
10742:Menocal, Maria.
10739:
10733:
10732:
10721:
10715:
10714:
10694:
10685:
10684:
10664:
10658:
10657:
10637:
10631:
10628:
10622:
10621:
10601:
10595:
10594:
10572:
10566:
10565:
10563:
10561:
10538:
10532:
10531:
10513:
10507:
10506:
10486:
10480:
10479:
10477:
10475:
10459:
10453:
10452:
10450:
10448:
10433:
10427:
10426:
10424:
10422:
10407:
10401:
10400:
10398:
10396:
10382:
10376:
10375:
10373:
10371:
10365:www.worldcat.org
10357:
10351:
10350:
10348:
10346:
10327:
10321:
10320:
10318:
10316:
10311:on July 28, 2022
10307:. Archived from
10297:
10291:
10290:
10280:
10271:
10265:
10264:
10262:
10260:
10245:
10239:
10238:
10236:
10234:
10219:
10213:
10212:
10210:
10208:
10194:
10188:
10187:
10185:
10183:
10169:
10163:
10162:
10126:
10120:
10119:
10117:
10115:
10101:
10092:
10091:
10075:
10062:
10056:
10055:
10049:
10041:
10024:(4): 1205â1220.
10013:
10007:
10006:
10004:
10002:
9988:
9982:
9981:
9979:
9977:
9963:
9957:
9956:
9954:
9952:
9938:
9932:
9931:
9929:
9927:
9913:
9907:
9906:
9887:
9881:
9880:
9862:
9856:
9855:
9835:
9829:
9828:
9808:
9802:
9801:
9793:
9782:
9776:
9775:
9767:
9758:
9757:
9737:
9731:
9730:
9708:
9702:
9696:
9690:
9689:
9671:
9662:
9661:
9641:
9635:
9634:
9614:
9593:
9592:
9568:
9562:
9561:
9549:
9543:
9542:
9520:
9514:
9513:
9485:
9479:
9478:
9450:
9444:
9443:
9441:
9439:
9425:
9419:
9412:
9406:
9399:
9393:
9392:, 2019, page 86.
9388:Sarah Stroumsa,
9386:
9380:
9379:
9350:
9344:
9343:
9323:
9317:
9316:
9296:
9290:
9289:
9265:
9259:
9258:
9238:
9232:
9225:
9219:
9212:
9206:
9205:
9191:
9183:
9177:
9171:
9165:
9164:
9146:
9140:
9139:
9133:
9125:
9106:
9100:
9099:
9081:
9075:
9074:
9068:
9060:
9041:
9035:
9032:
9026:
9025:
9020:, archived from
9012:
9006:
9003:
8994:
8981:
8975:
8974:
8930:
8924:
8921:
8915:
8903:
8897:
8882:
8876:
8873:
8867:
8864:
8858:
8855:
8849:
8846:
8840:
8839:
8829:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8818:
8795:
8789:
8782:
8776:
8773:
8767:
8761:
8755:
8752:
8746:
8740:
8734:
8733:
8713:
8707:
8706:
8686:
8680:
8679:
8661:
8655:
8654:
8628:
8622:
8621:
8593:
8587:
8586:
8560:
8554:
8553:
8527:
8521:
8520:
8510:
8478:
8472:
8471:
8446:
8440:
8439:
8413:
8407:
8406:
8376:
8370:
8369:
8343:
8337:
8336:
8310:
8301:
8300:
8274:
8268:
8267:
8241:
8235:
8234:
8208:
8202:
8201:
8175:
8166:
8165:
8139:
8133:
8132:
8106:
8097:
8096:
8066:
8060:
8059:
8051:
8036:
8035:
8015:
8009:
8008:
7990:
7981:
7969:
7963:
7938:
7932:
7931:
7911:
7905:
7904:
7884:
7878:
7877:
7857:
7851:
7850:
7830:
7824:
7818:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7788:
7782:
7776:
7770:
7764:
7758:
7752:
7746:
7740:
7734:
7728:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7703:
7687:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7650:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7614:
7608:
7602:
7596:
7590:
7584:
7583:
7567:
7557:
7551:
7550:
7542:
7536:
7535:
7533:
7531:
7517:
7511:
7505:
7499:
7493:
7487:
7481:
7475:
7469:
7463:
7457:
7451:
7445:
7439:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7390:
7384:
7383:
7357:
7351:
7345:
7339:
7333:
7327:
7321:
7315:
7309:
7303:
7297:
7291:
7285:
7279:
7273:
7267:
7266:
7238:
7232:
7231:
7205:
7199:
7196:
7190:
7189:
7165:
7159:
7158:
7126:
7120:
7119:
7087:
7076:
7067:
7061:
7035:
7029:
7026:
7020:
7019:
6975:
6969:
6968:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6908:(5): 1823â1825.
6893:
6887:
6886:
6854:
6848:
6847:
6830:(456): 403â404.
6815:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6804:
6795:. Archived from
6784:
6778:
6777:
6775:
6773:
6762:
6756:
6755:
6735:
6729:
6728:
6708:
6702:
6701:
6681:
6675:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6654:
6645:
6644:
6624:
6618:
6617:
6597:
6591:
6590:
6570:
6564:
6561:Europe and Islam
6554:
6548:
6545:
6539:
6538:
6516:
6510:
6509:
6489:
6483:
6453:Jund Hims (Homs)
6441:
6435:
6434:
6414:
6408:
6407:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6358:
6352:
6351:
6323:
6317:
6316:
6287:
6254:
6244:
6238:
6237:
6205:
6199:
6198:
6178:
6172:
6171:
6169:
6167:
6146:
6140:
6139:
6119:
6113:
6112:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6059:
6053:
6052:
6036:
6030:
6029:
6013:
6004:
6003:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5942:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5885:
5879:
5878:
5854:
5848:
5847:
5825:
5819:
5818:
5798:
5792:
5791:
5764:
5755:
5744:
5724:
5678:
5672:romanized:
5671:
5669:
5637:
5627:
5618:
5589:
5582:
5575:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5532:
5531:modern Gibraltar
5488:Modern Gibraltar
5445:
5414:Royal Calpe Hunt
5224:
5214:
5196:
5195:
5184:
5177:
5170:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5133:Madeiran history
5069:
5061:
5057:Financial crisis
4976:1926 coup d'Ă©tat
4849:Age of Discovery
4836:1383â1385 Crisis
4811:Gharb Al-Andalus
4726:
4716:
4698:
4697:
4686:
4679:
4672:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4642:Spain portal
4640:
4639:
4638:
4606:Military history
4591:Economic history
4574:
4566:
4548:
4535:
4527:
4504:
4496:
4488:
4480:
4476:Republican exile
4472:
4449:
4441:
4433:
4429:1936 coup d'Ă©tat
4425:
4417:
4409:
4401:
4393:
4370:
4359:
4351:
4343:
4335:
4327:
4319:
4311:
4288:
4280:
4272:
4264:
4239:
4231:
4221:
4213:
4203:
4195:
4187:
4164:
4156:
4146:
4121:
4113:
4105:
4097:
4093:Napoleonic Spain
4089:
4066:
4058:
4050:
4042:
4034:
4026:
4018:
4010:
4002:
3979:
3971:
3961:
3953:
3930:
3926:Byzantine Spania
3922:
3914:
3881:
3880:(218 BCEâ472 CE)
3873:
3850:
3806:
3796:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3747:Muslim conquests
3707:History of Islam
3692:Gharb Al-Andalus
3499:
3498:
3477:(referred to as
3371:(1315), and the
3296:(1333â1353) and
3203:Aljaferia Palace
3180:Madinat al-Zahra
3172:Madinat al-Zahra
3149:Roman-era bridge
3145:Madinat al-Zahra
3052:(1086â1145) and
2846:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2826:
2821:this section by
2812:inline citations
2791:
2790:
2783:
2620:Classical Arabic
2593:Romance dialects
2378:Andalusi Romance
2337:
2327:
2317:
2254:, who wrote the
2175:Kirab fi l-nujim
2066:Kitab al-Iqtisad
2042:Galenic medicine
2006:, on incisions,
1961:
1959:
1953:Abd ar-Rahman II
1807:
1805:
1796:
1795: 1333â1354
1794:
1740:, the palace of
1675:and Seville was
1646:Ya'qub al-Mansur
1606:its taifa period
1567:Almoravid empire
1513:Taifa of Seville
1306:Otto I the Great
1233:Abbas ibn Firnas
1225:Abd al-Rahman II
1207:Interior of the
1186:. In 763 Caliph
1086:in Ifriqiya and
675:, the commander
661:
651:
641:
591:in Portuguese).
508:, both based in
438:Almoravid Empire
425:
422:
365:
345:
338:
331:
299:Related articles
273:
272:
260:
259:
236:
235:
223:
222:
194:
193:
181:
180:
147:
146:
116:Siege of CĂłrdoba
103:
102:
85:
84:
74:
66:
51:
21:
11668:
11667:
11663:
11662:
11661:
11659:
11658:
11657:
11553:
11552:
11543:
11541:
11537:
11534:
11529:
11526:
11524:
11522:
11521:
11448:
11435:
11433:
11410:
11408:Further reading
11405:
11385:
11371:
11309:4, August 2005.
11151:
11111:
11029:
10980:
10938:
10917:
10870:
10865:
10864:
10857:
10841:
10837:
10827:
10825:
10817:
10816:
10812:
10802:
10800:
10792:
10791:
10787:
10777:
10775:
10765:
10761:
10754:
10740:
10736:
10723:
10722:
10718:
10711:
10695:
10688:
10681:
10665:
10661:
10654:
10638:
10634:
10629:
10625:
10618:
10602:
10598:
10591:
10581:Medieval Iberia
10577:"Homosexuality"
10573:
10569:
10559:
10557:
10555:
10539:
10535:
10528:
10514:
10510:
10503:
10487:
10483:
10473:
10471:
10460:
10456:
10446:
10444:
10435:
10434:
10430:
10420:
10418:
10417:. June 12, 2013
10409:
10408:
10404:
10394:
10392:
10390:The Spruce Eats
10384:
10383:
10379:
10369:
10367:
10359:
10358:
10354:
10344:
10342:
10341:on July 7, 2019
10329:
10328:
10324:
10314:
10312:
10299:
10298:
10294:
10278:
10272:
10268:
10258:
10256:
10246:
10242:
10232:
10230:
10220:
10216:
10206:
10204:
10196:
10195:
10191:
10181:
10179:
10171:
10170:
10166:
10127:
10123:
10113:
10111:
10103:
10102:
10095:
10088:
10063:
10059:
10043:
10042:
10014:
10010:
10000:
9998:
9990:
9989:
9985:
9975:
9973:
9965:
9964:
9960:
9950:
9948:
9940:
9939:
9935:
9925:
9923:
9915:
9914:
9910:
9903:
9888:
9884:
9877:
9869:. TF Editores.
9863:
9859:
9852:
9836:
9832:
9825:
9809:
9805:
9783:
9779:
9768:
9761:
9754:
9738:
9734:
9727:
9709:
9705:
9697:
9693:
9686:
9672:
9665:
9658:
9642:
9638:
9631:
9615:
9596:
9585:
9569:
9565:
9550:
9546:
9539:
9521:
9517:
9502:
9486:
9482:
9467:
9451:
9447:
9437:
9435:
9427:
9426:
9422:
9413:
9409:
9400:
9396:
9387:
9383:
9368:
9351:
9347:
9340:
9324:
9320:
9313:
9297:
9293:
9266:
9262:
9255:
9239:
9235:
9226:
9222:
9213:
9209:
9189:
9185:
9184:
9180:
9172:
9168:
9161:
9147:
9143:
9127:
9126:
9122:
9108:
9107:
9103:
9096:
9082:
9078:
9062:
9061:
9057:
9043:
9042:
9038:
9033:
9029:
9014:
9013:
9009:
9004:
8997:
8982:
8978:
8956:
8942:Princeton, N.J.
8931:
8927:
8922:
8918:
8904:
8900:
8883:
8879:
8874:
8870:
8865:
8861:
8856:
8852:
8847:
8843:
8831:
8830:
8826:
8816:
8814:
8812:
8796:
8792:
8783:
8779:
8774:
8770:
8762:
8758:
8753:
8749:
8741:
8737:
8730:
8714:
8710:
8703:
8687:
8683:
8676:
8662:
8658:
8643:
8629:
8625:
8610:
8594:
8590:
8575:
8561:
8557:
8542:
8528:
8524:
8479:
8475:
8469:
8447:
8443:
8428:
8414:
8410:
8403:
8377:
8373:
8358:
8344:
8340:
8325:
8311:
8304:
8289:
8275:
8271:
8256:
8242:
8238:
8223:
8209:
8205:
8190:
8176:
8169:
8154:
8140:
8136:
8121:
8107:
8100:
8085:
8067:
8063:
8052:
8039:
8032:
8016:
8012:
8005:
7991:
7984:
7970:
7966:
7939:
7935:
7928:
7912:
7908:
7901:
7885:
7881:
7874:
7858:
7854:
7847:
7831:
7827:
7819:
7815:
7807:
7803:
7795:
7791:
7783:
7779:
7771:
7767:
7759:
7755:
7747:
7743:
7735:
7731:
7723:
7719:
7711:
7707:
7700:
7678:
7674:
7667:
7651:
7647:
7639:
7635:
7627:
7623:
7615:
7611:
7603:
7599:
7591:
7587:
7580:
7558:
7554:
7543:
7539:
7529:
7527:
7519:
7518:
7514:
7506:
7502:
7494:
7490:
7482:
7478:
7470:
7466:
7458:
7454:
7446:
7442:
7434:
7430:
7391:
7387:
7376:
7358:
7354:
7346:
7342:
7334:
7330:
7322:
7318:
7310:
7306:
7298:
7294:
7286:
7282:
7274:
7270:
7243:Muqarnas Online
7239:
7235:
7220:
7212:. p. 157.
7206:
7202:
7197:
7193:
7186:
7166:
7162:
7127:
7123:
7088:
7079:
7068:
7064:
7050:Wayback Machine
7036:
7032:
7027:
7023:
6976:
6972:
6933:
6929:
6894:
6890:
6855:
6851:
6816:
6812:
6802:
6800:
6793:thebiography.us
6785:
6781:
6771:
6769:
6763:
6759:
6752:
6736:
6732:
6725:
6709:
6705:
6698:
6682:
6678:
6668:
6666:
6656:
6655:
6648:
6641:
6625:
6621:
6614:
6598:
6594:
6587:
6571:
6567:
6557:Cardini, Franco
6555:
6551:
6546:
6542:
6535:
6517:
6513:
6506:
6490:
6486:
6442:
6438:
6415:
6411:
6404:
6386:
6382:
6375:
6359:
6355:
6340:
6324:
6320:
6285:
6271:
6252:
6245:
6241:
6206:
6202:
6195:
6179:
6175:
6165:
6163:
6147:
6143:
6136:
6120:
6116:
6109:
6087:
6083:
6076:
6060:
6056:
6037:
6033:
6014:
6007:
5992:
5968:
5964:
5911:
5907:
5900:
5886:
5882:
5871:
5855:
5851:
5844:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5799:
5795:
5784:
5765:
5758:
5745:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5727:
5619:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5593:
5557:
5555:
5543:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5518:
5510:
5509:
5490:
5480:
5479:
5451:Operation Felix
5447:
5443:
5437:
5429:
5419:
5418:
5409:
5399:
5398:
5339:
5329:
5328:
5269:
5259:
5258:
5234:
5212:
5205:
5188:
5152:
5150:
5138:
5137:
5128:Azorean history
5123:
5113:
5112:
5083:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5059:
5030:
5020:
5019:
4991:
4989:Second Republic
4981:
4980:
4956:
4946:
4945:
4941:1910 Revolution
4906:Restoration War
4901:
4891:
4890:
4851:
4841:
4840:
4796:
4786:
4785:
4736:
4714:
4707:
4690:
4661:
4650:
4648:
4636:
4634:
4616:
4615:
4596:Law enforcement
4586:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4564:
4546:
4533:
4525:
4518:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4500:Basque conflict
4494:
4486:
4478:
4470:
4463:
4461:Francoist Spain
4453:
4452:
4447:
4439:
4431:
4423:
4415:
4407:
4405:Second Biennium
4399:
4391:
4384:
4382:Second Republic
4374:
4373:
4368:
4357:
4349:
4341:
4333:
4325:
4317:
4309:
4302:
4292:
4291:
4286:
4278:
4270:
4262:
4255:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4229:
4219:
4211:
4208:DĂ©cada moderada
4201:
4193:
4185:
4178:
4168:
4167:
4162:
4154:
4151:Trienio Liberal
4144:
4135:
4125:
4124:
4119:
4111:
4103:
4101:Cortes of CĂĄdiz
4095:
4087:
4080:
4070:
4069:
4064:
4056:
4048:
4040:
4032:
4024:
4016:
4008:
4000:
3993:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3969:
3959:
3951:
3949:Muslim conquest
3944:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3920:
3912:
3905:
3895:
3894:
3879:
3871:
3864:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3836:
3826:
3825:
3816:
3794:
3787:
3771:
3766:
3687:
3677:and many more.
3631:
3617:
3599:Abd al-Rahman I
3562:
3556:
3506:
3488:The confection
3403:
3391:Main articles:
3381:
3306:reflective pool
3225:of Granada, an
3192:Pyxis of Zamora
3153:Calahorra Tower
3108:Abd ar-Rahman I
3092:
3084:Main articles:
3082:
3026:
3020:
2969:Ghayat al-Hakim
2948:burned publicly
2916:Andrea Bonaiuto
2904:secular thought
2870:Said al-Andalus
2866:
2856:
2847:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2816:
2802:related reading
2792:
2788:
2781:
2737:
2731:
2678:James T. Monroe
2676:. As worded by
2646:
2640:
2624:Andalusi Arabic
2589:
2574:Arabic numerals
2540:Islamic history
2388:Andalusi Arabic
2346:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2335:
2333:
2325:
2323:
2315:
2307:
2277:
2272:
2264:Abd al-Rahman I
2248:agriculturalist
2224:
2101:
2089:Kitab al-Taysir
2078:Kitab al-Taysir
1968:
1956:
1925:
1871:fall of Granada
1802:
1791:
1699:
1693:
1559:
1549:
1476:Marca Hispanica
1389:
1383:
1324:is seen as the
1291:
1285:
1249:Umar ibn Hafsun
1168:
1133:Abd al-Rahman I
1119:Abd al-Rahman I
1111:
1106:
1100:
1045:Pepin the Short
897:erupted in the
703:Musa ibn Nusayr
677:Tariq ibn-Ziyad
667:
659:
657:
649:
647:
639:
631:
625:
620:
614:
555:
549:
517:fall of CĂłrdoba
462:Jabir ibn Aflah
423:
415:(711â750); the
349:
270:
269:
268:
257:
256:
255:
233:
232:
231:
220:
219:
218:
191:
190:
189:
178:
177:
176:
155:Abd al-Rahman I
144:
143:
142:
126:Battle of Tours
100:
99:
98:
96:Muslim conquest
83:
82:
81:
80:
79:
67:
59:
58:
52:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11666:
11656:
11655:
11650:
11645:
11640:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11620:
11615:
11610:
11608:Islam in Spain
11605:
11600:
11595:
11590:
11585:
11580:
11575:
11570:
11565:
11519:
11518:
11508:
11498:
11492:
11486:
11480:
11474:
11469:
11464:
11454:
11447:
11446:External links
11444:
11443:
11442:
11423:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11403:
11389:
11383:
11369:
11355:
11348:
11338:
11324:
11310:
11294:
11280:
11266:
11259:
11252:
11238:
11220:
11213:
11199:
11190:
11176:
11162:
11155:
11149:
11136:
11129:
11115:
11109:
11094:
11087:
11079:
11065:
11051:
11049:978-1610170956
11033:
11027:
11012:
10998:
10984:
10979:978-0465055876
10978:
10963:
10956:
10942:
10936:
10921:
10915:
10900:
10886:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10863:
10862:
10855:
10835:
10810:
10785:
10759:
10752:
10734:
10716:
10709:
10686:
10679:
10659:
10652:
10632:
10623:
10616:
10596:
10589:
10567:
10553:
10533:
10526:
10508:
10501:
10481:
10468:www.arcgis.com
10454:
10428:
10402:
10377:
10352:
10322:
10292:
10266:
10240:
10214:
10189:
10164:
10121:
10093:
10087:978-0812240252
10086:
10057:
10008:
9996:Beit Hatfutsot
9983:
9958:
9933:
9908:
9901:
9882:
9875:
9857:
9850:
9830:
9823:
9803:
9788:, ed. (1911).
9786:Chisholm, Hugh
9777:
9759:
9752:
9732:
9725:
9703:
9691:
9684:
9663:
9656:
9636:
9629:
9594:
9583:
9563:
9544:
9537:
9515:
9500:
9480:
9465:
9445:
9420:
9407:
9394:
9381:
9366:
9345:
9338:
9318:
9311:
9291:
9280:(3): 293â334.
9260:
9253:
9233:
9220:
9207:
9178:
9176:, p. 104.
9166:
9159:
9141:
9120:
9101:
9094:
9076:
9055:
9036:
9027:
9007:
8995:
8976:
8954:
8934:Lewis, Bernard
8925:
8916:
8898:
8896:, pp. 267â268.
8877:
8868:
8859:
8850:
8841:
8824:
8810:
8790:
8777:
8768:
8766:, p. 166.
8756:
8747:
8735:
8728:
8708:
8701:
8681:
8674:
8656:
8641:
8623:
8608:
8588:
8573:
8555:
8540:
8522:
8493:(2): 145â147.
8473:
8467:
8441:
8426:
8408:
8401:
8371:
8356:
8338:
8323:
8302:
8287:
8269:
8254:
8236:
8221:
8203:
8188:
8167:
8152:
8134:
8119:
8098:
8083:
8061:
8037:
8030:
8010:
8003:
7982:
7964:
7940:Harvey, L. P.
7933:
7926:
7906:
7899:
7879:
7872:
7852:
7845:
7825:
7813:
7801:
7799:, p. 300.
7789:
7787:, p. 268.
7777:
7775:, p. 377.
7765:
7753:
7751:, p. 291.
7741:
7729:
7717:
7715:, p. 354.
7705:
7698:
7672:
7665:
7645:
7633:
7631:, p. 277.
7621:
7609:
7607:, p. 337.
7597:
7585:
7578:
7552:
7537:
7512:
7510:, p. 271.
7500:
7488:
7486:, p. 122.
7476:
7474:, p. 108.
7464:
7452:
7450:, p. 202.
7440:
7428:
7385:
7374:
7352:
7340:
7338:, p. 166.
7328:
7316:
7304:
7302:, p. 153.
7292:
7290:, p. 161.
7280:
7268:
7249:(1): 245â276.
7233:
7218:
7200:
7191:
7184:
7160:
7141:(2): 125â138.
7121:
7077:
7062:
7030:
7021:
6970:
6943:(3): 359â388.
6927:
6888:
6869:(3): 801â804.
6849:
6810:
6779:
6757:
6750:
6730:
6723:
6703:
6696:
6676:
6646:
6639:
6619:
6612:
6592:
6585:
6565:
6549:
6540:
6533:
6511:
6504:
6484:
6465:Jund Qinnasrin
6436:
6409:
6402:
6380:
6373:
6353:
6338:
6318:
6304:Germanic tribe
6269:
6239:
6220:(2): 252â263.
6200:
6193:
6173:
6159:(in Spanish).
6141:
6134:
6114:
6107:
6081:
6074:
6054:
6047:(in Spanish).
6045:El Historiador
6031:
6005:
5990:
5962:
5905:
5898:
5880:
5869:
5849:
5842:
5820:
5813:
5793:
5782:
5756:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5620:Translations:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5602:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5584:
5577:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5552:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5541:
5540:
5535:
5527:
5525:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5491:
5486:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5478:
5477:
5468:
5466:Border closure
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5440:
5438:
5433:
5430:
5425:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5417:
5416:
5410:
5405:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5340:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5270:
5265:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5235:
5230:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5217:
5216:
5207:
5206:
5199:
5193:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5179:
5172:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5147:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5130:
5124:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5114:
5084:
5079:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5062:
5054:
5052:Third Republic
5049:
5044:
5037:
5031:
5028:Third Republic
5026:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5005:
5000:
4992:
4987:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4961:First Republic
4957:
4954:First Republic
4952:
4951:
4948:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4902:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4852:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4797:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4771:Suebic Kingdom
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4737:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4719:
4718:
4709:
4708:
4701:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4688:
4681:
4674:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4659:
4645:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4618:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:(2020âpresent)
4567:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4541:
4536:
4528:
4519:
4514:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4497:
4489:
4481:
4473:
4468:Spanish Maquis
4464:
4459:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4442:
4434:
4426:
4418:
4410:
4402:
4397:First Biennium
4394:
4385:
4380:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4360:
4352:
4344:
4336:
4328:
4320:
4312:
4303:
4298:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4284:First Republic
4281:
4273:
4265:
4256:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4232:
4222:
4214:
4204:
4196:
4188:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4160:Ominous Decade
4157:
4147:
4136:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4106:
4098:
4090:
4081:
4078:Peninsular War
4076:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4059:
4051:
4043:
4035:
4027:
4019:
4011:
4003:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3972:
3962:
3954:
3945:
3940:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3932:
3931:
3923:
3915:
3906:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3874:
3869:Roman Conquest
3865:
3862:Roman Hispania
3860:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3843:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3817:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3799:
3798:
3789:
3788:
3781:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3727:Islam in Spain
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3702:La Convivencia
3699:
3694:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3616:
3613:
3558:Main article:
3555:
3552:
3505:
3502:
3475:Persian Empire
3380:
3377:
3318:vegetal motifs
3258:multifoil arch
3174:, dated to 968
3124:horseshoe-arch
3102:, begun in 785
3081:
3078:
3022:Main article:
3019:
3016:
2918:, 14th century
2910:. Detail from
2908:Western Europe
2868:The historian
2855:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2806:external links
2795:
2793:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2735:Andalusi music
2733:Main article:
2730:
2727:
2642:Main article:
2639:
2636:
2588:
2585:
2419:and their own
2334:
2324:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2297:La Convivencia
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2223:
2220:
2187:Planisphaerium
2100:
2097:
1967:
1964:
1960: 822â852
1924:
1921:
1916:crypto-Islamic
1867:Muhammad XII's
1723:Nasrid dynasty
1707:Nasrid Dynasty
1695:Main article:
1692:
1689:
1604:at the end of
1548:
1545:
1537:annexed Toledo
1385:Main article:
1382:
1376:
1330:Constantinople
1310:Medina Azahara
1287:Main article:
1284:
1281:
1231:. The scholar
1167:
1164:
1148:YĆ«suf al-Fihri
1110:
1107:
1102:Main article:
1099:
1096:
1088:YĆ«suf al-Fihri
947:Medina-Sidonia
913:Bilad Ash-Sham
856:Charles Martel
726:Umayyad Empire
658:
648:
638:
627:Main article:
624:
621:
613:
610:
551:Main article:
548:
545:
464:), astronomy (
392:historiography
378:in modern-day
376:Islamic states
351:
350:
348:
347:
340:
333:
325:
322:
321:
320:
319:
314:
309:
301:
300:
296:
295:
294:
293:
288:
283:
281:Nasrid dynasty
275:
274:
262:
261:
249:
248:
247:
246:
238:
237:
225:
224:
212:
211:
210:
209:
204:
196:
195:
187:Almoravid rule
183:
182:
170:
169:
168:
167:
162:
157:
149:
148:
136:
135:
134:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
105:
104:
92:
91:
68:
61:
60:
53:
46:
45:
44:
43:
42:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11665:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11644:
11641:
11639:
11636:
11634:
11631:
11629:
11626:
11624:
11621:
11619:
11616:
11614:
11611:
11609:
11606:
11604:
11601:
11599:
11596:
11594:
11591:
11589:
11586:
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5721:Moorish Spain
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4881:Iberian Union
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4512:
4511:
4501:
4498:
4493:
4492:Blue Division
4490:
4485:
4482:
4477:
4474:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4457:
4456:
4446:
4443:
4438:
4435:
4430:
4427:
4422:
4419:
4414:
4411:
4406:
4403:
4398:
4395:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4378:
4377:
4367:
4365:
4361:
4356:
4353:
4348:
4345:
4340:
4337:
4332:
4329:
4324:
4321:
4316:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4301:
4296:
4295:
4285:
4282:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4266:
4261:
4258:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4247:
4246:
4236:
4233:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4215:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4197:
4192:
4189:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4158:
4153:
4152:
4148:
4143:
4142:
4138:
4137:
4134:
4129:
4128:
4118:
4115:
4110:
4107:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4091:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4074:
4073:
4063:
4060:
4055:
4052:
4047:
4044:
4039:
4038:Iberian Union
4036:
4031:
4028:
4023:
4020:
4015:
4012:
4007:
4004:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3987:
3986:
3976:
3973:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3955:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3938:
3937:
3927:
3924:
3919:
3916:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3904:
3899:
3898:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3878:
3875:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3863:
3858:
3857:
3849:(575â206 BCE)
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3834:Early history
3830:
3829:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3815:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3697:Arab diaspora
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3682:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3551:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3538:homosexuality
3535:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3501:
3493:
3492:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3375:(1355â1357).
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3338:Mudéjar style
3333:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3077:
3076:around 1159.
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2861:
2845:
2842:
2834:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2785:
2784:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2674:
2668:
2666:
2657:
2656:
2650:
2645:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2613:Sephardi Jews
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2497:and his son,
2496:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2448:ahl al-dhimma
2439:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2417:Latin rituals
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2352:
2341:
2331:
2321:
2313:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2281:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2252:Ibn al-'Awwam
2249:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2171:Book on Stars
2168:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2070:Book of Foods
2067:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2036:, which uses
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2009:
2005:
2004:cauterization
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1984:Ibn al-Baytar
1977:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1835:, the son of
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1810:Ibn al-Khatib
1800:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1758:Sierra Nevada
1755:
1751:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1637:Abd al-Mu'min
1634:
1625:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1393:
1388:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:John of Gorze
1299:
1295:
1290:
1280:
1278:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1135:(also called
1134:
1126:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1109:Establishment
1105:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1004:valley (the "
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
925:
920:
918:
914:
910:
909:
904:
900:
896:
895:Berber Revolt
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
836:Odo the Great
833:
829:
820:
816:
814:
810:
805:
801:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
699:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
665:
655:
645:
635:
630:
619:
609:
607:
603:
602:
597:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
565:
560:
554:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
434:
429:
418:
414:
410:
405:
403:
399:
398:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
361:
357:
346:
341:
339:
334:
332:
327:
326:
324:
323:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
304:
303:
302:
298:
297:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
277:
276:
267:
264:
263:
254:
251:
250:
245:
242:
241:
240:
239:
230:
227:
226:
217:
214:
213:
208:
205:
203:
200:
199:
198:
197:
188:
185:
184:
175:
172:
171:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
152:
151:
150:
141:
138:
137:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
108:
107:
106:
97:
94:
93:
90:
87:
86:
78:
71:
65:
56:
50:
41:
37:
33:
19:
11520:
11505:
11434:. Retrieved
11392:
11373:
11358:
11351:
11344:
11327:
11313:
11300:
11297:Omaar, Rageh
11283:
11269:
11262:
11255:
11241:
11227:
11223:
11216:
11202:
11193:
11179:
11165:
11158:
11140:
11132:
11118:
11099:
11090:
11082:
11068:
11054:
11036:
11017:
11001:
10987:
10968:
10959:
10949:
10945:
10926:
10905:
10889:
10875:
10868:Bibliography
10845:
10838:
10826:. Retrieved
10822:
10813:
10801:. Retrieved
10797:
10788:
10776:. Retrieved
10772:
10762:
10743:
10737:
10728:
10719:
10699:
10669:
10662:
10642:
10635:
10626:
10606:
10599:
10580:
10570:
10558:. Retrieved
10543:
10536:
10517:
10511:
10491:
10484:
10472:. Retrieved
10467:
10457:
10445:. Retrieved
10443:(in Spanish)
10440:
10431:
10419:. Retrieved
10414:
10405:
10393:. Retrieved
10389:
10380:
10368:. Retrieved
10364:
10355:
10343:. Retrieved
10339:the original
10334:
10325:
10313:. Retrieved
10309:the original
10304:
10295:
10286:
10282:
10269:
10257:. Retrieved
10253:
10243:
10231:. Retrieved
10227:
10217:
10205:. Retrieved
10201:
10192:
10180:. Retrieved
10176:
10167:
10137:(2): 66â74.
10134:
10130:
10124:
10112:. Retrieved
10108:
10071:
10060:
10046:cite journal
10021:
10017:
10011:
10001:November 22,
9999:. Retrieved
9995:
9986:
9976:November 22,
9974:. Retrieved
9970:
9961:
9951:November 21,
9949:. Retrieved
9945:
9936:
9926:November 21,
9924:. Retrieved
9920:
9911:
9892:
9885:
9866:
9860:
9841:The Alhambra
9840:
9833:
9813:
9806:
9795:
9780:
9771:
9742:
9735:
9716:
9706:
9694:
9675:
9646:
9639:
9619:
9588:
9573:
9566:
9557:
9547:
9528:
9518:
9490:
9483:
9455:
9448:
9436:. Retrieved
9432:
9423:
9415:
9410:
9402:
9397:
9389:
9384:
9356:
9348:
9328:
9321:
9301:
9294:
9277:
9273:
9263:
9243:
9236:
9228:
9223:
9215:
9210:
9197:
9193:
9181:
9169:
9150:
9144:
9110:
9104:
9085:
9079:
9045:
9039:
9030:
9022:the original
9017:The Almohads
9016:
9010:
8990:
8985:
8979:
8937:
8928:
8919:
8909:
8901:
8885:
8880:
8871:
8862:
8853:
8844:
8836:
8827:
8817:November 24,
8815:. Retrieved
8800:
8793:
8785:
8780:
8771:
8759:
8750:
8738:
8718:
8711:
8691:
8684:
8665:
8659:
8632:
8626:
8598:
8591:
8564:
8558:
8531:
8525:
8490:
8486:
8476:
8450:
8444:
8417:
8411:
8384:
8380:
8374:
8347:
8341:
8314:
8278:
8272:
8245:
8239:
8212:
8206:
8179:
8143:
8137:
8110:
8070:
8064:
8055:
8020:
8013:
7994:
7980:(In Spanish)
7976:
7972:
7967:
7960:Google Books
7953:
7941:
7936:
7916:
7909:
7889:
7882:
7862:
7855:
7835:
7828:
7816:
7809:Kennedy 1996
7804:
7797:Kennedy 1996
7792:
7780:
7768:
7756:
7749:Kennedy 1996
7744:
7737:Kennedy 1996
7732:
7725:Kennedy 1996
7720:
7708:
7683:
7675:
7655:
7648:
7636:
7629:Kennedy 1996
7624:
7617:Kennedy 1996
7612:
7600:
7593:Kennedy 1996
7588:
7563:
7555:
7546:
7540:
7530:December 14,
7528:. Retrieved
7524:
7515:
7508:Kennedy 1996
7503:
7496:Kennedy 1996
7491:
7479:
7467:
7455:
7448:Kennedy 1996
7443:
7431:
7401:(1): 59â80.
7398:
7394:
7388:
7379:
7365:
7355:
7348:Kennedy 1996
7343:
7336:Kennedy 1996
7331:
7324:Kennedy 1996
7319:
7312:Kennedy 1996
7307:
7300:Kennedy 1996
7295:
7288:Kennedy 1996
7283:
7276:Kennedy 1996
7271:
7246:
7242:
7236:
7209:
7203:
7194:
7170:
7163:
7138:
7134:
7124:
7099:
7095:
7071:
7065:
7038:
7033:
7024:
6986:(1): 59â79.
6983:
6979:
6973:
6940:
6936:
6930:
6905:
6901:
6891:
6866:
6862:
6852:
6827:
6823:
6813:
6801:. Retrieved
6797:the original
6792:
6782:
6770:. Retrieved
6760:
6740:
6733:
6713:
6706:
6686:
6679:
6667:. Retrieved
6661:
6629:
6622:
6602:
6595:
6575:
6568:
6560:
6552:
6543:
6524:
6514:
6494:
6487:
6476:
6472:
6444:
6439:
6430:
6418:
6412:
6393:
6383:
6363:
6356:
6328:
6321:
6311:
6307:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6289:
6260:
6256:
6242:
6217:
6213:
6203:
6183:
6176:
6164:. Retrieved
6154:
6144:
6124:
6117:
6098:
6084:
6064:
6057:
6044:
6034:
6025:
6021:
5972:
5965:
5922:
5918:
5908:
5889:
5883:
5874:
5859:
5852:
5833:
5823:
5803:
5796:
5787:
5772:
5751:
5720:
5633:
5616:
5598:
5427:20th century
5407:19th century
5337:Early modern
5278:
5039:
5007:
4995:
4931:Liberal Wars
4805:
4647:
4633:
4621:
4601:LGBT history
4363:
4250:
4224:
4206:
4149:
4139:
3965:
3956:
3885:Romanization
3872:(206â27 BCE)
3679:
3632:
3606:
3596:
3584:
3573:
3567:
3565:al-Andalus.
3563:
3533:
3532:In the book
3531:
3524:
3509:
3507:
3489:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3447:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3414:
3412:
3334:
3310:tile mosaics
3282:
3277:Ibn al-Ahmar
3249:
3243:
3200:
3196:Leyre Casket
3177:
3130:
3106:In CĂłrdoba,
3105:
3069:
3057:
3050:Judah Halevi
3045:
3039:
3032:Memorial to
3001:
2986:
2967:
2963:
2927:
2921:
2911:
2882:al-Mustansir
2881:
2867:
2837:
2828:
2817:Please help
2809:
2770:
2765:
2758:
2752:
2738:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2712:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2671:
2669:
2661:
2653:
2618:
2616:Portuguese.
2605:Vulgar Latin
2590:
2578:
2559:
2555:
2544:
2533:
2515:
2492:
2482:
2472:reading the
2456:
2446:
2444:
2425:
2405:North Africa
2382:
2365:
2355:
2347:
2330:Christianity
2311:
2260:
2255:
2246:One notable
2245:
2225:
2209:
2200:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2154:
2149:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2129:
2102:
2088:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2019:
2012:
1999:
1995:
1981:
1926:
1885:
1876:
1849:Muhammad XII
1822:
1780:
1764:
1762:
1747:
1712:
1668:
1658:
1650:Alfonso VIII
1640:
1630:
1610:
1597:
1593:
1585:
1573:
1571:
1540:
1524:
1522:
1474:
1454:
1450:
1442:
1434:
1426:
1412:
1408:
1398:
1378:
1359:
1351:Michael Scot
1319:
1274:
1258:
1238:
1229:Fourth Fitna
1214:
1169:
1145:
1136:
1130:
1122:
1065:
1042:
1036:(centred at
1030:Middle March
1013:
983:
978:
928:
921:
906:
892:
827:
825:
799:
797:
754:
729:
723:
696:
670:
606:*landahlauts
605:
599:
595:
593:
588:
587:in Spanish,
584:
576:
562:
558:
557:The toponym
556:
540:
533:Muhammad XII
514:
492:
490:
468:), surgery (
441:
431:
406:
395:
355:
354:
229:Almohad rule
88:
40:
11542: /
11517:, in French
11436:October 23,
11086:66:252â263.
9699:Catlos 2018
9678:. Taschen.
9174:Catlos 2018
7958:, p. 1, at
7821:Harvey 1990
7785:Harvey 1990
7773:Catlos 2018
7761:Catlos 2018
7713:Catlos 2018
7641:Harvey 1990
7605:Catlos 2018
6803:October 14,
6772:October 14,
6669:October 14,
5940:10272/19498
5634:al-'Andalus
5289:Reconquista
5254:Gibraltar 2
5249:Gibraltar 1
5211:History of
5068:(2020â2023)
5060:(2010â2014)
5009:Estado Novo
4826:Reconquista
4713:History of
4526:(1975â1978)
4503:(1959â2011)
4495:(1941â1944)
4487:(1939â1945)
4479:(1939â1977)
4471:(1939â1965)
4440:(1936â1939)
4408:(1933â1936)
4400:(1931â1933)
4369:(1930â1931)
4364:Dictablanda
4358:(1923â1930)
4342:(1914â1918)
4326:(1886â1931)
4318:(1885â1902)
4310:(1874â1885)
4287:(1873â1874)
4279:(1872â1876)
4271:(1870â1873)
4263:(1868â1871)
4230:(1854â1856)
4220:(1846â1849)
4212:(1844â1854)
4202:(1840â1843)
4194:(1833â1840)
4186:(1833â1840)
4163:(1823â1833)
4155:(1820â1823)
4145:(1814â1820)
4104:(1810â1814)
4096:(1808â1813)
4065:(1707â1716)
4057:(1701â1714)
4049:(1700â1808)
4041:(1580â1640)
4033:(1556â1659)
4025:(1516â1700)
4017:(1492â1898)
4009:(1482â1492)
4006:Granada War
4001:(1479â1516)
3966:Reconquista
3942:Middle Ages
3793:History of
3651:Renaissance
3570:Reconquista
3443:Greco-Roman
3322:calligraphy
3090:Mudéjar art
2944:Al-Hakam II
2886:Al-Hakam II
2823:introducing
2721:, and that
2632:Arabization
2547:Almoravides
2499:Al-Hakam II
2488:Middle Ages
2401:Mesopotamia
2216:Toledan Zij
2107:(d. 1185),
2082:Ibn Rushd's
2058:medicaments
2008:venesection
1986:(d. 1248),
1937:mathematics
1818:Ibn Khaldun
1778:merchants.
1766:Reconquista
1614:Ibn Khaldun
1472:Carolingian
1417:. In 1013,
1355:Renaissance
1176:Charlemagne
1034:Upper March
1018:Lower March
1002:Douro River
830:raids into
701:, governor
541:Reconquista
426:â929); the
397:Reconquista
364:ۧÙŰŁÙÙÙŰŻÙÙÙŰł
317:Convivencia
312:Reconquista
291:Granada War
271:(1232â1492)
258:(1232â1287)
234:(1147â1238)
221:(1140â1203)
192:(1085â1145)
179:(1009â1110)
11563:Al-Andalus
11557:Categories
11459:(from the
11384:0870996851
11226:, vol. 1:
11110:0226319628
10946:Al-Andalus
10753:0316168718
9753:0870996371
9685:3822876348
9438:August 14,
9339:9004090827
9312:9004090827
8914:. 1906 ed.
8743:Glick 1999
8618:1066115111
8436:1081429768
8366:1060593202
6724:3822896322
6339:0801468728
6300:Al-Andalus
6292:Al-Andalus
5991:0195125584
5731:References
5717:al-Ăndalus
5709:al-Ăndalus
5705:Portuguese
5701:Al AndalĂșs
5693:al-Andalus
5685:al-Ăndalus
5660:al-Andalus
5652:al-Ăndalus
5644:al-Andalus
5626:ۧÙŰŁÙÙŰŻÙÙÙŰł
5279:Al-Andalus
5232:Prehistory
4899:Bragantine
4806:Al-Andalus
4030:Golden Age
3978:(718â1479)
3970:(711â1492)
3960:(711â1492)
3957:Al-Andalus
3814:Prehistory
3752:Kemal Reis
3659:Al-Zahrawi
3645:, and the
3619:See also:
3521:Ibn Quzman
3461:Persianate
3361:synagogues
3298:Muhammad V
3289:Generalife
3194:, and the
3184:figurative
3141:bell tower
3110:built the
3070:al-Andalus
3066:Maimonides
3058:al-Andalus
3046:al-Andalus
3036:in CĂłrdoba
3034:Maimonides
3012:Ibn Tufail
2993:Ibn Bajjah
2964:al-Andalus
2858:See also:
2831:April 2023
2779:Philosophy
2769:, and the
2754:muwashshah
2682:Ibn Quzman
2673:muwashshah
2551:Maimonides
2530:in Granada
2518:Almoravids
2516:Under the
2291:See also:
2206:Copernicus
2105:Ibn Tufail
2044:, such as
1945:philosophy
1880:Alpujarras
1831:, married
1814:Ibn Zamrak
1799:Muhammad V
1620:paradigm.
1529:Alfonso VI
1518:lusterware
1505:Almoravids
1499:, and the
1435:áčŹulayáčulah
1409:al-Andalus
1363:Amalfitans
1326:golden age
1277:Fraxinetum
1221:Al-Hakam I
1059:, finally
1049:Septimania
893:In 740, a
809:Cantabrian
787:; and the
730:al-Andalus
719:Septimania
685:Visigothic
673:Al-Walid I
616:See also:
596:al-Andalus
577:al-Andalus
559:al-Andalus
543:of Spain.
529:Afonso III
497:Alfonso VI
482:Ibn Bassal
470:Al-Zahrawi
466:Al-Zarqali
424: 750
413:al-Walid I
384:Septimania
366:) was the
356:Al-Andalus
145:(756â1031)
18:Al-Andaluz
11463:web site)
10729:BBC Radio
10474:March 28,
10177:www.ft.lk
10151:0096-3771
10038:154969169
9713:"CĂłrdoba"
9510:912872749
9475:951516389
9376:929473299
9231:, p. 206.
9218:, p. 180.
9153:. Brill.
9130:cite book
9088:. Brill.
9065:cite book
8936:(1987) ,
8784:Jayyusi.
7997:. Brill.
7423:145567635
7415:1362-9387
7263:0732-2992
7228:921054517
7155:162395730
7116:161283814
7043:etext.org
7016:162537404
7000:1471-6380
6957:1570-0585
6922:0002-8762
6883:0038-7134
6844:0013-8266
6348:907117391
6279:1861-4302
6234:161971416
6214:Der Islam
6166:April 15,
5957:226491379
5949:1888-3931
5640:Aragonese
5629:translit.
5213:Gibraltar
4766:Gallaecia
4761:Lusitania
4437:Civil War
4022:Habsburgs
3952:(711â716)
3929:(552â624)
3921:(418â721)
3913:(409â585)
3608:umm walad
3547:pederasty
3517:catamites
3471:as-sÄqiya
3302:courtyard
3116:hypostyle
3008:Averroism
2974:Platonism
2940:astrology
2924:Hisham II
2900:Averroism
2601:Mozarabic
2566:astrolabe
2383:Mozarabic
2362:Mozarabes
2232:al-Hambra
2125:Aristotle
2109:Ibn Rushd
2099:Astronomy
1933:astronomy
1833:Ferdinand
1823:In 1468,
1665:al-Ma'mun
1656:in 1195.
1618:asabiyyah
1578:Marrakesh
1468:Cantabria
1443:Saraqusta
1427:Batalyaws
1371:Byzantine
1335:Abulcasis
1322:Caliphate
1188:Al-Mansur
1154:and then
1141:Almuñécar
1137:al-DÄkhil
943:Archidona
884:Liutprand
832:Aquitaine
793:Occitania
777:Catalonia
757:Andalusia
681:Gibraltar
666:, 661â750
656:, 632â661
646:, 622â632
547:Etymology
510:Marrakesh
380:Gibraltar
101:(711â732)
32:Andalusia
11539:37°N 4°W
11429:(1999).
11417:(2005).
11343:. 1974.
11299:. 2005.
10447:April 6,
10370:April 6,
10289:: 16â22.
10068:(2008).
8972:17588445
8964:84042575
8651:38890783
8583:38890783
8550:38890783
8517:18398288
8333:35666761
8297:71581787
8264:38890783
8231:71581787
8198:71581787
8162:71581787
8129:38890783
8093:71581787
7952:, p. 1 (
7096:Al-Masaq
7046:Archived
6863:Speculum
6481:page 133
6296:Hispania
6283:Archived
6049:Archived
6000:50280143
5770:(2002).
5689:Galician
5648:Asturian
5549:Timeline
5517:See also
5267:Medieval
5202:a series
5200:Part of
5144:Timeline
5106:Military
5094:Language
5086:Archives
4794:Medieval
4715:Portugal
4704:a series
4702:Part of
4623:Timeline
4046:Bourbons
3877:Hispania
3784:a series
3782:Part of
3685:See also
3671:Alhambra
3655:Averroes
3643:Crusades
3587:saqaliba
3575:Saqaliba
3435:aceituna
3415:Andalusī
3342:Mudéjars
3326:muqarnas
3287:and the
3285:Alhambra
3273:Alhambra
3260:and the
3217:and the
3074:Almohads
3004:Averroes
2997:Avempace
2896:Averroes
2878:medicine
2587:Language
2522:Almohads
2520:and the
2478:Haggadah
2474:Passover
2409:Mozarabs
2366:muladies
2358:Muladies
2305:Mozarabs
2228:agronomy
2222:Agronomy
2192:Almagest
2150:Almagest
2145:Almagest
2085:Colliget
2046:humorism
1966:Medicine
1941:agronomy
1929:medicine
1912:Moriscos
1904:Valencia
1825:Isabella
1772:Alhambra
1750:Marinids
1738:Alhambra
1633:Almohads
1489:Portugal
1464:Asturias
1451:Ä arnÄáčah
1439:Zaragoza
1339:Averroes
1269:Fatimids
1265:Pamplona
1217:Hisham I
1092:Abbasids
1072:Abbasids
1068:Damascus
1057:Narbonne
1038:Zaragoza
1024:, later
971:Alentejo
888:Lombards
880:Burgundy
872:Provence
852:Frankish
791:area of
781:Portugal
746:Damascus
742:Kairouan
734:Ifriqiya
715:Pyrenees
707:Ifriqiya
644:Muhammad
601:Atlantis
589:vĂąndalos
585:vĂĄndalos
506:Almohads
478:agronomy
474:Ibn Zuhr
386:) under
202:Conquest
77:Almanzor
10560:May 10,
10421:July 7,
10395:July 7,
10345:July 7,
10335:Saffron
10315:July 7,
10259:July 7,
10233:July 7,
10228:NPR.org
10207:July 7,
10182:July 7,
10139:Bibcode
10114:July 7,
9204:. 2009.
8906:Granada
8508:6074522
7955:excerpt
7102:: 1â8.
6965:4057147
6937:Arabica
6156:El PaĂs
6097:(ed.).
5713:Spanish
5697:Occitan
5681:Catalan
5676:Andalus
5668:⎰â”⎷⎰â”â”â”
5121:Regions
5102:Judaism
5090:Economy
4734:Ancient
4350:(â1927)
4347:Rif War
3769:History
3675:Giralda
3603:jawaris
3554:Slavery
3491:alfajor
3466:acequia
3445:times.
3439:al-zait
3427:saffron
3330:vaulted
3294:Yusuf I
3254:Giralda
3238:Giralda
3223:Bañuelo
3207:arcades
3137:minaret
2946:, were
2819:improve
2749:Abbasid
2581:Baghdad
2535:dhimmis
2526:pogroms
2374:Romance
2370:Iberian
2351:Berbers
2340:Judaism
2275:Society
2270:Culture
2140:Ptolemy
2093:scabies
2038:hadiths
1923:Science
1788:Yusuf I
1776:Genoese
1744:Granada
1736:in the
1652:at the
1511:-ruled
1509:Abbadid
1493:Castile
1481:Navarre
1460:Galicia
1447:Granada
1445:), and
1423:Badajoz
1367:Fatimid
1316:, 1885.
1308:at the
1197:Carmona
1160:CĂłrdoba
1156:Seville
1121:, from
1076:Fihrids
1053:Francia
1028:), the
1026:Badajoz
1016:): the
1014:thughur
994:Galicia
955:Seville
935:Granada
924:straits
899:Maghreb
886:of the
864:Avignon
854:leader
785:Galicia
769:Navarre
761:Castile
750:CĂłrdoba
691:at the
689:Roderic
612:History
581:Vandals
525:Algarve
476:), and
454:CĂłrdoba
388:Umayyad
131:Fihrids
55:Umayyad
11544:37; -4
11461:UNESCO
11399:
11381:
11365:
11334:
11320:
11290:
11276:
11248:
11234:
11209:
11186:
11172:
11147:
11125:
11107:
11075:
11061:
11047:
11039:. NY:
11025:
11008:
10994:
10976:
10954:online
10934:
10913:
10896:
10882:
10853:
10750:
10707:
10677:
10650:
10614:
10587:
10551:
10524:
10499:
10157:
10149:
10084:
10036:
9899:
9873:
9848:
9821:
9750:
9723:
9682:
9654:
9627:
9581:
9535:
9508:
9498:
9473:
9463:
9374:
9364:
9336:
9309:
9251:
9157:
9118:
9092:
9053:
8970:
8962:
8952:
8892:
8808:
8726:
8699:
8672:
8649:
8639:
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8606:
8581:
8571:
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8515:
8505:
8465:
8434:
8424:
8399:
8364:
8354:
8331:
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8295:
8285:
8262:
8252:
8229:
8219:
8196:
8186:
8160:
8150:
8127:
8117:
8091:
8081:
8028:
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7948:
7924:
7897:
7870:
7843:
7696:
7663:
7576:
7421:
7413:
7372:
7261:
7226:
7216:
7182:
7153:
7114:
7056:
7014:
7008:163627
7006:
6998:
6963:
6955:
6920:
6881:
6842:
6748:
6721:
6694:
6637:
6610:
6583:
6531:
6502:
6459:, and
6400:
6371:
6346:
6336:
6277:
6267:
6232:
6191:
6132:
6105:
6072:
5998:
5988:
5955:
5947:
5896:
5867:
5840:
5811:
5780:
5664:Berber
5656:Basque
5622:Arabic
5599:
5204:on the
4781:Spania
4706:on the
4565:(2017)
4547:(2004)
4534:(1978)
4448:(1939)
4432:(1936)
4424:(1936)
4416:(1934)
4392:(1931)
4334:(1898)
4238:(1868)
4120:(1813)
4112:(1812)
4088:(1808)
3786:on the
3673:, the
3669:, the
3627:, and
3615:Legacy
3497:ۧÙÙۧ۟۱
3454:UNESCO
3431:aceite
3423:Sicily
3399:, and
3358:Jewish
3350:Teruel
3320:, and
3211:stucco
3190:, the
3127:mihrab
2763:, the
2760:kharja
2757:, the
2745:Ziryab
2708:Hebrew
2699:rithÄ'
2609:Arabic
2511:slaves
2470:cantor
2403:, and
2397:Levant
2395:, the
2338:
2336:
2328:
2326:
2318:
2316:
2303:, and
2237:Berber
2121:equant
2095:mite.
1939:, and
1900:Aragon
1892:revolt
1816:, and
1797:) and
1742:Nasrid
1685:Niebla
1681:Murcia
1602:El Cid
1598:taifas
1533:Tarifa
1497:Aragon
1455:taifas
1431:Toledo
1414:taifas
1381:period
1379:Taifas
1152:MĂĄlaga
1022:MĂ©rida
975:Murcia
959:Niebla
939:MĂĄlaga
903:Hisham
828:sa'ifa
804:Berber
800:mawÄlÄ«
775:, and
773:Aragon
662:
660:
652:
650:
642:
640:
573:Arabic
564:dinars
501:Toledo
450:Nasrid
368:Muslim
360:Arabic
11513:, by
10279:(PDF)
10159:21775
10155:JSTOR
10078:15â36
10034:S2CID
9190:(PDF)
7419:S2CID
7151:S2CID
7112:S2CID
7012:S2CID
7004:JSTOR
6961:JSTOR
6469:Egypt
6445:junds
6286:(PDF)
6253:(PDF)
6230:S2CID
6161:Prisa
6093:. In
5953:S2CID
5608:Notes
5110:Music
5081:Topic
4585:Topic
3795:Spain
3592:harem
3483:karez
3479:qanat
3401:Qanat
3262:sebka
2976:with
2962:" to
2936:logic
2928:hajib
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